Planning Resources for Teachers in small high schools. Summer 2003

PLANNING RESOURCESfor teachers in small high schools

Second in a Series of FourSummer 2003

AdaptingClassroom Practice

Integrating Curriculum

Teaching for Equity

Summer 2003

Dear High School Educator:

As school leaders strive to improve teaching and learning, many are confronted by a lack ofinformation. They want to improve their classroom practice, but frequently don’t know whatgood curricular and pedagogical resources are available. To support you in reexamining yourclassroom practices within a small school context, the Small Schools Project has taken the firststep of researching programs, interviewing teachers and visiting schools around the country inorder to collect promising teaching and learning resources.

This collection represents a wide range of resources that can serve as the basis for conversationsabout school culture, new directions for classroom practice, and your professional developmentplan. This report, the second in a series of four, addresses adapting classroom practice, teachingfor equity, and integrating curriculum.* The resources come recommended by small schoolpractitioners from around the country and have been reviewed by a panel of experts.

Each section offers a variety of possible directions to pursue. You’ll find web-based resources,school profiles, sample classroom activities, professional development options, and recommendedreadings. This collection will be most useful to you during times of planning and reflection,rather than during the daily rush. The resources included here will not teach you how toimplement programs in any of these areas, but will define or describe a methodology, helping youto decide what might work in your unique school setting.

Each resource is summarized in a box at the top of the page and contains a web site addresswhere you can find more information. The resources are defined by five categories:

Tell us about your experiences using Planning Resources by emailing the Project [email protected]. These resources, as well as the Spring 2003 collection, areavailable on the Small Schools Project website at http://www.smallschoolsproject.org.

Sincerely,

The Small Schools Project

TOOL symbolizes something you can use to further your work, such as acurriculum, pedagogy, planning guide, framework, or resource.

PROFILE describes an existing school culture or practice.

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT outlines an available source forprofessional development that supports a tool also included in the collection.

FIELD NOTE refers to a reproduced lesson plan, sample class handout, orprogram structure that was developed for an existing school.

READINGS include articles, reports, and books that are recommended bypractitioners in the field as informative, provocative and useful.

*The collection is ever growing! Please suggest additional resources in these areas as well astopics for future reports by returning the questionnaire at the end of this report.

ADAPTING CLASSROOM PRACTICE

An Introduction

By getting small, high schools are trying to become more personalized and equitable. Toaccomplish this, teachers plan to implement several strategies, such as advisories and seniorprojects, but may be unsure how personalization and equity will look in the classroom. What willbe different about teaching in a small school setting than teaching in a traditional, large school?How does a teacher adapt her curriculum and instructional strategies from a comprehensiveschool context to a small, more innovative school setting?

We posed these questions to teachers around the county who have made such a transition. Fourthemes emerged from their reflections:

1. Teachers work more closely with their peers, developing a professional community.2. Classrooms become more personalized.3. Classes are often longer (block) periods.4. Classes are heterogeneous, no longer grouping students by ability.

Although these four themes are addressed individually in this section, they are clearlyinterconnected. Heterogeneous classes require teachers to meet the needs of diverse learners bycreating a more personalized class environment. Longer class periods allow teachers to get toknow their students better and incorporate projects, which allow for more individual instructiontime. By working more closely with other teachers, and at times combining disciplines, teacherscan create longer class periods as well as discuss the work and progress of individual students.

An effective professional community creates new expectations and ways of interacting amongteachers, administrators, and other school staff. Opportunities for quality professionaldevelopment include study groups, grade-level and cross-grade-level collaboration, peer teacherobservation, and ongoing feedback through coaching and modeling instructional strategies. Toolsto support these practices are introduced in this section. Several of the resources will requiretraining or modeling by an experienced practitioner to fully understand its application; supportorganizations have been identified wherever possible.

The best classrooms often will not have a teacher standing in front of the students delivering alecture, but students noisily working together on projects or actively participating in classdiscussion. Learner-centered instruction offers depth over breadth, makes collaboration betweenstudents part of the learning environment, and is inquiry-based, such that students constructmeaning. This section, offers tools for creating learner-centered environments in the context oflonger class periods and heterogeneous classes, reflecting the way many teachers in small schoolswork.

The following resources will help you and your colleagues continue to move beyond structureand design issues toward the heart of the small schools reform effort—improving classroompractice. They reflect several teachers’ responses to the question of how teachers can adapt theirclassroom practice to be effective in their new small school.



PROFESSIONAL COMMUNITY

Critical Friends Groups

National School Reform Faculty ProtocolsTuning ProtocolConsultancyCollaborative Assessment Conference

Whole Faculty Study GroupsUse Time for Faculty StudyWhole Faculty Study Groups in Everett, Washington

Lesson Study

Curriculum Inquiry Cycle

Curriculum Planning

Teaching for Understanding

Three Easy Pieces

CLASSROOM PERSONALIZATION

Student Learning Plan

Democratic Classrooms

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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5

11 11 14 19

23 23 32

35

40

43

49

52

57

60

62


LONGER CLASS PERIODS

Organizing a Block Period

Lesson Plan Comparison

Coaching Habits of Mind

HETEROGENEOUS CLASSES

Definitions

Implementing Heterogeneous ClassesTracking Self AssessmentPedagogical Principles of HeterogeneityCollege Admissions QuestionsReadings on De-Tracking

Differentiated Instruction

Inclusive Classroom: Meeting the Needs of Gifted Students

The Heterogeneous Classroom, IMP

Cooperative Learning

Group Activity Checklist

READINGS

65

68

70

76

79

82

84 84 86 88 90

91

96

106

110

112

114


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Professional CommunityAn Introduction

Teachers we interviewed felt that an important component of working in asmall school was participating in a professional community, whose aspectsinclude:

ß Planning and/or teaching curriculum with colleaguesß Discussing and solving classroom dilemmas with colleaguesß Engaging in ongoing assessment of teaching practiceß Mentoring and supporting new teachers

However, the following anecdotes may not reveal the inherent challenges increating or maintaining a more democratic governance structure, whichteachers said could be frustrating and complicated.

Teachers who have moved from large, traditional schools to small,innovative schools believe that their mentality around working with theircolleagues has shifted. One teacher reported that faculty meetings at the largeschool were often considered a waste of time. Responsibility was so diffusedthat no one was accountable and students, parents, or others were blamed forproblems. In small schools, the staff can’t shift the blame so easily.

Because the trust can be so much stronger in small schools, teachers reportedthat the interaction with their colleagues is very different. Cliff Chuang, mathdepartment chair at Boston’s Academy of the Pacific Rim says, “People aremore open, come into your classroom, and offer or ask for help.” In a largersetting, teachers can end up working in isolation, having to deal with a stringof interruptions. In a small setting, “you have more flexibility to plan aroundevents, like field trips, because you know what other teachers are doing.”There is also a feeling of ownership for the school, “so any issue is yourissue and you want to be proactive in solving it.”

At the International School in Bellevue, Washington, part of participatingin a professional community means creating the schedule each year. Teacherstell the principal who they would like to share planning time with (usually bysubject area or by grade level) and what class lengths work best with theircurriculum. For example, the music teachers want to meet with beginningstudents every day for a shorter, fifty minute, class period in order to givethem the basics; a longer, ninety minute period, is appropriate for moreadvanced students who can actually rehearse music.

The three French teachers discuss their curriculum and teaching practiceduring their shared planning period. One year, they developed individualfour-week units, covering the same vocabulary but with different themes, androtated among their classes to teach them. This gave the teachers anopportunity to perfect each unit while providing the students some variety.Though the French teachers did not have common time to plan with other


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subject area teachers that year, the International School is small enough thatthey could find out what their peers were doing, and then build upon it. Forexample, one French teacher introduced a poetry unit knowing that thestudents had already learned poetry basics in their English class.

One French teacher reflected that working in a small school, “takes you offof survival mode. Having longer periods and a smaller school somehowallows you to feel less harried and feel happier than before. Not that I havemore time! But, I am more in control. I’m not reactive, but proactive andcreative, sharing ideas with my peers.”

Teachers at Parker Charter Essential School in rural Massachusetts rarelydesign a course in isolation and are often building on someone else’s work.Each summer, teachers meet for three weeks to decide on the broadercurriculum and design smaller units. Some grade level teachers plancurriculum together while others plan separately, presenting their work totheir colleagues for feedback and discussion. Each year’s coursework centersaround a school-wide “Essential Question” as well as on specific conceptsand content in the academic Domains (Arts & Humanities, which includes aSpanish team; Math, Science & Technology; and Wellness).

The professional team structure affects curriculum and instructionalstrategies because teachers are conscious about creating consistency fromone class to the next. For example, the Challenge of the Week (seeIntegrating Curriculum section) in seventh and eighth grades becomes a“problem of the week” in eleventh and twelfth grades. While the complexityincreases, students know that both activities denote a problem to be solvedover the course of a week. Teachers also create consistency by using acommon method for writing up math/science labs and common examformats.

Diane Kruse, a math teacher at Parker Charter, believes it is critical thatteachers open up their practice. “The whole point of small schools is to builda connection to kids and to colleagues.” She has deep conversations with herpeers about problems, questions, and dilemmas that they see in their classesand together they figure out how to address them. These teachers are willingto put their work on the line, and though they have no formal peer reviewprocess, they work collegially and provide feedback on each other’s teachingpractice.

Kruse’s best tip is to carpool with a colleague or teaching partner. Shecompleted a lot of work and solved several dilemmas during the dailycommute. She also built trust and friendship with her carpool pals, which isan important component to building a professional community. Teachers atMATCH in Boston talk with their department peers and with teachers in thesame grade level during weekly meetings, which are built into the schedule.Subject area groups develop a set of benchmarks together each year, aroundwhich each teacher frames her curriculum. One teacher reports that, “Thegroup is small enough for everyone to be heard, things are agreed upon andeveryone’s pedagogy matches.” Bill Klann from Vanguard High School inNew York agrees that creating time in the schedule to talk is important,


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“Even if teachers don’t have experience (working in a small school), talkingwith their peers will spark creativity.”

When Cambridge Rindge & Latin High School made the switch to smallschools, teachers’ practice stopped being anonymous immediately. Teachersfound that some people were craving common planning time, while othersspent a lot of energy trying to avoid the contact. Joan Soble observed thatpart of the challenge was how the school “moved to a structure that wouldsupport collaboration before we valued collaboration. Now it’s seen as the‘C’ word in many ways and we need teachers to recognize that we couldcreate something together that we couldn’t create individually. I think therehas to be that ‘ah-ha’ moment where people say ‘I never thought so-and-sowould say that brilliant thing that I’ve now incorporated into my missionstatement/school, event/lesson plan.’”

New TeachersMany small schools establish a mentoring process for new teachers, whichplays a role in introducing newcomers to the unique school setting, as well ashelping them transition from a comprehensive school.

New teachers at High Tech High feel pressure to meet all of the school’shigh standards, including integrating curriculum, using technology,displaying student work in the halls, and entertaining visitors. One veteran’sadvice is to start slow. “If you want to lecture or use textbooks, go ahead, butdo it well. The vision is still out there to do all the other stuff, but get yourfeet wet and be relaxed before going into projects and other new practices.”He adds that it always looks worse when someone is trying out a newteaching strategy. “The students can appear out of control when they’redoing projects and some may not be doing anything—though they probablyweren’t in the traditional classroom setting either.” High Tech High took ontoo much in its first year and jettisoned some of the original ideas. Now,teachers focus on doing a few things well: project-based learning andworking together in small, interdisciplinary teams that are responsible for agroup of students.

The International School gives each new teacher a partner in the samesubject area, ideally one who is teaching the same class. They develop thecurriculum together and revise their instructional practice during commondaily (or weekly) planning time. Teachers’ classrooms are physicallyconnected as well, with a shared office in between.

A first year teacher at the Urban Academy in New York doesn’t teach a fullload of courses. She is assigned a mentor who supports her in curriculumbuilding and course planning. Together, they look at what materials shemight want to use, the timing of it, and course goals. The new teacher has afew weeks to observe the mentor teacher in the classroom, as well as teachersin other disciplines. When the newcomer begins teaching, the mentorobserves her class and provides feedback during weekly meetings. Oneveteran teacher also observed that, “it would be useful for teachers tofunction as students and have them be taught with (an inquiry method) over


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time. Then they would have experience tackling a problem the way studentsdo, including the initial disorientation.”

“The fact that we’re constantly trying to evaluate what we do and how weteach makes Urban Academy an intellectual exciting place to work. There isa sense of problem solving that is central to everything we do. We putteaching at the center, and when you do that, you really put students at thecenter.”

Academy of the Pacific Rimhttp://pacrim.org

International Schoolhttp://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html

Parker Charter Essential Schoolhttp://www.parker.org/rtc

Media and Technology Charter High School (MATCH)http://www.matchschool.org

Vanguard High Schoolhttp://www.vanguardnyc.com

Cambridge Rindge & Latinhttp://www.cps.ci.cambridge.ma.us/crls

High Tech Highhttp://hightechhigh.org

Urban Academyhttp://www.urbanacademy.org


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Critical Friends Groups

Good school friends have always supported each other in the process ofprofessional growth. This article describes a professional developmentpractice created by the National School Reform Faculty, called CriticalFriends Groups (CFG). Teachers examine student work and discuss textsrelated to student learning and teacher practice. (These techniques can alsobe applied in the classroom, teaching students to give feedback to peers inwriting groups, for example.)

CFGs are most effective when first modeled by an experienced practitioner.For more information on CFG workshops in the northwest, visit the CESNorthwest Center website at http://www.cesnorthwest.org.

What Does a Critical Friends Group Do?Horace, September 1996 (Vol. 13, No.1)http://ces.edgateway.net/cs/cespr/view/ces_res/40

A Critical Friends Group (CFG) brings together four to ten teachers within aschool over at least two years, to help each other look seriously at their ownclassroom practice and make changes in it. After a solid grounding in groupprocess skills, members focus on designing learning goals for students whichcan be stated specifically enough that others can observe them in operation.They work out strategies to move students toward these goals and collectevidence on how those strategies are working out. In a structured setting ofmutual support and honest critical feedback from trusted peers, they thenwork to adapt and revise their goals and strategies and to modify conditionswithin the school so as to better support student learning. A portfolio of eachmember's work documents evidence of their progress.

How Friends Can Be Critical As Schools Make Essential ChangesExcerpts from an article by Kathleen CushmanHorace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/43

Critical Friends GroupsMany Essential school teachers have used avenues other than the universityto learn the habit of gathering and analyzing data with an eye to improvingtheir schools. Some train, for example, to coach colleagues in "critical friendsgroups" either through the National School Reform Faculty at the AnnenbergInstitute for School Reform, based at Brown University, or in institutesoffered by regional Coalition Centers. [The CES Northwest Center, housed atthe University of Puget Sound in Tacoma, offers CFG training.]

A critical friends group (CFG) coach typically facilitates monthly meetingswith six to eight colleagues who have agreed to look closely at one another'spractice and at student work. The group tries to articulate what constitutes


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good teaching and learning, calling on both outside sources and their ownexperience. Members visit each other's classes, give feedback on each other'steaching strategies or curricula, and gather evidence of what works best forstudent learning. Some compile portfolios to demonstrate and reflect on thatevidence; others meet with groups from different schools to share insightsand dilemmas.

Teachers in a CFG at Philadelphia's Taylor Elementary School, for instance,have been working for years to enrich the array of assessments with whichthey keep track of student progress in reading. Using "running records" and avariety of other methods, and teaching in multi-age groups, they have a vividsense of what each child from this largely Latino, extremely transientneighborhood knows and can do.

So when Federal regulations insisted that they report out student readingscores in some standardized form to qualify for Title I funds, these teachersworried about subjecting their students to a testing experience they believeddemeaned the painstaking progress they had already made. They laid out thedilemma and brought it to a recent institute of similar teams focusing onusing data to improve schools.

"Do we really have to force a child who reads at a grade one level to spendtwo weeks staring at a grade four text," Damaris Cortez asked the group,"even if that undermines all the Essential School principles we believe in?Our whole school sent us here to ask you that!"

After two hours of carefully structured discussion, they got their answer fromthe two other school teams around the table-but it came in the form of a newquestion.

"What counts as evidence?" one respondent asked. "Can you turn thisrequirement around, so that the evidence you are already gathering translatesinto a grade level equivalent?" Maybe Taylor's teachers had more latitudethan they believed, the group suggested, encouraging them to take advantageof the high-quality data about student performance they already had in theirpossession. It was a prime example of the usefulness of the critical friendrelationship between schools.

"People who work within the school community understand their contextbetter than anyone else," says Steve Jubb, who directs the Bay Area Coalitionof Essential Schools. "So as critical friends we do not offer advice; rather weask questions that promote further inquiry on the part of those in the schoolcommunity. Critical friends recognize what's positive in the work and helpimagine its potential."

Learning to Inquire TogetherWithin a school setting, one of the hardest ways for teachers to carry out thatdelicate task is by sitting in on each other's classes, taking thoughtful note ofwhat they see and offering their observations to their colleagues. ManyEssential school critical friends groups take a whole year of building


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Feedback's 3 Flavors: Warm, Cool, HardHorace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)

Essential school teachers have adopted terms suggested by former CESresearcher Joseph McDonald in providing feedback to each other duringthe structured response sessions called "protocols." They often groupresponses, for example, in these ways:

"Warm" feedback consists of supportive, appreciative statements aboutthe work presented.

"Cool" or more distanced feedback offers different ways to think aboutthe work presented, raises questions.

"Hard" feedback challenges and extends the presenter's thinking, raisesconcerns.

understanding in other ways before they have the trust to open their doors toeach other.

They may practice using the "protocols" that Essential school people andothers have developed as a means of looking collaboratively at student workor teacher practice [see page 28]. These carefully structured formats forresponse, facilitated by someone trained in such discussions, aim to create asense of emotional safety for the presenter, at the same time encouraging thenew perspectives and probing critiques of their peers. Typically they requirethe presenter to remain silent at some point, while the respondents talkamong themselves about what they have seen.

"Something happens to me while I am playing fly on the wall," says KathyJuarez, a teacher at Piner High School in Santa Rosa, California who hasused such protocols for many years. "I have the rare opportunity to hearpeople talking seriously about my questions – and I know I will get to thinkout loud about some of the issues they raise."

Or they may build a yearlong conversation around readings that inform theirpractice. If they choose texts around a key theme, such as equity, this canprovide a framework for later discussions based on classroom experience andthe work of students.

Over time, these shared activities foster a sense of common purpose at thesame time that they honor differences in their members' styles of teachingand learning, CFG participants say.

Because such sessions intend to enlighten, not to evaluate, at their best theytake on the air of professional seminars-like a group of doctors, lawyers, orarchitects puzzling over a case together, or like an independent graduateseminar in which teachers could explore their deepest concerns and interests.As group members push toward a deeper reading of the evidence before


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Among Friends: Norms for Inquiry and AnalysisHorace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)

It isn't easy to be both critical and friendly while workingcollaboratively to make schools better. The Bay Area Coalition ofEquitable Schools has developed these norms to help its members asthey jointly inquire about and analyze their work:

ß Describe only what you see. Do not try to describe what youdon't see; express what you don't see in the form of questions.

ß Resist the urge to work on "solutions" until you arecomfortable with what the data says and doesn't say.

ß Surface the perspectives and experiences you bring to theanalysis. Effective teams use these as strengths.

ß Seek to understand differences of perception before trying toresolve them. Early consensus can inhibit depth and breadth ofanalysis. Hear from everybody.

ß Ask questions when you don't understand. Find the answerstogether.

Surface assumptions and use the data to challenge them. Look activelyfor both challenges and supports to what you believe is true.

them, their learning extends beyond addressing the question of the hour, tosharpen the inquiry skills of every participant.

When the time does come to observe each other's classrooms, the habits ofinquiry developed through such activities can sustain teachers through thetrepidation they often feel. They can focus the visit on a specific questionposed by the teacher being observed (such as "How are my students usingevidence in this class?" or "Am I meeting students at the different challengelevels they require?"). And they can structure the feedback in a way that bothsupports their efforts and provokes new ideas.

What Difference It MakesHow does one measure the impact of such critical friendships on studentlearning? Do test scores rise or graduation rates improve when teachers beginto act like a professional community?

They do, according to both large-scale quantitative studies of schoolrestructuring and more focused, qualitative analyses of the links betweenbetter teaching and student achievement.

A huge statistical survey of student achievement in restructuring highschools, published in 1993 by University of Michigan professor Valerie Lee


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and Julia Smith of the University of Rochester, showed that a more personal,"communal" organizational style as opposed to a more traditional,bureaucratic one contributes to student achievement gains across thespectrum of socioeconomic and other differences.

And Milbrey McLaughlin's Stanford research concludes that networks of allkinds – among schools or among teachers exploring new ways – contributeto deeper student learning. Especially important to successful teaching, shenotes, is "a supportive professional community that discusses new teachingmaterials and strategies and that supports the risk-taking and struggleentailed in transforming practice."

The critical friend approach bears particular promise in the current high-stakes accountability climate, and not just because it fosters among schoolpeople a sense of mutual responsibility for improving teaching and learning.If teachers spend time looking closely at how their practice affects studentlearning, they might also start to turn an impossible array of externally im-posed standards into more powerful, personal measures that they generatefrom their own work and carry in their heads every day.

The sense of mission that results across a school will directly help itsstudents to achieve at higher levels, other research indicates. In their studiesof Catholic schools and of small schools in the Chicago area and elsewhere,Anthony Bryk and his colleagues found that any strong shared ethos in aschool makes students take their work more seriously and do better at it.

Critical friendships also can take place on a larger canvas. A cluster ofindependent schools involved in the Coalition has met for years to help eachother in their work, and now is launching a CES Center. A group of Essentialschool librarians conducts a virtual critical friends group over the Internet,coached by Mark Gordon in Santa Cruz, California. On-line discussiongroups thrive among members of CFGs who have met at regional andnational institutes and follow up by exchanging everything from reading liststo lesson plans.

Taking the Next StepThe power of such experiences to make change on a larger scale is striking.Where once only a few teachers at Houston's Westbury High School tookpart in the regional Center's critical friends training, now fully a third of thefaculty has chosen to join such collegial groups. And while once theirprofessional development came largely from outside, now it almost alwaystakes advantage of expertise within the school.

But supporting this kind of horizontal learning requires new, non-hierarchicalstructures that few schools or districts yet display, points out Theodore R.Sizer, the Coalition's Chairman.

“The research shows us that it works,” he says. “So why do teachers stillhave to fight for the time to work together in these ways? Why do schoolsand policymakers still operate on the assumption that outsiders know best?”


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The system must no longer work that way, he argues. Only when teacherstogether explore the most fundamental aspects of their work and its results,so as to make changes that support student learning, will they move beyondmere technical fixes to a professional culture of continuous inquiry andimprovement. They will begin changing how they understand, not just whatthey do. And as they take charge of their own professional growth, they aresupporting each other in the process as good school friends have alwaysdone.

Norms for Sharing WorkHorace, May 1998 (Vol. 14, No. 5)

To create trust among those sharing their work for critique, many teachersbegin by agreeing on clear norms of behavior within the group, whichthey post for reference during the discussion that follows. One group'snorms read:

ß Give honest feedback, both supportive and more distanced.ß Allow sufficient time to get to know the work.ß Be specific; tie your feedback to the work; refer to its place in the

portfolio.ß Presenter and participants may safely express their confusion,

stress, or needs; be sensitive to them.ß Keep comments within the room. If you don't say it to the

presenter, don't say it.ß Start with a question; check for understanding.ß Use probing questions, not leading questions; don't jump to

solutions.ß Monitor your airtime so others have equal chance to speak. Take

time to listen.ß Be flexible, balancing spontaneity with equal access to speak.ß Debrief what was helpful or not in the feedback process.


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National School Reform Faculty (NSRF) ProtocolsHarmony School Education Center

http://www.nsrfharmony.org/protocols.html

A “protocol” is a strict format that provides focus and structure to teachers’conversations about their classroom practice. The following three protocolsprovide a formalized way to get feedback on work in progress, to examinestudent work as a means to refine curriculum, and to discuss a dilemma.

These are a sample of the many protocols available from NSRF, theCoalition of Essential Schools, and Looking at Student Work(http://www.lasw.org/methods.html).

An experienced facilitator can model how protocols are an effective andefficient method for discussing complex issues. Workshops and coaching areavailable through the CES Northwest Center (http://cesnorthwest.org) at theUniversity of Puget Sound.

Tuning Protocol: Overview

The following description is excerpted, with slight adaptations, fromLooking Together at Student Work by Tina Blythe, David Allen, and Barbara

S. Powell (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999)

The tuning protocol was originally developed as a means for the five highschools in the Coalition of Essential School's Exhibitions Project to receivefeedback and fine-tune their developing student assessment systems,including exhibitions, portfolios, and design projects. Recognizing thecomplexities involved in developing new forms of assessment, the projectstaff developed a facilitated process to support educators in sharing theirstudents' work and, with colleagues, reflecting upon the lessons that areembedded there. This collaborative reflection helps educators to design andrefine their assessment systems, as well as to support higher quality studentperformance. Since its trial run in 1992, the Tuning Protocol has been widelyused and adapted for professional development purpose in and amongschools across the country.

To take part in the Tuning Protocol, educators bring samples of theirstudents' work on paper and, whenever possible, on video, as well as some ofthe materials they have created to support student performance, such asassignment descriptions and scoring rubrics. In a circle of about six to ten"critical friends" (usually other educators), a facilitator guides the groupthrough the process and keeps time. The presenting educator, or team ofeducators, describes the context for the student work (the task or project) -uninterrupted by questions or comments from participants.

Often the presenter begins with a focusing question or area about which shewould especially welcome feedback, for example, "Are you seeing evidence


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of persuasive writing in the students’ work?" Participants have time toexamine the student work and ask clarifying questions. Then, with thepresenter listening but silent, participants offer warm and cool feedback -both supportive and challenging. Presenters often frame their feedback as aquestion, for example, "How might the project be different if students chosetheir research topics?"

After this feedback is offered, the presenter has the opportunity, againuninterrupted, to reflect on the feedback and address any comments orquestions she chooses. Time is reserved for debriefing the experience. Bothpresenting and participating educators have found the tuning experience to bea powerful stimulus for encouraging reflection on their practice.

Tuning Protocol

Developed by Joseph McDonald and David Allen

1. Introduction — 5 minutesß Facilitator briefly introduces protocol goals, guidelines, and scheduleß Participants briefly introduce themselves (if necessary)

2. Presentation — 15 minutesThe presenter has an opportunity to share the context for the studentwork:ß Information about the students and/or the class — what the students

tend to be like, where they are in school, where they are in the yearß Assignment or prompt that generated the student workß Student learning goals or standards that inform the workß Samples of student work — photocopies of work, video clips, etc. —

with student names removedß Evaluation format — scoring rubric and/or assessment criteria, etc.ß Focusing question for feedbackß Participants are silent; no questions are entertained at this time.

3. Clarifying Questions — 5 minutesß Participants have an opportunity to ask “clarifying” questions in

order to get information that may have been omitted in thepresentation that they feel would help them to understand the contextfor the student work. Clarifying questions are matters of “fact.”

ß The facilitator should be sure to limit the questions to those that are“clarifying,” judging which questions more properly belong in thewarm/cool feedback section.

4. Examination of Student Work Samples — 15 minutesß Participants look closely at the work, taking notes on where it seems

to be in tune with the stated goals, and where there might be aproblem. Participants focus particularly on the presenter’s focusingquestion.

ß Presenter is silent; participants do this work silently.


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5. Pause to reflect on warm and cool feedback — 2-3 minutesß Participants take a couple of minutes to reflect on what they would

like to contribute to the feedback session.ß Presenter is silent; participants do this work silently.

6. Warm and Cool Feedback — 15 minutesß Participants share feedback with each other while the presenter is

silent. The feedback generally begins with a few minutes of warmfeedback, moves on to a few minutes of cool feedback (sometimesphrased in the form of reflective questions), and then moves backand forth between warm and cool feedback.

ß Warm feedback may include comments about how the workpresented seems to meet the desired goals; cool feedback mayinclude possible “disconnects,” gaps, or problems. Oftenparticipants offer ideas or suggestions for strengthening the workpresented.

ß The facilitator may need to remind participants of the presenter'sfocusing question, which should be posted for all to see.

ß Presenter is silent and takes notes.

7. Reflection — 5 minutesß Presenter speaks to those comments/questions he or she chooses

while participants are silent.ß This is not a time to defend oneself, but is instead a time for the

presenter to reflect aloud on those ideas or questions that seemedparticularly interesting.

ß Facilitator may intervene to focus, clarify, etc.

8. Debrief — 5 minutesFacilitator-led discussion of this tuning experience.


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Consultancy: Overview

The following descriptions of the Consultancy, how to frame Consultancydilemmas and questions, and directions for preparing to present a dilemma

were written by Gene Thompson-Grove, Founding Co-Director of theNational School Reform Faculty (NSRF)

A Consultancy is a structured process for helping an individual or a teamthink more expansively about a particular, concrete dilemma. Outsideperspective is critical to this protocol working effectively; therefore, some ofthe participants in the group must be people who do not share the presenter’sspecific dilemma at that time. When putting together a Consultancy group, besure to include people with differing perspectives.

The Consultancy Protocol was developed by Gene Thompson-Grove as partof the Coalition of Essential Schools’ National Re:Learning FacultyProgram, and further adapted and revised as part of work of the NationalSchool Reform Faculty Project (NSRF).

Framing Consultancy Dilemmas and Consultancy Questions

A dilemma is a puzzle, an issue that raises questions, an idea that seems tohave conceptual gaps, something about process or product that you just can’tfigure out. Sometimes it will include samples of student or adult work thatillustrate the dilemma, but often it is a dilemma that crosses over many partsof the educational process.

1. Think about your dilemma.Dilemmas deal with issues with which you are struggling or that you areunsure about. Some criteria for a dilemma might include:ß Is it something that is bothering you enough that your thoughts

regularly return to the dilemma?ß Is it an issue/dilemma that is not already on its way to being

resolved?ß Is it an issue/dilemma that does not depend on getting other people to

change (in other words, can you affect the dilemma by changingyour practice)?

ß Is it something that is important to you, and is it something you areactually willing to work on?

2. Do some reflective writing about your dilemma.Some questions that might help are:ß Why is this a dilemma for you? Why is this dilemma important to

you?ß If you could take a snapshot of this dilemma, what would you/we

see?ß What have you done already to try to remedy or manage the

dilemma?ß What have been the results of those attempts?ß Who do you hope changes? Who do you hope will take action to

resolve this dilemma? If your answer is not you, you need to change


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your focus. You will want to present a dilemma that is about yourpractice, actions, behaviors, beliefs, and assumptions, and notsomeone else’s.

ß What do you assume to be true about this dilemma, and how havethese assumptions influenced your thinking about the dilemma?

ß What is your focus question? A focus question summarizes yourdilemma and helps focus the feedback (see the next step).

3. Frame a focus question for your Consultancy group:Put your dilemma into question format.ß Try to pose a question around the dilemma that seems to you to get

to the heart of the matter.ß Remember that the question you pose will guide the Consultancy

group in their discussion of the dilemma.

4. Critique your focus question.ß Is this question important to my practice?ß Is this question important to student learning?ß Is this question important to others in my profession?

Some Generic Examples of Dilemmas

ß The teaching staff seems to love the idea of involving the students inmeaningful learning that connects the students to real issues and anaudience beyond school, but nothing seems to be happening in reality.

Question: What can I do to capitalize on teachers’ interest and to help themtranslate theory into practice?

ß The community is participating in visioning work, but the work doesn’tseem to relate to the actual life of the school—it is just too utopian.

Question: How do I mesh dreams and reality?

ß Teachers love doing projects with the students, but the projects neverseem to connect to one another or have very coherent educational goalsor focus; they are just fun.

Question: How do I work with teachers so they move to deep learning aboutimportant concepts while still staying connected to hands-on learning?

ß We keep getting grants to do specific projects with students and thecommunity, but when the money is gone, the work doesn’t continue.

Question: How does sustainability actually work? What needs to change forit to work?

ß No matter how hard I try to be inclusive and ask for everyone’s ideas,about half of the people don’t want to do anything new - they thinkthings were just fine before.

Question: How do I work with the people who don’t want to change withoutalienating them?


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Preparing to Present a Dilemma in a Consultancy Protocol

Come to the session with a description of a dilemma related to your practice.Write your dilemma with as much contextual description as you feel youneed for understanding. One page is generally sufficient; even a half page isoften enough. If you prefer not to write it out, you can make notes foryourself and do an oral presentation, but please do some preparation ahead oftime.

End your description with a specific question. Frame your questionthoughtfully. What do you REALLY want to know? What is your realdilemma? This question will help your Consultancy group focus itsfeedback. Questions that can be answered with a “yes” or “no” generallyprovide less feedback for the person with the dilemma, so avoid those kindsof questions. (See the previous pages for a process for framing Consultancydilemmas and questions.)

Dilemmas deal with issues with which you are struggling—something that isproblematic or has not been as effective as you would like it to be—anythingrelated to your work. Consultancies give presenters an opportunity to tap theexpertise in a group, and if past experiences offer any indication, you will beable to rely on the people in your Consultancy group to provide respectful,thoughtful, experienced-based responses to your dilemma.

A couple of caveats—we have found that Consultancies don’t go well whenpeople bring dilemmas that they are well on the way to figuring outthemselves, or when they bring a dilemma that involves only getting otherpeople to change. To get the most out of this experience, bring somethingthat is still puzzling you about your practice. It is riskier to do, but weguarantee that you will learn more.

Consultancy Protocol

Developed by Gene Thompson-Grove,Founding Co-Director of the National School Reform Faculty Project

Purpose: A Consultancy is a structured process for helping an individual ora team think more expansively about a particular, concretedilemma.

Time: Approximately 50 minutes

Roles: Presenter (whose work is being discussed by the group) Facilitator (who sometimes participates, depending on group size)

Steps:

1. The presenter gives an overview of the dilemma with which s/he isstruggling, and frames a question for the Consultancy group toconsider. The framing of this question, as well as the quality of the


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presenter’s reflection on the dilemma being discussed, are key featuresof this protocol. If the presenter has brought student work, educatorwork, or other “artifacts,” there is a pause here to silently examine thework/documents. The focus of the group’s conversation is on thedilemma. (5-10 minutes)

2. The Consultancy group asks clarifying questions of the presenter—thatis, questions that have brief, factual answers. (5 minutes)

3. The group asks probing questions of the presenter. These questionsshould be worded so that they help the presenter clarify and expandhis/her thinking about the dilemma presented to the Consultancygroup. The goal here is for the presenter to learn more about thequestion s/he framed or to do some analysis of the dilemma presented.The presenter may respond to the group’s questions, but there is nodiscussion by the Consultancy group of the presenter’s responses. Atthe end of the ten minutes, the facilitator asks the presenter to re-statehis/her question for the group. (10 minutes)

4. The group talks with each other about the dilemma presented. (15 minutes)

Possible questions to frame the discussion:

What did we hear?What didn’t we hear that they think might be relevant?What assumptions seem to be operating?What questions does the dilemma raise for us?What do we think about the dilemma?What might we do or try if faced with a similar dilemma? What have wedone in similar situations?

Members of the group sometimes suggest solutions to the dilemma. Mostoften, however, they work to define the issues more thoroughly andobjectively. The presenter doesn’t speak during this discussion, but insteadlistens and takes notes.

5. The presenter reflects on what s/he heard and on what s/he is nowthinking, sharing with the group anything that particularly resonatedfor him or her during any part of the Consultancy. (5 minutes)

6. The facilitator leads a brief conversation about the group’s observationof the Consultancy process. (5 minutes)

Some Tips

Step 1: The success of the Consultancy often depends on the quality of thepresenter’s reflection in Step 1 as well as on the quality and authenticity ofthe question framed for the Consultancy group. However, it is not uncommonfor the presenter, at the end of a Consultancy, to say, “Now I know what myreal question is.” That is fine, too. It is sometimes helpful for the presenter to


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prepare ahead of time a brief (one-two page) written description of thedilemma and the issues related to it for the Consultancy group to read as partof Step 1.

Step 2: Clarifying questions are for the person asking them. They ask thepresenter “who, what, where, when, and how.” These are not “why”questions. They can be answered quickly and succinctly, often with a phraseor two.

Step 3: Probing questions are for the person answering them. They ask thepresenter “why” (among other things), and are open-ended. They take longerto answer, and often require deep thought on the part of the presenter befores/he speaks.

Step 4: When the group talks while the presenter listens, it is helpful for thepresenter to pull his/her chair back slightly away from the group. Thisprotocol asks the Consultancy group to talk about the presenter in the thirdperson, almost as if s/he is not there. As awkward as this may feel at first, itoften opens up a rich conversation, and it gives the presenter an opportunityto listen and take notes, without having to respond to the group in any way.Remember that it is the group’s job to offer an analysis of the dilemma orquestion presented. It is not necessary to solve the dilemma or to offer adefinitive answer.

It is important for the presenter to listen in a non-defensive manner. Listenfor new ideas, perspectives, and approaches. Listen to the group’s analysis ofyour question/issues. Listen for assumptions—both your own and thegroup’s—implicit in the conversation. Don’t listen for judgment of you bythe group. This is not supposed to be about you, but about a question youhave raised. Remember that you asked the group to help you with thisdilemma.

Step 5: The point of this time period is not for the presenter to give a “blowby blow” response to the group’s conversation, nor is it to defend or furtherexplain. Rather, this is a time for the presenter to talk about what were, forhim/her, the most significant comments, ideas and questions s/he heard. Thepresenter can also share any new thoughts or questions s/he had whilelistening to the Consultancy group.

Step 6: Debriefing the process is key. Don’t short-change this step.


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Collaborative Assessment Conference: Overview

The following description is excerpted, with slight adaptations, fromLooking Together at Student Work by Tina Blythe, David Allen, and Barbara

S. Powell (New York: Teachers College Press, 1999)

A piece of student work has the potential to reveal not only the student’smastery of the curriculum’s goals, but also a wealth of information about thestudent him/herself: his/her intellectual interests, his/her strengths, andhis/her struggles. The Collaborative Assessment Conference was designed togive teachers a systematic way to mine this richness. It provides a structureby which teachers come together to look at a piece of work, first to determinewhat it reveals about the student and the issues s/he cares about, and then toconsider how the student’s issues and concerns relate to the teacher’s goalsfor the student. The last part of the conversation – the discussion ofclassroom practice – grows out of these initial considerations.

The structure for the conference evolved from three key ideas:

ß First, students use school assignments, especially open-ended ones, totackle important problems in which they are personally interested.Sometimes these problems are the same ones that the teacher hasassigned them to work on, sometimes not.

ß Second, we can only begin to see and understand the serious work thatstudents undertake if we suspend judgment long enough to look carefullyand closely at what is actually in the work rather than what we hope tosee in it.

ß Third, we need the perspective of others—especially those who are notintimate with our goals for our students—to help us to see aspects of thestudent and the work that would otherwise escape us, and we need othersto help us generate ideas about how to use this information to shape ourdaily practice.

Since 1988, when Steve Seidel and his colleagues at Project Zero developedthis process, the Collaborative Assessment Conference has been used in avariety of ways: to give teachers the opportunity to hone their ability to lookclosely at and interpret students’ work; to explore the strengths and needs ofa particular child; to reflect on the work collected in student portfolios; tofoster conversations among faculty about the kind of work students are doingand how faculty can best support that work.

In the Collaborative Assessment Conference, the presenting teacher brings apiece of student work to share with a group of five to ten colleagues (usuallyother teachers and administrators). The process begins with the presentingteacher showing (or distributing copies of) the piece to the group.Throughout the first part of the conference, the presenting teacher saysnothing, giving no information about the student, the assignment, or thecontext in which the student worked.


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Through a series of questions asked by the facilitator, the group works tounderstand the piece by describing it in detail and looking for clues thatwould suggest the problems or issues or aspects of the work with which thestudent was most engaged. They do this without judgments about the qualityof work or how it suits their personal tastes. The facilitator helps this processby asking participants to point out the evidence on which they based thejudgments that inevitably slip out. For example, if someone comments thatthe work seems very creative, the facilitator might ask him or her to describethe aspect of the work that led him or her to say that.

In the second part of the conference, the focus broadens. Havingconcentrated intensively on the piece itself, the group, in conversation withthe presenting teacher, now considers the conditions under which the workwas created as well as broader issues of teaching and learning. First, thepresenting teacher provides any information that s/he thinks is relevant aboutthe context of the work. This might include describing the assignment,responding to the discussion, answering questions (though s/he does not haveto respond to all the questions raised in the first part of the conference),describing other work by the child, and/or commenting on how his/her ownreading or observation of the work compares to that of the group.

Next, the facilitator asks the whole group (presenting teacher included) toreflect on the ideas generated by the discussion of the piece. These might bereflections about specific next steps for the child in question, ideas aboutwhat the participants might do in their own classes or thoughts about theteaching and learning process in general. Finally, the whole group reflects onthe conference itself.

The following steps are a working agenda for a Collaborative AssessmentConference. The time allotted for each step of the conference is not fixed,since the time needed for each step will vary in accordance with the workbeing considered. At each stage, the facilitator should use his or herjudgment in deciding when to move the group on to the next step. Typically,Collaborative Assessment Conferences take from forty-five minutes to anhour and fifteen minutes.

The Collaborative Assessment Conference Protocol

Developed by Steve Seidel and colleagues at Harvard Project Zero

1. Getting Startedß The group chooses a facilitator who will make sure the group stays

focused on the particular issue addressed in each step.ß The presenting teacher puts the selected work in a place where

everyone can see it or provides copies for the other participants.S/he says nothing about the work, the context in which it wascreated, or the student, until Step 5.

ß The participants observe or read the work in silence, perhaps makingbrief notes about aspects of it that they particularly notice.


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2. Describing the Workß The facilitator asks the group, “What do you see?”ß Group members provide answers without making judgments about

the quality of the work or their personal preferences.ß If a judgment emerges, the facilitator asks for the evidence on which

the judgment is based.

3. Asking Questions About the Workß The facilitator asks the group, “What questions does this work raise

for you?”ß Group members state any questions they have about the work, the

child, the assignment, the circumstances under which the work wascarried out, and so on.

ß The presenting teacher may choose to make notes about thesequestions, but s/he is does not respond to them now--nor is s/heobligated to respond to them in Step 5 during the time when thepresenting teacher speaks.

4. Speculating About What the Student Is Working Onß The facilitator asks the group, “What do you think the child is

working on?”ß Participants, based on their reading or observation of the work, make

suggestions about the problems or issues that the student might havebeen focused on in carrying out the assignment.

5. Hearing from the Presenting Teacherß The facilitator invites the presenting teacher to speak.ß The presenting teacher provides his or her perspective on the

student’s work, describing what s/he sees in it, responding (if s/hechooses) to one or more of the questions raised, and adding any otherinformation that s/he feels is important to share with the group.

ß The presenting teacher also comments on anything surprising orunexpected that s/he heard during the describing, questioning andspeculating phases.

6. Discussing Implications for Teaching and LearningThe facilitator invites everyone (the participants and the presentingteacher) to share any thoughts they have about their own teaching,children’s learning, or ways to support this particular child in futureinstruction.

7. Reflecting on the Collaborative Assessment ConferenceThe group reflects on the experiences of or reactions to theconference as a whole or to particular parts of it.

8. Thanks to the presenting teacher!


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Looking at Student Workhttp://www.lasw.org

Teachers look at student work together for a variety of reasons, includingprofessional development, increasing accountability, setting standards,and reflecting on student learning and development.

Challenging the Norms of TeachingLooking at student work challenges accepted "norms" of the teachingprofession.

ß Rather than looking at all students work (if only to assign gradesor scores), teachers look at small samples—as small as one child'sdrawing—for significant periods of time.

ß Rather than working in isolation from each other, teachersengaged in looking at student work collaborate with colleagues.

ß Rather than practicing instruction and assessment in the virtualprivacy of the classroom, teachers bring their work and theirstudents' work to their colleagues for inquiry and reflection.

ß Rather than keeping the work of students inside schools,protocols for looking at student work offer opportunities toinvolve parents and community members in discussing studentwork, student learning, standards, etc.

The Looking at Student Work website provides resources and researchrelated to everything from choosing an appropriate work sample toprocesses for guiding teachers in discussing it.


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Use Time for Faculty Study:Getting the Whole Faculty Involved Focuses a School

Carlene U. MurphyJournal of Staff Development, Spring 1999 (Vol. 20, No. 2)

http://www.nsdc.org/library/jsd/murphy202.html

When every faculty member at a school is working in a study group thatfocuses on data-based student needs, the school is likely practicing theWhole Faculty Study Groups (WFSGs) approach to professionaldevelopment. WFSG’s are less commonly used than Critical Friends Groups,but present another option for building your professional community.

Developed and named by Carlene Murphy, a 45-year professional educator,WFSG’s encourage faculty to determine the work each group is to performand the protocols that define the way they work. Study groups provideauthentic, democratic, and constructive learning experiences aroundclassroom practice. The following article, written by Ms. Murphy, outlinesthe 15 Process Guidelines of WFSGs.

At Jackson Elementary School in Greeley, Colo., normal dismissal time is3:25. But on Mondays, the students leave at 1:45, and the teachers stay until5 for staff development activities.

For at least an hour during that time, all teachers and teaching aides attendstudy group meetings. These small groups—no more than six people—workon improving student writing in all content areas, which the whole facultyagreed should be a major focus for this year’s groups. Teachers put theirheads together to examine classroom practice, and explore ways to improveit. They look at research, create and practice teaching activities, and examinestudent work together.

Jackson is one of more than 150 schools using the Whole-Faculty StudyGroup process. In these schools, all certified staff belong to small groups thatmeet regularly to focus on student needs. This is a whole school changemodel that uses professional development as its central feature.

These schools say study groups are well worth the time devoted to them.They help teachers focus on teaching, coordinate and collaborate withcolleagues, pass on experience, and develop a group understanding of theschool and its ongoing mission.

Whole-faculty study groups

All of the Whole-Faculty Study Group schools use the same data-baseddecision model (Murphy and Lick, 1998) to make decisions about how toorganize study groups and what they will do. What their students needdetermines what teachers do in a particular study group. If students at anelementary school are not performing at the desired level in math, for


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example, that school’s study groups could examine the math curriculum andhow it is taught.The program provides a decision-making cycle and process guidelines,which provide a format for organizing those discussions and ongoing supportfor study groups. All teachers assume leadership roles, usually on a rotatingbasis, and work together to teach all children in the school. This work cantake many forms, but the guiding principles are always the same: Teachersneed to continuously study and investigate teaching, and apply what theylearn. When the study group process is focused on appropriate content, itchanges what teachers and students do in classrooms.

Research conducted by Rosenholtz (1989), McLaughlin (1993), Little (1993)and Louis, Marks and Kruse (1996) tell us that how teachers interact whenthey are not in their classrooms is critical to the future of school restructuringand the effects of restructuring on students. Louis, Marks, and Kruse alsoconfirm that the school's organization and the other faculty members andadministrators who compose the school staff create a larger context thatinfluences teachers' professional satisfaction.

The process guidelines

The Whole-Faculty Study Group process is defined and governed by thefollowing guidelines:

1. Keep the size of the group to no more than six.The larger the study group, the more difficult it is to find meeting times whenall members can be present. Also, the larger the study group, the more likelythe group will splinter into two groups. With smaller study groups, eachmember will participate more and take greater responsibility.

2. Don't restrict the composition of the study group.The homogeneity or heterogeneity of the study group is not a criticalelement. Study group members may have similar responsibilities (first gradeteachers, mathematics teachers, or elementary principals) or very differentresponsibilities (across grade levels, across subject areas, or across schools ordistricts).

A study group is most often composed of those who want to pursue orinvestigate a specific student need that has been identified through ananalysis of student data. Every study group member must be willing to giveother members whatever is needed to be successful and effective inclassrooms. Members don’t necessarily have to like each other or have anysocial contact outside of the study group.

3. Establish and keep a regular schedule.Weekly meetings, for about an hour, keep the momentum at a steady paceand give study group members ongoing learning and support systems.Faculties have been very creative in finding the time for study groups to meet(Murphy, 1997). Individuals should remain in the same study group for anentire school year, and that group should establish a regular meeting time.Groups have found that it’s usually better to meet more frequently for shorter


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periods of time than to meet infrequently for a longer block of time. Morethan two weeks between meetings is too long to sustain momentum and toget regular feedback on classroom practice. An hour is the minimal meetingtime and seems adequate to accomplish the intent of a given meeting.

4. Establish group norms at the study group’s first meeting.Study group members should collectively agree on the behaviors that willfacilitate the work of the group. Members may agree to begin and end ontime, to take responsibility for one's own learning, to be an active participant,to respect each others' opinions and to bring to the meeting whatever isneeded for the group to do the agreed-upon work. Study groups areencouraged to review the norms frequently.

5. Agree on an action plan for the study group.It’s important that a study group develop its own action plan. If there are 10study groups in the school, then there should be 10 action plans. The studentneeds may have been identified by a larger body, but how a study group willgo about its investigation is for that group to decide. All of the action plansfor all of the study groups in a school are made public, usually on clipboardsin the faculty room.

Here’s a blueprint for an action plan along with examples for each element:

ß The general category of student needs: reading.

ß Specific student needs that the study group will address within thatcategory: increase amounts of independent reading in all areas.

ß The actions the group will take when the group meets to address thestudent needs: prepare annotated bibliographies, design strategies forbook reports that cater to multiple intelligences, devise a rewardsystem.

ß Evidence that the intended results have been achieved: scores onvocabulary tests, circulation reports from the school media centerand public library.

ß What resources will be used: book lists, computer software, theInternet, student textbooks, media specialist, student work.

The action plan should be revisited at regular intervals and adjusted to beconsistent with current actions. This takes on a higher level of importancewhen the group formally evaluates its progress toward intended results. If theintended results for study group members and students aren’t appropriate oradequate, the evaluation will indicate that the group missed its targets.

6. Focus on curriculum and instruction. [NOT school policies]What study groups actually do determines the worth of the process. The needfor more challenging curriculum content for students means teachers willalso have to learn more challenging curriculum content, and how to teach it


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(Loucks-Horsley, 1998). The content of any staff development approachshould have promise for positive effects on student learning.

Study groups support the implementation of curricular and instructionalinnovations, integrate and give coherence to a school's instructional practicesand programs, target a schoolwide instructional need, and monitor the impactof instructional changes on students. To accomplish these four functions,group members can’t get sidetracked by administrative issues or issues thathave a low instructional impact.

Professional study groups take the following as their content:

ß Academic knowledge and understanding;ß Curriculum materials;ß Instructional strategies;ß Curriculum designs;ß Use of technologies;ß Managing students and learning environments through effective

instruction; andß Assessment practices.

The intended results may be accomplished through training, reading booksand articles, viewing video tapes, demonstrating strategies to each other,visiting classrooms and schools, designing materials, working with computersoftware, and developing lessons that will be taught in classrooms. The onequestion that will keep the study group instructionally focused is: Does thecontent require the study group to examine student work?

7. List all learning resources, both material and human.A study group designs its curriculum of study to include a comprehensive listof resources. Initially, groups should spend some time brainstorming learningresources that are easily accessible and those that are harder to obtain. Suchlists might include:

ß Textbooks and materials that students use;ß Student work;ß Teachers' manuals;ß Trainers;ß Resource people;ß Workshops;ß District/university courses;ß Books;ß Professional journals;ß Video and audio tapes;ß Computers and software; andß Professional conferences.

Collection boxes for each study group are put in a central location andteachers deposit whatever they have or find to support other groups. Thisencourages teachers to share resources they have in their classrooms.


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8. Complete a log after each study group meeting.A log is a brief, written summary of what happened at a study group meetingand gives the study group a history. The group can go back and confirm whyit decided on a particular action. The members can see their progress in howthey relate to one another in their thinking and in their actions.

Members take turns completing the log. After a study group meeting, allmembers get copies. So does the principal. The log is also posted in a centrallocation, along with logs from all the other study groups.

The study group log includes:

ß Date, time, location, and leader of the meeting;ß Group members present and absent;ß Classroom applications (the teachers share what they are doing in

their classrooms as a result of what they are doing in the studygroup);

ß Brief summary of today's discussions and activities;ß At the next meeting, "we need to bring/prepare . . . "; andß Concerns/recommendations.

9. Encourage members to keep a Personal Reflection Log.Personal reflection is important and private. How often and when individualschoose to chart their personal reactions is up to them. Such a log mightinclude:

ß Dateß "Today, we accomplished . . .";ß "We didn't get to . . .";ß "For the next meeting, I need to . . .";ß "I am learning . . .";ß "I am disappointed that . . ."; andß "My students are benefiting from . . ."

10. Establish a pattern of rotating leadership.Each member serves as the study group leader on a rotating basis. Theleadership rotation may occur weekly, biweekly, or monthly. Once a groupforms around a student need, group members decide what the rotation willbe. The rotation schedule is noted in the log from the first study groupmeeting.

The leader for a given meeting is responsible for:

ß Confirming logistics, such as time and location, with all members;ß Completing the study group log after each meeting; andß Communicating, as appropriate, with persons who aren’t study group

members.

Leadership is shared to avoid having one member become more responsiblethan other members for the group’s success. All members are equallyresponsible for obtaining resources and keeping the study group moving


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toward its intended results and desired ends. Individual group members lookto themselves and each other, not to a single person, for direction. This senseof joint responsibility for the group’s work builds interdependence andsynergy within the group. When every group member feels equallyresponsible for the group’s success, there is a higher level of commitment.There is no one leader to blame for the group’s failure to accomplish itsgoals; all must share the burden of any failure and the joy ofaccomplishment.

The most positive feature of rotation is the assumption that anyone from thestudy group can represent the group at any point in time, expanding theeffective capacity for leadership at the school.

11. Give all study group members equal status.Groups are more productive if individuals don’t feel intimidated, hesitant, oranxious about differences in job titles or certifications, experience, anddegree levels among group members. No one is deferred to because of rankor other factors. Contributions from each member are encouraged andrespected. The study group functions under the belief that all members havesomething valuable to contribute to the study group, and provides anopportunity for all to share fully their ideas and experiences.

12. Plan for transitions.A transition is when there is a break in the flow of the group’s work. Thismay be when a study reaches closure on what the group intended to do, whena schoolwide need has to be addressed by all groups, or at the end of a schoolyear.

At the end of a school year, the study groups have several options. If a studygroup has long-term work planned, it assesses its progress at the end of eachsemester, revisits its action plan, makes appropriate adjustments, andcontinues. If a study group completes its action plan and wants to staytogether, a transition would be the time to celebrate its success, return to thelist of student needs and agree on the student need that will be the group’snew focus. When study groups reach closure on their planned work andgroup members want to reconfigure, new groups are formed aroundspecifically identified student needs.

In any process, transitions can be difficult. These times especially require thesupport and strong sponsorship from school and district administrators. Thequestion at transition times is not: "Do we continue having study groups?"Instead the question is: "What changes should be made in what the groups doand how they’re organized?"

13. Include training and other forms of staff development in the studygroup's agenda.Study groups don’t eliminate the need for teachers to participate in othertraining and development opportunities. The groups are the centerpiece,much like the hub of a wheel. Individuals in study groups often need theexpertise of trainers in areas where specific skill development is needed(Joyce & Showers, 1995). One or more individuals in a study group may


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attend workshops, take courses, and go to conferences. Many study groupsinvite trainers to study group meetings. The study group provides a safeenvironment for teachers to practice skills, design lessons together usingthose skills, observe each other, and feel support in figuring out why somelessons go well while others do not. The value of ongoing technical trainingand support of effective classroom practices can't be overemphasized.

14. Evaluate the effectiveness of the study group.When considering how to evaluate the efforts of study groups, attention isgiven to the impact the study group’s work is having on students. Secondaryto student impact is the impact of the study group process on the school’sculture, including the school’s underlying assumptions, beliefs, andbehaviors. How, for example, have study groups affected the school's normsof collegiality? Murphy and Lick (1998) give examples of several formats forassessing the progress of study groups.

15. Establish a variety of communication networks and systems.For study groups to have an effect, over time, on the whole school and allstudents, information must be shared among the study groups at a school.Parents, district office administrators, board of education members, and thecommunity at large also should also be kept informed of the work of thestudy groups.

Structures for keeping communication open are part of the design. Studygroup action plans and logs are posted in a public place. Short reviews aregiven at faculty meetings. Newsletters that give brief descriptions of thework in progress are circulated. “Swap shops” and “showcases” areorganized so teachers can compare their work. Groups share speakers andmaterials. Bulletin boards are dedicated to sharing and videos of specificaccomplishments are made. Portfolios of the work of groups are put onpublic display.

Most importantly, parents and students are kept informed about what studygroups are learning and doing. A common practice is for teachers to tell theirstudents what they did in the study groups immediately after the study groupsmeet. For school communities to support the late arrival of students, the earlyrelease of students, and professional development days, everyone affectedshould understand what the teachers are doing and how students will benefit.

ConclusionTeachers have more to do than they can do. The number of initiatives thatconstantly bombard schools overwhelm teachers. Teachers do not needanother thing to do. What teachers do seem to need is a vehicle to do whatthey must in an atmosphere of understanding and helpfulness.

Study groups, as described here, are not another instructional initiative. Theyhelp teachers accomplish what they’re already expected to do, what they’vebeen doing alone. With this structure, teachers share the work. Study groupsare the teachers' foxholes, where diverse members are willing to set andaccept common goals and to work in a genuinely cooperative and mutually


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dependent manner with each other. When this happens, students are thebenefactors.

References:

ATLAS Communities (1998). Charting the course: Building ATLAS communities.Boston: Educational Development Center.

Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (1995). Student achievement through staff development.New York: Longman.

Little, J. (1993, Summer). Teachers' professional development in a climate ofeducational reform. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 129-151.

Loucks-Horsley, S. (1998). Ideas that work: Mathematics professional development.The Eisenhower National Clearinghouse for Mathematics and Science Education.Washington, DC.

Louis, K.S., Kruse, S.D. & Marks, H.M. (1996). Teachers' Professional Communityin Restructuring Schools. American Educational Research Journal, 33 (1), 757-798.

McLaughlin, M.W. (1993). What matters most in teachers' workplace context? U.S.Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.Washington, DC.

Murphy, C. (1995). Whole-faculty study groups: Doing the seemingly undoable.Journal of Staff Development, 16 (3), 37-44.

Murphy, C. (1997). Finding time for faculties to study together. Journal of StaffDevelopment, 18 (3), 29-32.

Murphy, C. & Lick, D. (1998). Whole-faculty study groups: A powerful way tochange schools and enhance learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Rosenholtz, S. (1989). Teacher's workplace: The social organization of schools.New York: Longman.

Carlene U. Murphy is a private consultant for the whole-faculty studygroup process and is a staff development specialist for ATLAS Communities.This article is based on material in Whole-faculty study groups: A powerfulway to change schools and enhance learning, which she co-wrote with DaleLick. Murphy is a past president of NSDC and the 1990 recipient of NSDC'sContributions to Staff Development Award. She can be reached at 961 HeardAve., Augusta, GA 30904, (706) 736-0756, fax (706) 737-4019, e-mail:[email protected].

Reprinted with permission of the National Staff Development Council, 2003.All rights reserved.


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This graph compares key characteristics of Whole Faculty Study groups,Independent or Stand Alone Study Groups, and Committees.


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Whole-Faculty Study Groups in Everett, WashingtonWhen School Reform Lasts, Summer 2002 (Vol. 4, No. 1)http://www2.edc.org/Mosaic/Mosaic6/Mosaic6_StudyGroups.htm

This article describes Everett High School’s experience using Whole-FacultyStudy Groups to solve curricular dilemmas. Key to their success was thefaculty’s support of the process. The article also provides helpful strategiesfor finding time to implement WFSGs.

When Pat Sullivan started teaching at Everett High School 15 years ago, theveteran teachers at his school didn't bother to learn his name until he'd beenthere for a few years. "They wanted to see if I'd survive before they took timeto get to know me," he recalls. Today, as principal of Everett High in Everett,Washington, Sullivan is leading a school reform effort built on the premisethat strong relationships among teachers are critical to improved studentlearning. "We're creating a rich environment for young teachers to feelsupported and nurtured," he says. "There's an emphasis here on professionalgrowth." Young teachers at Everett stand on equal footing with the mostsenior staff on everything from getting the chance to teach AP courses tostudent teacher assignments to getting a seat on the management council.

Sullivan's work to transform the culture of teaching extends beyond EverettHigh School to include several other schools (K–12) in the district. For sixyears, these schools have worked together with the ATLAS Communities1

reform model to build teacher collaboration across traditional boundaries likegrade level, subject matter, and even school buildings. Bringing elementary,middle, and high schools together is an example of what ATLAS refers to asits "pathway" approach, and it's a big part of what drew Everett to ATLAS inthe first place. "We looked at several comprehensive school reform models,"he says, "and most seemed to have either an elementary or middle schoolorientation; ATLAS provided an opportunity to do something systemically,K–12. That made a lot of sense to us. There was a lot of community supportfor the model–frankly, parents were surprised that we weren't working thisway already. Most parents expect that teachers meet regularly K–12 todiscuss student learning. Not only weren't we doing that, we weren't evenmeeting building–wide to discuss these things."

Today teachers from across the Everett pathway meet weekly in faculty studygroups to tackle a variety of topics in teaching and learning. The studygroups have taken different forms as they've evolved over five years, but theyare all driven by student and teacher needs and interests. For instance, whennew statewide performance standards in social studies were published,faculty at the high school discovered some significant deficiencies in their

1 ATLAS is a comprehensive school reform design that works with an entire K-12system as a seamless entity. The school wide professional development approach inATLAS schools is Whole-Faculty Study Groups.


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geography and economics instruction. "In the past we would have said, 'Oh,the history teachers need to add some classes in geography and economics,'"says Sullivan. Instead, a group of teachers across subject matters formed astudy group to look at ways the whole school could support the social studiesdepartment in bringing students up to speed in these areas. Explains Sullivan,"They looked at what the math teachers could do to prepare students forwork in economics. What the science teachers could do with geography.Even the physical education teachers looked at ways to incorporate the use ofcharts and tables in their health lessons to reinforce what their students werelearning in social studies."

In another example, the high school decided to convene a group to work onsome problems discovered in the school's mathematics instruction. "Whenwe broke out our math data, we discovered that our students were not doingwell with story problems," Sullivan says. "We thought, 'Hey, here's a goodtopic for a study group—how can we help our students improve in this area?'So we pulled together a group to look more closely at the data and do someresearch on strategies for teaching story problems." As a result, the mathdepartment decided to begin each class with group work on story problems,across the grades. Results soon followed: While traditionally the school hasfinished last among the four high schools in the district in local mathematicsassessments, this year it finished first.

Finding Time to Implement WFSGshttp://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/methods/technlgy/te10lk44.htm

Finding the time to implement Whole-Faculty Study Groups may be aproblem. Murphy (1997) notes that schools have come up with thefollowing creative ideas for finding time:

ß Using teaching assistants to release teachers for study groupmeetings.

ß Beginning classes 30 minutes later one day a week and havingteachers come in 30 minutes earlier to provide one hour of study-group time.

ß Scheduling students for special classes (such as art, music, andphysical education) at the same time to allow their homeroomteachers to meet.

ß Combining classes during the week so teachers cover for eachother; one teacher could cover two classes for an hour while theother teacher has time for the study group.

ß Using designated professional development time for studygroups. For example, if two days of professional development arescheduled for the year, teachers instead can meet after school inone-hour study groups once a week for several weeks and notreport to school on professional development days.


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Sometimes the study groups are less academic in focus, and instead take onbroader cultural topics that teachers may confront. Several years ago, a localtribe of Native Americans wanted to resume whale hunting as part of theirtribal custom, triggering anger among the non–native residents because thearea's whales are protected under the Endangered Species Act. "It caused abit of a furor locally," explains Sullivan, "so we established a K–12 studygroup to help all of us better understand why the Native Americans wanted todo this." The group shared what they had learned about the tribal customwith their colleagues across the pathway, easing some of the tension aroundthe issue in the schools.

Impact on Student Achievement

Amidst his work to enhance teacher learning, Sullivan doesn't forget that theultimate goal of the ATLAS reform model is improved student learning. Thishas become more urgent, as the state of Washington has recently mandatedthat every student will be required to pass state assessments by 2006 in orderto graduate. While apprehensive about how these high–stakes tests will affecthis students, Sullivan is also upbeat about his school's ability to preparestudents for these measures. He cites the new science program as oneexample: "We used to have so many options in the science program thatmany of our students were not learning the basics, what they needed to knowfor the new assessments and for college work. So we've streamlined thedepartment's offerings and instituted new requirements. This year for the firsttime, all students are required to take ninth grade physical science and tenthgrade biology. In the past, the biology course was reserved for our topstudents—it was designed as a college prep class, with very highexpectations for regular attendance, nightly homework, class participation,and lab work. This fall we have three teachers teaching biology all day to allof our 400 sophomores. The teachers are bringing that same set of highexpectations into every class. Of the 400 students that took that class, 93percent passed." Concludes Sullivan, "The assumption used to be that mostof our students simply would not be able to complete a course this rigorous.Now the assumption is that they can and they must."

Copyright 2002 Education Development Center, Inc. Reprinted by permission ofEducation Development Center, Inc.


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Lesson StudyTeachers College Columbia University

http://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/index.html

Many professional organizations promote teacher collaboration, butsupporters of lesson study say it goes beyond collaboration to co-planningand observing actual lessons with a focus on student thinking. The real"lesson" of lesson study is not product, but process. This model of ongoing,teacher-led professional development has been applied most successfully andwidely in Japan. It has recently been adapted and initiated by teachers atmany sites across the U.S.

What is Lesson Study?

Lesson study* is a professional development process that Japanese teachersengage in to systematically examine their practice, with the goal of becomingmore effective. This examination centers on teachers working collaborativelyon a small number of "study lessons". Working on these study lessonsinvolves planning, teaching, observing, and critiquing the lessons. To providefocus and direction to this work, the teachers select an overarching goal andrelated research question that they want to explore. This research questionthen serves to guide their work on all the study lessons.

While working on a study lesson, teachers jointly draw up a detailed plan forthe lesson, which one of the teachers uses to teach the lesson in a realclassroom (as other group members observe the lesson). The group thencomes together to discuss their observations of the lesson. Often, the grouprevises the lesson, and another teacher implements it in a second classroom,while group members again look on. The group will come together again todiscuss the observed instruction. Finally, the teachers produce a report ofwhat their study lessons have taught them, particularly with respect to theirresearch question.

*“Derived from the Japanese word jugyokenkyuu, the term ‘lesson study’was coined by Makoto Yoshida...it can also be translated in reverse as‘research lesson’ [coined by Catherine Lewis], which indicates the level ofscrutiny applied to individual lessons.” –RBS Currents, Spring/ Summer2002

Sample Lesson Plan

Although Japanese teachers use various formats for lesson study, all providethe same key information. The following is a two-page excerpt of a longerstudy lesson plan. The full document is available, along with a more detailedexplanation of lesson plans, on the Teachers College website,http://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/tools.html.


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Links to Lesson Study Resources & U.S. Implementation Sites(Education Development Center http://www2.edc.org/lessonstudy/)

Lesson Study Research Group – Teachers College, Columbia Universityhttp://www.teacherscollege.edu/lessonstudy/The Lesson Study Research Group website provides information, resources,and networking opportunities to U.S. educators who are interested in learningmore about lesson study. This site provides readings, presentations, tools forlesson study, and work samples. It also provides links to many other lessonstudy related sites.

Lesson Study in Japan, U.S. Science Educationhttp://www.lessonresearch.net/This site comes out of an NSF-funded research project from the MillsCollege Education Department that is focused on studying 4 models forspreading coherent, inquiry-based elementary science instruction. One of themodels being examined is lesson study. In addition to the researchinformation, this site provides videos and other publications related to lessonstudy, as well as a resource list of other organizations involved in lessonstudy.

The Teaching Gap Websitehttp://www.lessonlab.com/teaching-gap/index.htmThe Teaching Gap: Best Ideas from the World's Teachers for ImprovingEducation in the Classroom, by James W. Stigler and James Hiebert,compares math teaching practices in Japan and Germany with those in theUnited States. The authors essentially introduced the U.S. educationcommunity to lesson study as their proposal for how to improve education inthe American classroom.

Research for Better Schoolshttp://www.rbs.org/lesson_study/index.shtmlUnder the Research and Resources section of the RBS website, you can findan overview of lesson study and a description of lesson study's connection tothe TIMSS report. There are also links to additional resources on lessonstudy.

Bellevue, Washingtonhttp://www.bsd405.org/lessonstudy.htmlBellevue, Washington has implemented a district-wide lesson study programin all subject areas. Check out this site to find out how they are doing it andwhat teachers and administrators have to say about their lesson studyexperience.

Math Star, New Mexico State Universityhttp://mathstar.nmsu.edu/lesson_study/New Mexico State University is supporting teams of mathematics teachersacross the state of New Mexico. Check out this site to see videos and samplelesson plans.


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Loras College, Dubuque, Iowahttp://web.loras.edu/lessonstudy/index.htmlLoras College is supporting elementary school mathematics teachers inEastern Iowa conducting lesson study in school-based teams. Check out thissite for extensive lists of lesson study and mathematics-related websites.

Readings on Lesson Study

Lewis, Catherine (2002). Lesson Study: A Handbook of Teacher-LedInstructional Change. http://www.rbs.org/catalog/pubs/pd55.shtml

Hiebert, James and Stigler, James (1999). The Teaching Gap: Best Ideasfrom the World’s Teachers for Improving Education in the Classroom.

"Lesson study is a very powerful way to bring teachers together tostructure and organize their thinking about classroom practices. However,we must not lose sight of the fact that lesson study in and of itself is anempty shell that will be filled according to the knowledge and skillsbrought to bear by the group of teachers conducting this activity."

- Clea Fernandez, 1999


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Curriculum Inquiry CycleNorthwest Regional Educational Laboratorywww.nwrel.org/scpd/ci/about.html

The success of your school’s conversion effort depends on the ability ofteachers to continually renew curriculum and instruction, the core ofeducational practice. This core must reflect not only state and nationalstandards, but also teachers’ profound understandings of knowledge and howit develops. The following three resources offer a few options for examiningyour current practice and planning future curriculum.

These tools simply provide a starting point. Ideally, your curriculum teamwill further develop questions and guidelines that drive your practice andaddress areas not included here, such as the relationship between curriculumand assessment.

In order to help teachers fulfill their new role of curriculum developer as wellas curriculum implementer, NWREL staff have developed a process knownas the Curriculum Inquiry Cycle. The ongoing cycle of curriculum renewal isbased on the premise that professional development should assist teachers toget in touch with their implicit theories or beliefs about teaching and learningto form coherent, rational theories based on evidence.

Curriculum inquiry improves the core of educational practice, since itinvolves teachers in determining the critical experiences necessary to engagestudents in meeting challenging standards. This is more than an instructionalinnovation. Through inquiry, teachers plan learning environments thatprovide and build on essential conditions for student learning. This processhelps teachers develop and articulate local standards which guide theirteaching in the context of broad state and national reform priorities. Itaddresses such fundamental questions as: What knowledge is crucial? Whatdo we understand about this knowledge? What strategies are most powerfulfor fostering student learning? What critical experiences must occur toachieve standards? What forms of collaboration are necessary to providecoherence and meaning in teaching and learning? How do we study ourclassrooms and communicate our understandings to others?

Educators participating in this ongoing cycle of curriculum renewal examinecurrent curriculum practice in the school or district; clarify local needs,content and performance standards to determine how to balance competingdemands; plan critical classroom experiences to achieve desired studentgoals; and conduct classroom research on the selected practices in action,assessing progress and making needed changes.


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A major goal of this NWREL project is to assist teachers and schools tocreate self-sustaining processes for improving curriculum and instruction.

The curriculum inquiry cycle diagram can be used to guide reflection oncurrent teaching practices. Use the critical questions that are outlined belowas prompts.

Examining Current PracticeWhat does my teaching look like? Why do I work this way? What does thistell me about how I think about curriculum? Is my current practice making adifference in student learning?

Making DecisionsAre my practices consistent with what is known about how people learn? Arecontent and performance standards reflected in my teaching practice? Am Iaware of alternative models of teaching?

Creating an Optimal Learning EnvironmentWhat are the dynamics of an optimal learning environment? What learningexperiences are essential? What assessments are appropriate?

Expanding Teacher Knowledge through Classroom ResearchWhat dilemmas, questions or concerns about teaching and learning do I wantto explore? How can I collaborate more with colleagues? How will I sharemy research?


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Assumptions Underlying the Curriculum Inquiry Cycle

ß Teachers are knowledgeable professionals.ß Planning curriculum is the professional responsibility of teachers.ß Curriculum inquiry is a vehicle for professional growth.ß Curriculum inquiry leads to improved learning and teaching.ß Teachers learn by building on current practice.ß Teachers need to share professional expertise.ß Curriculum planning is a team effort.ß Curriculum Inquiry strengthens close connections among curriculum,

instruction and assessment.ß Curriculum planning is a recursive process.ß The classroom is the fundamental unit of school change.ß Administrative support is essential for effective curricular and

instructional change.

“Teachers come to the task of developing curriculum… laden with thebaggage of their district’s history—its politics, its culture, and itsorganizational structure. To develop new curriculum, they must oftenchallenge all that, setting into place an entirely new culture or inquiryand professional growth. Where they begin, and how explicit they maketheir assumptions and their process, can dramatically affect whetheranything ultimately changes in their schools and districts.”

- Kathleen Cushman“Developing Curriculum in Essential Schools,” Horace,

March 1996 (Vol. 12, No. 4).


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Curriculum PlanningFremont Union High School District

http://www.fhs.fuhsd.org/acad_library/staff_devl/techacad/session1.html

Design & content by Kathleen FerenzAdapted from Understanding by Design by Wiggins & McTighe, (1998).

This backwards-planning tool was adapted from Grant Wiggins & JayMcTighe’s book Understanding by Design. Several Washington teachers andschools used the concepts from this book to design small schools. Created bya teacher in California, it applies the UBD principles to curriculum planning.

A collaborative effortCurriculum development works best when teachers plan together.Curriculum is not just a document to create, but a chance for collaborativedialogue about teaching and learning. Use these steps as you plan yourcurriculum.

Design tips:ß Design work is done in phases, preferably with colleaguesß Each stage includes checks of alignment against standards and identified

understandingsß Each phase involves a more complex look at the initial work in the three

stages of design

Planning Backwards

How can I design for understanding?

Stage 1 - Identify Desired ResultsWhat do you want students to understand, know, and be able to do?

What is worthy of understanding?What are the standards that apply?What are the overarching questions that will frame the unit?What core knowledge and skills are necessary for understanding?In this stage, consider goals and identify the understandings for a unit ofstudy.

Stage 2 - Determine Acceptable EvidenceHow will you know students are getting it?

What assessment evidence will you collect?How will you measure student understanding and proficiency?Think about assessment as an ongoing activity that informs you and studentsabout their progress towards understanding.


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Stage 3 - Design Learning Experiences and InstructionWhat are you teaching and why?

What materials and resources are best suited to accomplish these goals?Is the overall design coherent and effective?

Plan ALL learning experiences and instruction to make understandingpossible.

STAGE 1

1. What is really important to understand?Remember when you set learning priorities…

It’s worth being familiar with if it…ß Is really interesting and adds value to

the study.ß Can be a hook to a big idea.ß Is thematic to what is being studied.ß Links to other ideas or disciplines.

It is important to know and do if it…ß Is key to understanding the subject.ß Links to essential understandings.ß Is part of an adult work role.ß Needs to be assessed.

It is an essential understanding if it…ß Goes beyond facts and skills.ß Moves to the heart of the discipline.ß Has value beyond classroom learning.ß Is that nugget of learning you will take away.

For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources/news-articles/backward.html

2. What is an essential understanding?Essential understandings represent our personal knowledge at the deepestlevel.... complex and central to our lives... We want to learn more about atopic or idea in this unit because we are seeking to make meaning that willinform our personal quest for meaning. Understandings should be framed asgeneralizations or propositions.

Use the following guidelines as you craft essential understandings.They could:ß Describe understandings that are at the heart of learningß Avoid repeating vague generalities and truismsß Be related to the unit topic yet transcend disciplinesß Stimulate an idea that students will always rememberß Be an idea that recurs across disciplinesß Raise ethical questions


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ß Invite ongoing reflection

For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources/news-articles/bigidea.html

3. What makes a good question?Essential questions and topic questions focus and guide the learning. Theyare the sort of questions that are nonjudgmental, but answering them requireshigh-level cognitive work. Great questions direct the search forunderstanding. Everything in the curriculum is studied for the purpose ofanswering it. Here are some characteristics:

ß OPEN-ENDED. Questions that are open-ended but focus inquiry on aspecific topic.

ß NONJUDGEMENTAL. Answering these questions requires high-levelcognitive work. They do not have a right or wrong answer. Thesequestions encourage thinking because to answer them requires studentsto ask other questions.

ß EMOTIVE FORCE and INTELLECTUAL BITE. Questions caninvigorate the study of localized issues and traditional disciplines. Theyare linked to the topic of study and provoke students’ thinking about it innew ways.

ß SUCCINCT. Questions that contain a handful of words but demand a lotof thinking are more memorable.

Tips for creating questions:ß Begin to write questions that you believe will cause the students to think

about the topic, but not dictate the direction or outcome of their thinking.ß Consider the six queries that newspaper articles answer: who, what,

when, where, how, and why.ß Test questions using the word good. Using the word good causes

students to evaluate and reflect. For example, “What is music?” becomes“What is good music?”

ß Generate questions by writing several questions without paying too muchattention to how perfectly they fulfill the criteria. Refine the list.

4. What are some examples of questions?Essential Questions guide teaching and stimulate inquiry toward the desiredtopical understandings, and beyond to the topic toward essentialunderstanding.

Topic Questions guide teaching and stimulate inquiry toward the desiredtopical understandings of the core content knowledge of a unit.

Unit on insectsEQ: How does an organism’s structure enable it to survive in harsh orchanging environments? How do organisms survive in harsh or changingenvironments?

TQ: How does the structure and behavior of insects enable them to survive?How do insects survive when their environment changes?


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Unit on money and introductory economicsEQ: How does something acquire value? What changes the worth ofsomething?

TQ: Why do we need money? How is the value of a baseball carddetermined?

Unit on a state or regionEQ: How do the topography, climate, and natural resources of a regioninfluence how people live and work? Why is _______located there?

TQ: How do the topography, climate, and natural resources of California’scoastline influence the lifestyle and work of its inhabitants? Why isSacramento, the state capital, located where it is?

Unit on mysteriesEQ: What makes a great story? How do effective writers hook and hold theirreaders?

TQ: What is unique about the mystery genre? How do great mystery writershook and hold their readers?

5. What knowledge and skills will be learned?Describe the core content knowledge and skills to get at all theunderstandings of the subject being studied. These are the specific topics ofstudy in a unit and are aligned to the identified essential understanding andthe standards that apply.

Use the following guidelines as you craft core content knowledge and skills.They could:ß Prioritize key ideas and topics at the core of the disciplineß Describe an engaging inquiry about the topicsß Be something that experts investigate or doß Link to big ideas embedded in facts, skills, and activitiesß Be important for students to know and be assessed

6. How do skills compare to understandings?The distinction between skill and understanding is not straightforward.Concepts and understandings are often implicit in skill development. Theexample below shows that strategic ideas need to be taught along withdiscrete skills.

SkillReading text and decoding

Creating scoring opportunities insoccer

UnderstandingThe author’s meaning in a story israrely explicit; one must readbetween the lines.

A player needs to create space,spreading the defense as broadlyand deeply as possible.


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STAGE 2

1. Which assessment types are best?

2. What is evidence of understanding?The student who really understands can…

ß EXPLAIN. Provide complex, insightful and credible reasons. Avoidcommon misunderstandings or simplistic views. Reveal a personal,thoughtful and coherent grasp of the subject.

ß INTERPRET. Effectively and sensitively interpret texts, language andsituations. Offer a meaningful account of complex situations and people.

ß APPLY. Employ knowledge effectively in diverse, authentic andrealistically messy contexts. Extend or apply what she knows in a noveland effective way. Self-adjust as she performs.

ß SEE IN PERSPECTIVE. Critique and justify a position to see it as apoint of view, test theories. Know the history of an idea. Inferassumptions. Know the limits as well as the power of an idea. Seethrough bias or ideology. Wisely employ both criticism and belief.

ß DEMONSTRATE EMPATHY. Feel and appreciate another’s situationor view. Work to understand even an odd text, idea, or person. See howothers misunderstand. Listen when others don’t.

ß REVEAL SELF-KNOWLEDGE. Recognize own prejudice and style.Engage in effective metacognition. Question own convictions. Self-assess. Accept feedback without defensiveness.


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3. What is an authentic performance task?Performance Tasks and Projects are challenges that mirror those faced byadults. Tasks and projects can be both short-term and long-term. Likeprompts, they are complex, require productions or performance and havemore than one right answer or solution path.

They differ from prompts in these ways:

ß They require the student to address a specific purpose for anidentified audience.

ß The setting is real or simulated. They involve the kind of constraints,incentives, and opportunities to personalize the task an adult mightencounter.

Academic prompts are complex content-focused questions that require thestudent to think critically, not just recall knowledge. Prompts tend to be moreopen. There is generally more than one right answer and/or solution.

This assessment category includes questions and problems that:

ß Require the student to make connections among concepts andsubjects

ß Have more than one best strategy for answeringß Call for an explanation or defense of the and/or methods used

STAGE 3

What are you teaching and why?Design and align every activity to the identified understanding, standards,and assessment that apply. Teaching for understanding involves the strategicuse of questioning daily to stimulate students to think and rethink about thebig ideas. Use questions to probe and challenge ideas rather than those thatrequire the right answer.

WHERE are you headed with your day-to-day lessons? What does teachingfor understanding look like?

Which day-to-day activities will make academic success more likely?

Hook students with engaging work that makes them eager to explore the keyideas. What questions will probe big ideas?

Explore the subject in depth, equip students with required knowledge andskill to perform successfully on final tasks.

Rethink with students the big ideas. Support students as they rehearse andrevise their work. What questions do students have?

Evaluate ongoing progress of students and reflect and revise your lessons.

For further reference: http://www.ubdexchange.org/resources.html


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Teaching for Understanding:Questions to ask Yourself and Your Students

Chris Ungerhttp://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/understanding/unger.htm

This article can be used as a reflection tool and as a curriculum planning tool.It discusses what teachers can do to develop students’ ability to “understanddeeply,” drawn on concepts from Martha Stone Wiske’s book, Teaching forUnderstanding: Linking Research with Practice.

Before reading the article, consider and discuss with your colleagues what itmeans to “understand.” The article begins to provide some ideas about howto teach for understanding, including the use of throughlines or “centralquestions of inquiry.”

Questions represent one way to organize a class, with the course contentreflecting the answers. In this article, these questions are called throughlines,which are similar to "essential questions." One example of how this looks ata school comes from Central Park East Secondary School in New York Citywhere the entire curriculum is focused on getting students to ask and answerquestions like: "From whose viewpoint are we seeing or reading or hearing?How do we know what we know? How are things, events, and peopleconnected to each other?” (Kathleen Cushman, Horace. Vol. 5, No. 5. June1989).

At the same school, a history class focusing on immigration asks, “‘Whosecountry is this, anyway?’ That question shapes the materials and activitiesthat will guide student research into smaller, unit-level questions, like ‘Whatfactors motivated people to uproot themselves and come to this country?’ or‘Are there ethnic differences in these factors?’

“By exploring the political, economic, and social forces that shapedAmerican immigration from its beginning—and by asking at every point theguiding ‘school-wide’ questions—students gain a critical understanding ofthe content of U.S. history, rather than memorizing a set of facts or someoneelse's interpretation of what those facts mean” (Cushman, Horace. Vol. 5,No. 5. June 1989).

Seven years ago, Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Educationset out to answer three questions:

1. What does it mean to understand?2. How do we teach for understanding?3. How do we assess understanding?

We sought these answers because research showed that students were notunderstanding what they were "learning." Sometimes students remembered alot of facts or algorithms, but they could not think and act critically and


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creatively in a discipline. Why? And what could teachers do about-students'inability?

With the help of more than fifty teachers in the Boston area, and nowhundreds of teachers from Seattle to Boston to Bogota, we found out whatteachers could do to develop students' ability to understand deeply:

ß Design your curriculum around generative topics, topics that have greatconnections to students' interests and experience, and that are central tothe discipline.

ß Clearly articulate and share with your students your goals ofunderstanding, what you most want your students to understand fromtheir experience with you.

ß Engage your students in performances of understanding, performancesthat cause students to do a great deal of thinking when using, applying,and enriching what they know in challenging, disciplinary work.

ß Practice ongoing assessment, learning-centered assessment throughoutinstruction that actively involves you and your students in constantreflection about what is being learned, how it is being learned, and why itis being learned.

Simple? Our experience in working with hundreds of teachers over timeanswers "No." In short, the teaching-for-understanding framework is a mirrorto look at and reflect on one's own practice. At the heart of it is one questionthat is not a simple one: Is my curriculum, instruction, and assessmentdesigned and practiced in a way that truly results in student understanding?

From that one question, others follow:

ß Am I engaging my students in performances that help them to truly buildtheir own understanding?

ß Am I sure about the few things I really want my students to understand?

ß Have I clearly shared those goals with my students, so that they canactively participate in achieving them?

ß Am I engaging them in inquiry about a topic that they truly care about,that I care about, and that ultimately is at the heart of the discipline Iteach?

ß Am I practicing learning-centered assessment, involving my students intheir own assessments based on criteria that are clearly articulated?

The teaching-for-understanding framework recommends you ask yourselfthese questions. It will help you answer them for yourself and discuss youranswers with friends. We know it is difficult to find the time andadministrative support to spend time assessing your teaching in this way. But


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when teachers are given the opportunity to ask and reflect on these questions,they feel that their teaching is more deliberate, focused, and reflective.Rather than feeling that they are attempting to cover a hundred things, theyfeel that they are teaching what is most important. Rather than handingknowledge down, teachers are helping students build up their ownunderstanding. The result: Students understand. They are able to go beyondaccumulating knowledge to applying it in novel and meaningful contexts.

We have found it useful for teachers to develop and post questions that makeclear to students what they are learning and why. We call these questionsthroughlines. They tend simply to be great questions that often are at theheart of disciplinary inquiry and beg for an ever more articulate and deepresponse.

How can you use these throughlines?

If you can identify the four to eight central questions that you feel wouldultimately benefit your students in their learning—engaging them, engagingyou, and proving immensely generative in their presence—then you can usethose central questions to guide or map the journey of your teaching and theirlearning throughout the year. The point is not to arrive quickly at one, singleanswer, but to develop richer and more sophisticated answers over timethrough several experiences of learning and reflection.

Chris Unger was the Professional Development Director at Project Zero,Harvard Graduate School of Education. He now resides in Seattle,Washington, where he works for the Seattle School District.

“In a large school it is easy to have kids (in a class) and in the end not feelresponsible for whether or not they have achieved certain outcomes bysenior year… When you’re in a small school and kids are not making it,or they are making it with less than what you had hoped, you really onlyhave yourself to look at. It really makes it more urgent, the need to definewhat it is we want kids to know and do. You can’t differentiate unlessyou know what it is you want all kids to learn.”

Students “really have to be clear about what their central understandingsare, and what the outcomes are, and whether or not the outcomes areactually being fed by what is being taught.”

- Gene Thompson-Grove and Deborah DownesCambridge Rindge & Latin High School


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Three Easy PiecesThe New Urban High School: A Practitioner’s GuideBig Picture Company and U.S. Department of Education

Teachers who adapted their classroom practice to small school settings foundthat they became more student-centered and project-based. These funexercises can support your curriculum planning by helping you and yourcolleagues explore the kinds of activities you might want to incorporate intoyour classes to encourage significant learning, personal interest, andcommunity exploration.

The following activities focus on educators as learners and designers. Theassumption here is that the best professional development occurs as teacherswork together in design teams to create programs that respond to their owninterests and meet the local needs.

These three exercises are designed to help educators:

ß Consider the attributes of significant learningß See the potential of interest-based curriculumß Experience community exploration as a means for engaging students

in rigorous intellectual activity

The third exercise exposes participants to important elements of community-based inquiry: engagement through interest, real-life purpose, connectionwith the community, problem solving, presentation, and audience. As theyexperience these elements, they consider the value of a similar action-and-reflection approach for their students.

1. Reflection on Significant Learning

This is a one-hour reflection and discussion exercise

Journal Warm-up (10 minutes)Write a brief journal entry describing two significant learning experiencesfrom your high school days: one in school, and one outside school.

Discuss (30 minutes)ß Break into groups of four to six persons.ß Introduce yourselves briefly, as appropriate.ß Share your significant learning experiences with the group.

Group task: during each description, listen for attributes of each learningexperience.ß Who was there?ß Where did the experience take place?ß What made these experiences significant?


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Group questions, after everyone has shared:ß What characterizes the learning experiences in school?ß Out of school?ß Are there any significant differences?ß What can we say about the characteristics of a significant learning

experience?ß What are the implications for our teaching?

Report (20 minutes)Each group reports its findings.

2. Developing Projects from Interests and Hobbies

Discuss (30 minutes)In groups of four to six, each participant describes an interest or hobby. Ineach case, discuss: what skills are developed and employed in pursuit of thisinterest?

Plan (20 minutes)Group task: develop a plan for a project-based curriculum unit that wouldincorporate the hobbies of each member of the group.

Prepare (10 minutes)Using newsprint and any other means available, prepare a presentation ofyour project-based unit to the larger group.

Criteria:ß Each member of the group must participate in the presentationß Presentation time limit: one minute for each group

Present (15 minutes)Observe the criteria for participation; appoint a timekeeper. Enjoy!

Reflect and Discuss (15 minutes)Do a quick journal writing, share in small groups, and report out.ß What happened in this exercise?ß What moments stand out?ß What surprised you?ß What, if anything, did you learn?ß What are the implications of this activity for your work with

students?

Key points for discovery1. Powerful teaching and learning can occur when teachers pursue their

interests.

2. In interest-based projects, it is always possible to find connections to theacademic and technical disciplines.


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3. Exploring the Community: The “Mall Walk”

This half-day exercise offers a quick, hands-on exposure to many aspects ofproject-based learning: observation, inquiry, collecting and analyzing data,writing and reflection, team building, networking, exhibition, and multimediastudies. It also offers a look at an “all aspects of the industry” approach toinquiry – in this case, “all aspects of the mall.” It is a simulation, yet real,representing the kind of longer-term study that can be done on a wholeneighborhood or community.

MaterialsPolaroid camera and filmAssorted paper (white and colored)ScissorsGlue sticks and scotch tapeMagic markers, pencils, and colored pencils

DirectionsIn this activity you will be working with a team of four to six persons asinvestigative researchers, gathering information about a nearby mall. Eachteam will choose a different focus, ultimately allowing the group as a wholeto put together a composite picture of the character, resources, and needs ofthe mall.

Team InventoryIntroduce yourselves, as appropriate.Tell what skills you bring to the project.Write a list of the team’s composite skills.

Choose (as a team)Choose an aspect of mall life for exploration for the list below:ß Architectureß Communicationsß Cultureß Demographyß Entertainmentß Foodß Governmentß Healthß Housingß Retail and Businessß Street lifeß Transportation

Planß Develop a guiding question for your team inquiry.ß How will you investigate your aspect?ß Where will you go?ß What will you look for?ß To whom will you talk?ß How will you record information?


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ß What group roles have you defined?ß How will you present your data?ß What are your team’s criteria for success in this project? (Develop at

least three)

ReflectKeep a journal in which you reflect on your own learning in this exercise. Asa first entry, write your current thoughts about this exercise.ß What do you think will happen?ß What do you hope to learn from the exercise?

Investigateß Go to the mall!ß Conduct inquiry as planned.ß Perform tasks as assigned by the team.ß Be alert to surprises, new questions, and new directions.

Synthesize and PrepareBack at the home site, share findings within your team. Prepare apresentation of these findings. Presentation boards should include thefollowing information at a minimum:ß A map showing the location of specific sites visitedß Five photographs of relevant scenes, and one photograph of the teamß A report of an interview with at least one personß A quote (from a person, a sign, or printed material) that captures

some essential feature of the mall related to your themeß An artifact that represents some essential feature of the mall related

to your themeß A resume listing the skills the team employed in conducting this

inquiryß Optional: sketches, drawings, observations, ideas for new shops or

services, future visions

PresentMake your presentations to the large group.

Presentation criteria:ß Each member must participate in some way in the presentation.ß The presentation should last no more than three minutes.

DebriefTake five minutes to think back over the whole experience and write ajournal entry.ß What single moment stands out in your mind?ß What happened and who was there?ß Why does this moment come to mind? What is its significance?

Discuss these journal entries with your team. Compare moments.ß What do these moments have in common?ß What surprises?ß What obstacles?


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ß What have you learned from doing this exercise?ß What did the presentation add to the experience?ß What is your most significant learning?ß How will you apply this learning to your work with students?

Report out the reflections of your team.

Sample Schedule (8:30 a.m. – 12:30 p.m.)

8:30-8:50 Break into teamsAssess team strengthsChoose a focus themeDevise research strategyEstablish three criteria for excellence

8:50-10:30 Investigate the mall

10:30-11:00 Prepare a presentation

11:00-12:00 Give and observe observations

12:00-12:30 Reflect and discuss


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Classroom PersonalizationAn Introduction

Teachers in small schools talk about increasing personalization throughlearner-centered classes. While it requires a lot of work and time, they saythe benefit of building trusting relationships with students and maintainingregular contact with their families is invaluable. One strategy that capitalizeson a personalized learning environment is carefully crafting student workgroups, which is addressed further in the section on heterogeneous classes.

For many teachers who’ve made the transition, the biggest change fromteaching in a large, traditional school to teaching in a small school wasincreased student personalization. “Adapting [one’s teaching practice] isabout making the class student-centered and letting go of your plan.” AnnColligan, a science teacher from Parker Charter Essential School in ruralMassachusetts, said, “Tell teachers to be ready to throw everything out thewindow,” meaning the notion of who’s directing the class. “Teachers whosuffer are the ones who have one model in mind of how a class works andcannot let go.”

When asked about the issue of covering subject material, Colligan said,“coverage doesn’t work anyway” in a traditional school setting. In a learner-centered classroom, coverage means depth of learning, reaching morestudents, increased subject integration, and higher achievement for allstudents. At Parker Charter, learner-centered classes also mean, “convincingkids that they can ask questions and then giving them enough time to answerthem. Everything changes when students know they can challenge theteachers… Ultimately, these [changes] are what makes scores go up.”

Student assessment is personalized as well. Instead of letter grades, studentsat Parker Charter receive narrative feedback along with an indication ofwhether they are Just Beginning, Approaching, Meeting, or Exceeding thestandard. Meeting or Exceeding a standard on the first try is extremely rareand students typically have to revise their work at least once. In seventh andeighth grade, students have a “revision week” where they pull out all theirold assignments, take time to closely read the feedback, and revise the workaccordingly. As they get older, students are expected to revise their work outof class time.

When Mark Aguirre joined the staff at High Tech High (HTH) in SanDiego, he realized that “those unspoken rules” he had to follow at the largeschool where he used to teach were no longer in place. At HTH, “I could dowhat was best for kids. My [teaching] partner and I could re-arrangeschedules, have longer blocks, be more flexible, meet with a student togetheror separately. I began to realize that all the rules were false.” The primarycurricular change was that the centerpiece of each trimester was now aproject. Everything that Aguirre did in class was designed to help students besuccessful at the culminating project. “I could throw away teaching strategies


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I brought with me from my old school that were geared toward the test, andfocus on just those skills that I thought were important for the students. Icould now use those cool little lessons that used to get shoved aside. [At first]it feels risky to teach that way because it goes against all those things that Iwas taught. But now it feels wonderful.”

Cliff Chuang, math department chair at Boston’s Academy of the PacificRim, says the key issue for creating a more personalized classroom isreducing a teacher’s student load. Instructional practice may not be able tochange if a teacher is still responsible for teaching large numbers of students.

Chuang observed that in a large school setting teachers “let it go when astudent zones out because they don’t have many options.” In a small school,teachers have more time to work individually with students, can be moreintentional about combining students for group work, and can coordinatetheir teaching with students’ other classes. In a larger setting, teachers canend up working in isolation, having to deal with a string of interruptions. In asmall setting, “you have more flexibility to plan around events, like fieldtrips, because you know what other teachers are doing.”

In his experience at a large school, Chuang said most teachers deemed itimpossible to have students complete big projects, “which could suck amonth off a teacher’s life.” Teachers adopted survival strategies, which madethem less effective instructors, and the students lost out. “What you do forone student, must be done for all students, so you opt not to do it at all.”Because a small school affords teachers the ability to assess student work “inan ongoing way, a mentality shift is required to realize that you can do moreindividual, ongoing assessment.”

Bill Klann of Vanguard High School in New York agrees that smaller classsizes and a smaller student load for each teacher are important for realclassroom change to occur. Klann has two classes, each with twenty studentswho he has known for the entire school year. With only forty students, he canassign long papers because he has the time to read them and provide detailedfeedback. Klann feels that “knowing students changes the classroom goalfrom how well students know the course material to how well students aredoing in school and in life overall.” Personalization changes teacher-studentinteractions because “we are trying to create great people.”

Knowing students so well also changes teachers’ instructional strategy. “Youcan’t just sit and lecture anymore when you truly know the students,” saysKlann. Building authentic, personal relationships means changing yourclassroom practice. Teachers at MATCH in Boston believe that their classesare more productive because of their regular contact with parents.“Relationship building comes before class planning and grading.” Theprincipal calls parents every month and teachers call parents several timesper semester, with both good and poor news. Teachers are also “much moreexplicit with kids about how they are doing [than in traditional schools] andgive a lot more feedback.” MATCH students receive report cards eight timesa year; students and parents know what they are going to say long beforethey arrive.


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At the International School in Bellevue, teachers get to know students byhaving them in classes year after year, regular advisory periods, anddiscussing their progress with other teachers. Without this human connection,teachers lose students’ “affective hook.” That is to say, all students learnbetter when they know that teachers care about them and what they arelearning. Enid Becker, an Art and French teacher adds, “It is very importantfor my students to know that I care about them as individuals—human beingswho have good days and bad days.”


High Tech Highhttp://www.hightechhigh.org






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Student Learning PlanThe Big Picture Companyhttp://www.bigpicture.org/WebSite2002NEW/LearningPlans.htm

The Big Picture Company, a non-profit organization that works to generateand sustain innovative schools, used its design of The Met Center inProvidence, Rhode Island as a model for the development of similar schoolsacross the country, including two schools in Federal Way, Washington. Theprogram centers on workplace internships and independent projects tailoredto each student’s interests. While your school may look quite different,student Learning Plans are an integral part of any personalized educationalprogram. The following sample is just one example of how it might work.

The motto, “One student at a time” means acknowledging that each studenthas different strengths, passions, needs and learning styles. Therefore, eachstudent at a Big Picture School has an individual Learning Plan that istailored to fit him or her. Each student’s interests and the five LearningGoals serve as frameworks for students and their Learning Plan Teams todesign authentic and challenging learning experiences that help each studentsucceed. (See Sample Learning Plan following.) The Learning Plan is at the center of an educational program that meetsindividual academic and personal needs, while helping each student pursuehis or her passions in the real world. Each student’s Learning Plan Team, made up of the student, the teacher, theparent(s) or guardian(s), and the internship mentor, works with him or her todesign a personalized Learning Plan that outlines the long and short-termgoals for project planning, skills development, and knowledge building. TheLearning Plan is updated quarterly and as the student progresses, discoversnew interests, plans new projects, and develops new goals for his or herlearning. As a working document, the Learning Plan is at the center of a flexibleeducational program that meets the student’s academic and personal needs. As students regularly review and update their Learning Plans, they are takingcontrol of their own learning. Projects, skills and knowledge are connectedand have meaning for the student. The written Plan allows students to seetheir progress and recognize gaps. Students present their Learning Plans as part of their quarterly exhibitionsand are assessed on how they met each of their goals.

“No two students are alike in interests, talents, skills, or life experiences. Rather than expecting all students to pursue the same body of knowledgeat the same time and rate, each of our students has a personalizedcurriculum that is developed by the people who know the student’sinterests and learning needs best.”

- The Big Picture Company


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Democratic ClassroomsState University of New York College at Cortlandhttp://www.cortland.edu/c4n5rs/wheel/6.htm

Students respond best to someone who tries to understand their needs,identifies their strengths, and helps to create a collaborative atmosphere. Ademocratic environment encourages students to help establish their ownrules, take responsibility for their own behavior, and motivates them to learn.Though it’s a complex process, the following tips introduce ideas for creatingcaring, democratic classrooms.

CREATING A DEMOCRATIC CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT:Using the class meeting to engage students in shared decision-making and intaking responsibility for making the classroom the best it can be.

Key Ideas

1. Creating a democratic classroom environment means involving students,on a regular basis and in developmentally appropriate ways, in shareddecision-making that increases their responsibility for helping to makethe classroom a good place to be and learn.

2. A democratic classroom contributes to character because it:

ß Provides an ongoing forum where students' thoughts are valuedand where any need of the group can be addressed.

ß Creates a support structure that calls forth students' best moralselves by strengthening community and holding themaccountable to practice respect and responsibility.

ß Mobilizes the peer culture on the side of virtue, because studentsare working with the teacher in a continuing partnership to createthe moral culture of the classroom.

ß The chief means of creating a democratic classroom environmentis the class meeting, a face-to-face circle meeting emphasizinginteractive discussion and problem solving.

Teaching Strategies

1. Meetings go better when there are clear rules for talking and listeningand consequences of breaking them, and when students help to set theagenda.

2. Meetings can deal with problems (put-downs, homework problems) orhelp to plan upcoming events (the day, a field trip, a cooperative activity,the next unit).


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Creating a Class Charter

Dr. Judith Gray, a veteran science teacher, professor at AntiochUniversity-Seattle’s center for education, and school coach, spends thefirst couple weeks with a new class getting to know each student,creating a safe environment, and discussing student and teacher roles. Inone exercise, she and the students complete worksheets containing fourboxes:

My job is… My job is not…

Your job is… Your job is not…

After discussing the lists people generate, the students create a classcharter, sometimes referred to as a constitution. One of Gray’s ninthgrade class charters included, among other things:

We agree that our jobs as students are to…ß Come to class on time prepared and willing to workß Get along with others, help out and be cooperativeß Do all labs and assignments with our best effort

But not to…ß Be disrespectful or rudeß Fall behind in our workß Kill the live animals

Our teacher’s job is to…ß Have an open mind – be understanding and listen to usß Be clear with instructions and directionsß Adapt to students’ diverse learning styles

But not to…ß Waste our time or teach us unrelated materialß Play favorites or worry about certain studentsß Be mean, rude or disrespectful in any way

3. Problem-solving class meetings have the best chance of helping studentsgo beyond "saying the right words" to actually improving their moralbehavior when:

ß The teacher poses the problem in the collective voice: "How canwe, working together, solve this problem?"

ß After a solution is reached, asks: "What should we do if someonedoesn't keep our class agreement?"

ß Writes up the agreement and consequence(s) as a ClassAgreement or Contract

ß Has everyone sign it to show personal commitment.ß Posts it in a visible spot for easy reference.ß Plans with the class when to have a follow-up meeting to assess

how the new plan is working; then follows through.


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Readings on Democratic Classrooms:

Apple, Michael W. and Beane, James A. (1995). Democratic Schoolshighlights educators in four U.S. communities who have committedthemselves to preparing students for the democratic way of life.

Beyer, Landon E., Editor (1996). Creating Democratic Classrooms: TheStruggle to Integrate Theory and Practice includes narratives from seventeachers who weigh the possibilities for making classrooms more responsiveto the need for social justice, critical consciousness, and democratic values.

Glasser, William (1998). Choice Theory in the Classroom is a practical andilluminating guide for motivating students and capturing the excitement thatthey typically display in sports, but rarely in the classroom.

Gossen, Diane C. (1996). Restitution: Restructuring School Discipline helpsstudents learn more effective behaviors for fulfilling their basicpsychological needs and make the right choices.

Kohn, Alfie (1996). Beyond Discipline: From Compliance to Communitycontrasts the idea of discipline, in which things are done to students tocontrol their behavior, with an approach in which we work with students tocreate caring communities where decisions are made together.

McDermott, Cynthia J. (1998). Beyond the Silence: Listening for Democracypresents short chapters where teachers, teacher educators, students andcounselors reflect on what it means to teach for democracy, including AlfieKohn, Peter McLaren, Shelley Berman, Hilton Smith, and others.

The Institute for Democracy in Education at Ohio University providesteachers who are committed to democratic education with resources, a forumfor sharing ideas, a support network of people holding similar values, andwith opportunities for professional development. They also publish an annualjournal, Democracy and Education. http://www.ohiou.edu/ide/

The Heritage Institute:Continuing Education for K-12 Teachershttp://www.hol.edu

Further study and discussion will be necessary to truly understand how toimplement democratic classrooms. Some universities offer continuingeducation courses on creating democratic classrooms. In Seattle, TheHeritage Institute at Antioch University offers a course in whichparticipants “discuss, challenge and adopt new and used theoreticalapproaches to student self-management.”


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Longer Class PeriodsAn Introduction

Some small schools will choose to implement longer class periods, whichmay be daunting for teachers who have never worked in such anenvironment. The following reflections look at what’s different aboutteaching for longer periods.

Teachers’ practice must change for longer classes to be successful, notmerely more of the same old stuff. Those we interviewed said they:

ß Include variety and surprise in every classß Provide opportunities for students to speak, write, and share ideas with

the teacher and with each otherß Allow more time for project-based and problem-based learning

For several teachers, the shift from a large school to a small school meantchanging from a traditional fifty-minute periods to longer periods, or blocks,of one to two hours.

Bill Klann of Vanguard High School in New York believes that blockclasses are “one way to utilize small schools to their fullest.” But he cautionsthat this structure must be combined with staff development to help teachersunderstand how to utilize the longer class period. Unless the classroom workchanges, it’s just more of the same old stuff.

Klann learned to teach for a small school setting when he taught at a college.He discovered that he wanted a two-hour block with students after seeing theway college courses were set up. “The way you envision curriculum becomesmore of a flow, rather than disparate classes, between group work, individualwork, oral work, and reading, because no one can sustain attention for toolong on any one activity.” Klann can include activities in his class thatweren’t possible before because they require time, such as multi-stagewriting assignments and an hour for peer feedback on student work. Inaddition, having more time with the same students means increasedpersonalization, as he has a smaller student load overall.

Enid Becker, a French and Art teacher at the International School inBellevue, Washington, admits that the fifty-minute period, five days perweek put her in a “grind through the book” mindset. Block periods (of anhour and 45 minutes) made her realize that she could use her old curricularmaterials but couldn’t just stick with the old instructional strategy becauseshe needed to include variety.

“I include variety and surprise in every class,” which doesn’t necessarilymean fun and games. Every class begins with a Question of the Day and sheuses the same question for all levels of students. In French, she uses culturaltopics, current events, and linguistic questions. This way, younger students


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learn grammatical structures and cultural facts without even noticing it,which helps when them when they get to the later grades.

Next, the class reviews homework either all together or with a partner. Later,students might do a reading and, rather than discuss it as a class, Becker hasthem write questions about it to discuss with a partner. Students always haveopportunities to speak, write, and share ideas with her and with each other.The French cultural component becomes an inherent part of what studentsare learning, not add-on as with the stereotypical “Taco Tuesday.”

Block classes allow students to spend more time on a question or topic.Whereas a fifty-minute class period necessitates doing bits of things orsplitting the class time into two subjects, longer class periods allow studentsto develop cognitive ability by exploring one thing in a variety of ways.Becker also allows for more discussion time with the block period. “It’s lessscary for students to participate because they know each other better.” Beingable to play with the language in longer periods of time also seems to makethe students feel more confident and engaged. “I don’t have to worry aboutthe class taking longer to get through a problem or activity and the time spentis more valuable because they understand the material better.”

Block periods allow more time for project-based and problem-basedlearning. Two hours can get quite exhausting, so Becker adds videoactivities, problem solving, in-class writes, role plays, debates, questionwriting, readings, partner activities, dictation, and vocabulary guessinggames, to name a few activities. “I like games a lot, and that doesn’t meanthe activity isn’t rigorous; they make class more fun and dynamic.”

Having students for longer periods of time also allows Becker to be moreflexible with how that time is spent. Students may need more or less timewith a subject. When students needed a break from stressful grammarstructures around Valentines’ Day last year, Becker decided to take a breakfrom the unit, introducing romance vocabulary instead by having studentswrite and perform mini-plays.

Journaling is one activity that Christopher Drajem, a Humanities teacher atSeattle’s Center School, can do with students in a longer period. Studentsspend the first ten minutes of each class writing in their journal, and thenhave the option to share their work. The exercise helps establish a sense ofcommunity in the class because students enjoy hearing what’s on otherpeople’s minds or, at times, hearing how others answered a specific writingprompt. The class always responds to people’s writing respectfully, with around of applause.

“A teacher couldn’t sacrifice that kind of time in fifty-minute block.” And,the students enjoy the daily ritual, reporting that the practice has improvedtheir writing skills. Students also feel that the journaling “eases them intoclass.” Drajem collects the journals every few weeks to check that studentshave been keeping up. The entries provide a way to check in with a studentwhen there’s a red flag, either raised in journal entry or through the student’s


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behavior. Drajem also tells students that they can write, “please don’t read”at the top of the page and he’ll respect their privacy.

After a year of working at ECHOES, one of Enumclaw’s new small highschools, Diane Franchini is still learning to prepare multiple activities for alonger class period. The activities can be either consecutive or concurrent,with students switching activities partway through class. She tried toimplement this kind of variety and active learning before, but now it’sabsolutely necessary. “The students have become more demanding. Whenthey experience things in a different way, they want more of it. [Thestudents] have become more aggressive and assertive about their educationand have developed a real ownership in the school.” But, Franchini alsonotes that teachers need to work with students to develop their negotiationskills because, “Once they assert, [they think] that’s the way it will be.”Students have become consumers of their education and want teachers toserve them in the best way possible.



The Center Schoolhttp://www.seattleschools.org/schools/thecenterschool

Enumclaw Cooperative Hands-On Experiential School (ECHOES)http://www.enumclaw.wednet.edu


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Organizing a Block Period LessonEnid BeckerInternational School, Bellevue, WAhttp://belnet.bellevue.k12.wa.us/international.html

Enid Becker, a French and art teacher, made the transition from teaching atraditional fifty-minute period to a longer, block period. Here, she sharessome of her strategies for making the most of the additional time.

There is no recipe for how to structure longer class periods. This resourceprovides a glimpse into one teacher’s classroom and would best be used asthe basis for conversation with your curriculum team.

“I try to be sure that the elements of VARIETY and SURPRISE are presentin all my lessons.

“I generally choose a first activity that plays off of the warm-up but does it ina different fashion. For example, if the warm up was a written activity, myfirst activity might be an oral one. When I plan, I think warm-up and fouractivities for the block. (We generally take a five-minute break halfwaythrough the period.) These four activities will usually be on two differenttopics within the domain of study.

“For example, in today’s second-year French class, we did a trivia warm-upand then discussed the weekend (practicing the past tense). Next, wecorrected the homework, a close activity practicing the imperfect verb tense(questions, clarification – still past tense). Then I asked the students to try torecall the new vocabulary (seen once before). Next, I put the new vocabularyon the overhead and asked for a student to point out the vocabulary words(this got them moving around). We went over the vocabulary working onpronunciation. Then, they did a pair oral activity followed by an individual,written activity. The period ended with a close activity which was a song inFrench that used a lot of imperfect tense.”

Class Starters:

A trivia question to get students thinking, to slip in something you arepassionate about but that is not an official part of the lesson, to get them intothe mood of a language, math, science, etc. class.

Reflective writing on previous day’s information with a prompt: astraightforward question or an imaginary scenario. You could also have themwrite questions.

A series of questions to answer or problems to solve in writing or have pairsexplain something to each other.


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Teacher reads an extract of something pertinent to the subject and studentsreact to it in writing or orally. For example, a history class might read part ofa speech or a bill before congress; a physics class might read a section ofEinstein’s Dreams; recite opening lines from a series of well known books toan English class and have them guess the books; read a description of a pieceof art or a descriptive piece of literature and have your art class draw what isbeing read.

Add variety to a class:

Games – I like these a lot! I believe that learning can be both fun andrigorous. Many students learn well with games. I find they work well asreview activities too.

Enliven an ordinary activity – Have the student who answers a question thenchoose the next student to answer. In French, I like to have students A ask aquestion of student B who answers and then chooses who will be the nextstudent A. This is fun for them.


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Lesson Plan ComparisonBethany Spinler, science teacher and member of the Seattle PublicSchools Graduation Research and Design CommitteeThe Center Schoolhttp://www.seattleschools.org/schools/thecenterschool

The following two science lesson plans demonstrate how the same contentcan be addressed in a teacher-centered, fifty-minute class period and alonger, block period with an inquiry-based, learner-centered pedagogy.

While the issue of pedagogy is distinct from that of class length, severalsmall school teachers told us that block periods provide the necessary timefor group work and inquiry-based curriculum. Below, Bethany Spinlerreflects on the different teaching practices demonstrated by each lesson plan.

The main difference between the following lesson plans is the delivery of thecontent and the expectation for student involvement. In the teacher-centeredlesson, the teacher delivers the content via notes and lecture and the studentspassively accept the information. Students then apply the acquiredinformation the next day in the form of a lab, but they follow teacher directedinstructions. Even though labs are considered hands-on, the activity is quitepassive, as students are not constructing meaning for themselves.

The block period lesson allows for students to construct meaning. Theproblem I have seen in a lot of schools is teachers using hands-on activitiesto break up a long period that are not intellectually challenging. It requires alot of time to plan each learning activity that allows teachers to not onlymove through the breadth of curriculum required by the EALRs, but to allowstudents time and opportunity to construct meaning for themselves.

In the block lesson, the teacher asks questions and guides students, but doesnot tell them how to do something or how to understand a concept. It requiresmuch work by the teacher to ensure that students will have adequateopportunities to construct correct meaning. The longer lesson involvesindependent brainstorming, group collaboration with research, presentationof research and probing questions, hands-on and minds-on lab investigation,and formal written communication of everything the student has constructedfor themselves.

The teacher must know the correct questions to ask each student in order todevelop each student's thinking. This allows for differentiation, as somestudents will need to be pushed to get to the standard while others can bepushed far past the standard. Analysis questions are offered to students atdifferent levels for standard and for honors level. The teacher also attempts tomake the lesson relevant to students by showing why they might need toseparate a mixture and by asking them to relate the prediction behavior tothings they experience outside of the school. The more relevant a lesson is,


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coupled with the more active students must to be to learn it, the better theywill understand it.

A block period allows a teacher the time to probe students and for students todiscover concepts on their own. Notice, the teacher does not give them the“percent error” formula and have them plug in numbers. Instead, she hasthem come up with it on their own. The teacher also has them develop therubric and look at samples of student work before she gives them a lab towrite on their own. This classroom is much more student-focused than thetraditional class.


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50-MINUTE, TEACHER-CENTERED LESSON PLAN

Unit Objectives: Classification of Matterß Identify the characteristics of matter and substancesß Define and list several common physical properties of substancesß Differentiate between physical and chemical changes in matterß Apply the law of conservation of massß Explain the difference between an element and a compoundß Classify a sample of matter as a substance or a mixtureß Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous samples of matterß Determine appropriate methods for separating mixtures

Day 1Objectives:ß Students will become familiar with the physical properties of elements,

compounds, and mixtures.ß Students will become familiar with separation techniques.

Anticipatory Set:Show students a mixture of iron, salt, sand, and poppy seeds and have thembrainstorm methods for separating the four components. (5 minutes)

Lesson:1. Students will take notes on physical and chemical properties,

classification of matter, and separation techniques. (20 minutes)a. Demonstrations of various properties (iron is magnetic)

2. Students will fill in a flow chart of classification of matter. (5 minutes)3. Students will begin worksheets on properties of matter concepts and will

answer questions from the text. (15 minutes)4. Students will be given a lab procedure to follow regarding the separation

of the mixture they began class discussing – salt, sand, seeds, and iron.Homework is to read this procedure and finish the worksheet questions.

Day 2Objectives:Students will gain experience in using physical separation techniques.

Lesson:1. Discuss worksheets and text questions from homework. (10 minutes)2. Review lab procedures, explain use of equipment, and make safety

recommendations. (5 minutes)3. Have students conduct the separation of the mixture according to the lab

procedure. (30 minutes)4. Students will complete the analysis questions on the lab sheet for

homework.

Assessment:ß Analysis questionsß Worksheet and textbook questionsß Unit exam with multiple choice and short answer questions


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100- MINUTE, INQUIRY-BASED LESSON PLAN

Global Unit Objectives: What's the Matter?ß Students will be engaged in the process of doing science, solving

problems, thinking critically, and conducting inquiry investigations.ß Students will discover recurring periodic properties across groups after

making careful observations.ß Students will discover that patterns exist in nature and will use the

patterns to make predictions.ß Students will communicate their understanding by preparing a list of

what work needs to be done before they can perform the experiment,presenting preliminary results to the class for evaluation, drawing a flowchart of the actual experimental procedure, and writing a formal labreport.

Prior learning experiences:Density determination, chromatography, hardness tests, visual observationskills, evaporation, distillation, crystallization, titration, conductivity andmagnetism.

Day 1: Classification and Separation of Matter Investigation Design

Content Specific Objectives:ß Design a step-by step procedure for separating a four component mixtureß Relate lab techniques to physical properties of components of mixturesß Identify the characteristics of matter and substancesß Define physical property and list several common physical properties of

substancesß Explain the difference between an element and a compoundß Classify a sample of matter as a substance or a mixtureß Distinguish between homogeneous and heterogeneous samples of matterß Determine appropriate methods for separating mixtures

Anticipatory Set:Present Sample Scenario: You were working in your mom's kitchen lastnight trying to make her a surprise batch of cookies. A mishap occurred andyou poured the wrong ingredients into the bowl. You could throw everythingaway and start all over, but your mom would be upset if she knew you wereso wasteful. Instead you decide to put your knowledge of matter to use to tryto separate out the ingredients in order to start all over. What informationwould you need to accurately separate the ingredients? Brainstorm.(5 minutes)

Lesson:1. Discuss brainstorm and ask probing questions if properties of substances,

materials and equipment available, and accuracy are not mentioned.2. (5 minutes)3. Give students the real problem: I have messed up in the prep room and

mixed salt, sand, poppy seed, and iron together and need to separatethem. (5 minutes)


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4. Present students with the dilemma - since the actual substances are inthe mixture, and we do not have them by themselves, then what can theydo to devise a separation procedure? Can one use other substances? If so,why? (Students already know about the periodic table of elements, but donot know about trends or families) Students might not know the answerand will need to experiment to determine if they can use othersubstances. Students work in lab groups. (5 minutes)

5. Provide students with materials they can use to discover a method ofseparation. For example, a variety of ionic compounds could be giventhat students would determine are soluble in water, samples of elementalmetals would be given that are insoluble and more dense than water, etc.Teacher does not classify or categorize any of these test substances. Onlythe chemical name and formula are given to students.

6. Students will conduct preliminary investigations that will aid indetermining how to do the actual separation. These are student-designedinvestigations. Data will be recorded, predictions made and justified.Teacher will circulate and ask probing questions as needed. (30 minutes)

7. Each group will display data on whiteboards and the class will do a walkthrough to compare results. Class discussion on procedures and data ofpreliminary investigations will follow. (10minutes)

8. Groups will then use all class data to design their own flow chart for theactual separation procedure. (10 minutes)

9. Students conduct investigation, recording procedure and data (30minutes)

Homework:ß Write a reflection paragraph on how you felt the separation procedure

worked. How could you determine if you were successful? Write adetailed paragraph on why you could use the preliminary data to predictthe behavior of the actual substances.

ß Read __pages in text and describe the properties you observed in moredetail. What classification do your substances fit into: metals, ionics,elements, compounds, mixtures, and why? What other properties dothese groups have that you did not observe? Make a list of questions youneed to ask to understand the nature of these properties. (Why do metalsconduct, Why are ionics soluble?)

Day 2: Evaluation and Communication of Investigation

Content Specific Objectives:ß Evaluate success of separating and recovering productß Utilize procedure for writing a lab report and designing rubricsß Apply the law of conservation of massß Derive and calculate percent error

Lesson:1. Discuss reflection paragraph. Students will share in small groups and

then each group will report to the class for a discussion of ideas.


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2. Discuss law of conversation of mass. Teacher asks questions to wholeclass as they refresh their memories on the Law based on experimentsfrom previous coursework.

3. Discuss quantitative measurements of accuracy. Give students actualquantities of each substance in the mixture and have them develop aformula for finding the percent accuracy and percent error. Students willwork in small groups and share with class.

4. Give groups of students sample lab reports and have them follow acritique procedure to evaluate the quality and clarity of the reports.Develop a rubric with the students that will be used for all lab reportswritten throughout the course.

5. Students individually type lab reports and get peer feedback.

Homework:Answer analysis questions from energy and matter section of class website.

Day 3: Chemical Properties and Patterns Exploration

Content Specific Objectives:ß Differentiate between physical and chemical changes in matter

Unit Analysis Questions:1. What are the physical and chemical patterns you have observed in this

unit?2. How would you physically separate these two new substances – sugar

and aluminum? Which preliminary data did you extrapolate from andwhy?

3. Predict and explain the behaviors of these two new substances in achemical reaction.

4. What category do the following substances fall into and why:a) Iron, lead, magnesium, sodium (elements)b) Sodium chloride, lithium fluoride (compounds)c) Sand, salt and seeds (mixtures)

5. What type of procedure can you use to separate each category ofsubstances? Explain.[4a nothing; 4b chemical only; 4c physical]

6. What are similarities and differences between elements, compounds, andmixtures?

7. What experiences do you have in the real world or other academic areasthat allow you to make predictions?

8. Create a table that shows how properties of elements are related.

Assessmentsß Lab reports for content, scientific process, and communicationß Group evaluation for teamwork, work ethic, and communicationß Reflection paragraphs and analysis questions in science journalß Experimental design for a new mixture with justifications, which shows

application of knowledge and skills


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Coaching Habits of Mind:Pursuing Essential Questions in the ClassroomGrant Wiggins

Excerpted from Asking the Essential Questions: Curriculum DevelopmentBy Kathleen CushmanHorace, June 1989 (Vol. 5, No. 5).http://www.essentialschools.org/cs/resources/view/ces_res/137

This resource looks beyond planning an inquiry-based curriculum to thenecessary pedagogy for implementing one. Grant Wiggins (co-author of thebook, Understanding by Design) describes structures, roles, and strategies tocultivate students’ ability to instigate and sustain inquiry-based groupdiscussions.

“It's easy to see how a question-centered approach could radically change theway a teacher designs a particular course. Rather than moving from point Ato point Z, the teacher encourages students to learn key skills through whichcontent can be revealed. ‘Instead of merely covering material, studentsUNcover and REcover important ideas in context,’ says Grant Wiggins. ‘Noessential idea, fact, theory, or application can be learned by doing somethingONCE.’ Wiggins compares such learning to the ways in which ball playersor musicians master their skills--they learn new rules and strategies as theyneed them, not in ‘logical’ order; and they make such essential skills habitualby practicing them again and again.

“If the analogy is carried further, the teacher's role as coach becomes evenclearer--to make herself gradually obsolete as students learn to solveproblems for themselves” (Cushman, 1989).

So, how does this look in a classroom? Grant Wiggins gives a briefoverview:

Coaching Habits of Mind:Pursuing Essential Questions in the Classroom

What is essential must be experienced as essential. Essential facts andtheories are only understood as the results of one's own work; they are notself-evident notions learned through words as "knowledge," but the residueof effective performances--Habits of Mind.

When they are coaching students to engage in collaborative inquiry, teachersneed to insure that essential habits and norms are taught and learned. Thefollowing structures, roles, and strategies can be used to improve the qualityof group discussion, so that students may become increasingly self-regulatingand self-disciplined about their work.


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I have done this by dividing a class into segments: exploring, proposing,testing, linking, and closure.

EXPLORINGWe do this for the first five to ten minutes, in groups of three to fourstudents. (This assumes that prior work has been assigned and done, leadingto written student questions, or organized around questions posed by theteacher.)

SCOUTINGThis is to explore the "panorama" from afar, in groups--the whole terrain ofthe tentative issues and answers. This assumes that both the prior assignmentand its purpose are clear to students.

"Where are we going? What's the point?" To avoid these questions, pose orhave students pose "essential questions" that guide inquiry and discussion. (A"seminar" assumes that the learning is to come from the members' prior workand ideas.) Help students collaborate by giving a clear set of directions andgoals for using assignments; warn them in advance how the homework willbe used in class. In class, have students share and clarify their two or threewritten questions from the night before, in small groups. Ask each group totry to answer their questions, and bring one key question to the whole class.All these key questions are put on the board.

ENTRY POINTSPropose and consider some first "paths." Use the students' questions aboutthe reading or exercises, putting each small group's question on the board.Add a "scouting" summary.

PRELIMINARY "MAPPING."What are the landmarks? What is our tentative consensus on the key points,passages, and trouble spots?

HYPOTHESIS PROPOSING AND TESTING

What does the author or experiment mean? This part of the process takes tento fifteen minutes, as a whole class or in two large groups.

PROPOSEBegin with the key issues derived from the first "mapping," and proposesome explanations or interpretations. This work is easily divided up into"focus" groups of four to six students who wish to work on a particular topic.They work for fifteen minutes and then report their findings, with a list ofrelevant passages, to the class as a whole.

GO TO THE TEXTUse the text, experiment results, or students’ products frequently andcarefully to test out the arguments presented by each group. Ask frequently,"What are your reasons? What is your evidence?"


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SUSPEND BELIEF OR DISBELIEF WHEN APPROPRIATEWhen one point of view is dominant, consider an alternative. What otherinterpretations or points of view might be possible? What is bringunquestioningly assumed or doubted?

REFINEReconsider initial views and hypotheses as warranted.

"BUT WHAT IF . . . ?"

Start the process again.

LINKING AND PERSPECTIVE "SO WHAT?

Spend ten minutes answering this question as a class.

LINKSConsider the implications of each theory or interpretation for other passagesin the text, other parts of the experiment or product, and so forth.

IF . . . THEN . . .Consider the implications of a view of the part for the "text" as a whole.

ESSENTIAL QUESTION LINKSConsider possible links between the current interpretations and the essentialquestions that guide the course as a whole.

COMPARE AND CONTRASTConsider the implications of this author's point of view with regard to otherauthors' views.

REALITY TESTConsider the author's or theorist's view in terms of its plausibility, itssupporting evidence, its practicality, today's base of knowledge, and so forth.

CLOSURE

For the last ten minutes of the class, summarize the main points of agreementand disagreement in the discussion.

This important skill is the most overlooked strategy in teaching, and shouldbe first modeled by the teacher, then assigned on a rotating basis to pairs ortrios of students. Stress that the summary should not be a chronological orramble ("We talked about this, then that, then this . . . ") but a highlighting ofessential points. For this reason, give each summarizer a chance to reflect,review notes, and the like before beginning.

Finally, consider what steps ought to be taken next. (With older students,allow two or three minutes for note taking.)


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Heterogeneous ClassesAn Introduction

Research shows that heterogeneous groupings benefit all students. However,they require a very different teaching strategy from a traditional class setting.Teachers we interviewed discussed the importance of creating multiple entrypoints for students to engage with the material and how long-term projectscan create more time for individual instruction.

Teachers had differing philosophies about student achievement. Some felttheir goal was to challenge each student to reach his personal potential whileothers aimed to support all students to accomplish the same curricularchallenges. The following reflections can provide a basis for your owndiscussions on the topic.

However you approach heterogeneous classes, teachers were clear that skills,such as cultivating the necessary trust for group work and facilitating studentlearning on an individual basis, require long-term professional development.

Heterogeneous classes are much more common in small schools than intraditional or large schools. For many teachers, having heterogeneous classeswas the impetus for changing their classroom practice.

Humanities teachers may have more experience finding common themes andmultiple entry points for students to engage with material. Even if studentsrepresent a range of reading and writing abilities, they can all debateinterracial relationship in light of Othello, for example. Math teachers mayhave a more difficult time. As on teacher explained, “It can be difficult to de-track math because you can’t have a conversation when some studentsunderstand the concept and others don’t.”

At Parker Charter Essential School, math classes are heterogeneous untileleventh grade when they start to differentiate. However, even at that point,not all students take upper level math classes (statistics, trigonometry, andcalculus) in the same order, so there is some heterogeneous grouping.

In all classes, students work on the same problem at the same time, but atdifferent levels. To an observer, all the students would appear to be doing thesame math activity, but they are not. Diane Kruse explains, “Everyone leaveswith same basic information, but as a math teacher, I had to get accustomedto the idea that not all students will learn it to the same extent.”

How far a student takes a problem depends on how the teacher facilitates herlearning, and this depends on how much the student is struggling with thematerial. For example, Kruse’s students are learning to build geodesicdomes. They have a formula, which some students simply know how toapply and which others truly understand. Kruse can push the more advanced


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students to manipulate the problem in multiple ways (rather than the basicone) and demand a greater level of sophistication from the problem data.

“I try to create an optimal challenge range for each student, where she isengaged but not frustrated and lost,” says Kruse. “The school culture is thatstudents want to tackle the hard thing. Sometimes I have to pull them backand say try this easier step first, then go for the harder one. I look at how kidsare working and determine if the task is easy or if they are practicallysweating! The classes are small enough that I really can see where each kidis, and I triangulate with other teachers.” Students also have a lot ofdiscretion about deciding their appropriate challenge level.

One way teachers at Parker Charter help students is to cycle through materialover many grades, so students see the same math concepts over and overthroughout the years and have multiple chances to learn them. “It’s also asmall enough institution that I can go to a student’s teacher from last yearand get the story on how the students performed with the previouscurriculum.” Kruse admits that while she believes in teaching an integrated,heterogeneous class, “I do have some anxiety about whether I’m adequatelypreparing students who know they want to make a career out of math orattend an institution like MIT.”

The approach to heterogeneous grouping at Boston’s Academy of thePacific Rim is to help all students accomplish the same challengingcoursework. The emphasis is therefore on providing extra support to studentswho struggle, in the form of weekly tutoring sessions built into students’schedules. For higher achieving students, teachers offer bonus questions andchallenges. Teachers say that classes offer a rigorous, college-prepcurriculum that might translate to an honors class at a more traditionalschool. This way, they push everyone to higher levels of achievement.

A math teacher at MATCH in Boston also described her students as having,“real gaps” in their understanding. “They may be proficient at one conceptbut are completely missing another, so I have to figure out how to keepmoving forward with concepts, while shoring up basic skills along the way.”The class spends one day per week working on those basic math skills, whichis a helpful review for some students and new material for others.

Classes at High Tech High in San Diego use project-based learning to reachstudents in heterogeneous classes. Ben Daly recalled that his first yearteaching science at the school consisted mostly of class lectures, stealingfrom his old curriculum, and a few labs. But in the heterogeneous class, Dalyfound that some students were lost while others were bored. Engagingstudents in project-based learning provided a big “ah-ha!” While studentsworked on a long-term project, such as building robots for competition, Dalywas free to give individual students attention. He could help a strugglingstudent learn fractions and challenge a high-achiever with college-levelproblems.

Another teacher designed a project that entailed inventing a product, whichrequired electricity, and pitching the concept to Venture Capitalists. The


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project integrated several courses. It was completed for a Humanities class,but coincided with the science teacher’s unit on electricity; the Social Studiesteacher helped students with their business plans. (For more informationabout integrated curriculum at High Tech High, see the IntegratingCurriculum section of this collection.)

In heterogeneous classes, teachers can recognize the neediest kids. WhenCambridge Rindge & Latin High School, outside Boston, createdheterogeneous classes teachers noticed a huge shift from how they used totalk about the kids who couldn’t read in the abstract. During their planningyear people repeatedly asked, “what are we going to do about literacy?” But,at the end of the first implementation year, people were saying, “Oh mygoodness! Now I know who the kids are who are not reading at grade leveland they are all minority and what is going on here? Now we know it so nowwe have to name it and do something about it.”

Having various skill levels in the classroom also encourages students to helpeach other. Teachers are more deliberate when creating student work groups,based on academic strength and personality. Bill Klann of Vanguard HighSchool in New York says that teachers “must make group work part of theclassroom culture. Establishing trust among students will pay off later interms of them knowing they’re there to help each other.” Heterogeneousgroupings give students with stronger skills an opportunity to be leaders,sometimes acting as peer mentors or tutors. Of course, the actual process ofdeveloping the trust among students is long and complex.




High Tech Highhttp://www.hightechhigh.org

Cambridge Rindge & Latinhttp://www.cps.ci.cambridge.ma.us/crls



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DefinitionsA Lexicon of Learning: What Educators Mean When They Say…http://www.ascd.org/cms/index.cfm?TheViewID=1112

Heterogeneous classes and the topic of tracking can be hot-button issues. Inorder to have productive conversations, and use the other resources in thissection, a definition of terms is critical. These come from the Association forSupervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) website’s Lexicon ofLearning.

Ability GroupingAssigning students to classes based on their past achievement or presumedability to learn (also known as homogeneous grouping). Grouping studentsaccording to their actual progress in a particular school subject is differentfrom grouping them according to assumptions about their ability to learn thesubject—although the results may be quite similar. And grouping them bysubject is different from tracking, which strictly speaking refers to placingthem in the same groups for all their classes based on their general ability tolearn. Students may also be grouped within classes, but intraclass groupingpermits more flexibility so is less controversial.

Whether students should or should not be grouped by ability is a persistentissue in education. Advocates say it is unrealistic to expect teachers toprovide for the great range of differences in student backgrounds andabilities, and that a certain amount of grouping is better for students. Criticscontend, citing research, that when students are grouped by ability, those inlower tracks are usually taught poorly and don't get exposed to "high-status"knowledge.

Heterogeneous GroupingIntentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the sameclassroom (the opposite of homogeneous grouping). The success of thismethod, also called mixed-ability grouping, depends on the teacher's skill indifferentiating instruction so that all students feel challenged and successful.Advocates say heterogeneous grouping prevents lower-track classes frombecoming dumping grounds and ensures that all students have access to high-status content. Opponents say it is difficult for teachers to manage, hampersthe brightest children from moving at an accelerated pace, and contributes towatering down the curriculum.

Homogeneous GroupingAssigning students to separate classes according to their apparent abilities.Placing students in groups for all their classes based supposedly on theirgeneral learning ability has been called tracking. For example, college-boundstudents might have all of their classes together while vocational students andspecial education students would attend other classes. In its most extremeform, tracking has been declared illegal by the U.S. Supreme Court and isconsidered a violation of students' civil rights. Alternatively, students may be


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grouped according to their achievement in particular subjects. For example, astudent might be in an above-average science course but an average Englishcourse. Strictly speaking, this form of ability grouping is not tracking,although the results may be similar, so opponents sometimes call it trackinganyway.

Proponents of ability grouping believe it allows students to excel within theirlevels. Less capable students are not intimidated by their more capable peers,and gifted students are not bored by the slower pace considered necessary forregular students. Critics say tracking is undemocratic, allows unequal accessto higher-level content, and creates low self-esteem. Opponents also say thatstudents who learn more slowly become subject to lower expectations fromteachers.

TrackingThe practice of dividing students for instruction according to their perceivedabilities. Students are placed on a particular track (college-bound, general,vocational, and remedial) and given a curriculum that varies according totheir perceived abilities and future positions in life. At the elementary level,the practice is called grouping. Advocates argue that it makes instructionmore efficient and provides students with instruction adapted to their abilitiesand previous knowledge. Critics argue that it deprives students of equalopportunity, unfairly and inaccurately labels some students, and perpetuatesracial, ethnic, language, and social inequalities.

“Sometimes the terms ‘ability grouping’ and ‘tracking’ are usedinterchangeably. However, researcher Adam Gamoran differentiatesbetween the two. He defines tracking as ‘…broad, programmaticdivisions that separate students for all academic subjects.’ Abilitygrouping, he says, refers to ‘divisions among students for particularsubjects, such as special class assignments for math or within-classgroups for reading.’ Looking at the differences between the two,Lockwood and Cleveland comment that, ‘In theory, ability grouping is amore transitory or variable condition, varying by content area and subjectto modification over the course of an academic year or, at a minimum,from year to year.’

“A fifth term has entered the debate is ‘de-tracking,’ sometimes called‘un-tracking’. While it is not a proper word at all, it is a useful one andeveryone seems to understand it as meaning, ‘the breakdown ofhomogeneous groups into heterogeneous groups.’”

- Pamela Wise, Chuck Estin, and Jeff PettySmall Schools Coaches Collaborative


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Implementing Heterogeneous ClassesPamela Wise, Chuck Estin, and Jeff PettySmall Schools Coaches Collaborative

Three members of the Small Schools Coaches Collaborative compiled thefollowing four resources related to creating heterogeneous classes andeliminating what is often referred to as a system of “tracking.” The resourcesinclude: a Tracking Self-Assessment tool to help schools look at their ownpractices and identify aspects of tracking; pedagogical principles ofheterogeneity; answers to commonly articulated concerns regarding collegeadmissions; and some additional reading on the subject.

Tracking Self-Assessment

This is not a Yes/No diagnostic tool but a series of prompts for discussionand hopefully an invitation to ask more questions about why certain systemsare in place. The questions can help schools look at practices they may nothave considered before and identify aspects of tracking.

In a conversion context from a large school to multiple small schools, theword ‘school’ could be substituted for the word ‘class’ in some of thesequestions to identify tracking patterns in student assignment to small schools.

1. Do most classes have a racial and ethnic mix similar to the school asa whole? For instance, if the school is two-thirds black and one-thirdwhite, are most of the classes the same or are some 90 percent blackand others 90 percent white?

2. Do most classes have roughly equal numbers of boys and girls?

3. Do there seem to be classes where most students’ parents areprofessionals and others where most students come from poor orworking-class families?

4. When you attend school programs or extracurricular activities, do theparticipating students reflect the racial, ethnic, and class mix foundin the school as a whole?

5. Are the same students in most of their classes together throughouttheir school career?

6. Are the same students in most of their classes together throughouttheir school day?

7. In places like the cafeteria, do students tend to congregate in likeracial and ethnic groups? (Students in de-tracked schools witheffective pedagogy sometimes note that regular collaboration with


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diverse colleagues in classes breaks down social barriers in settingslike the lunchroom.)

8. If there is ability grouping, do the students move from group togroup over time?

9. Do some classes/students have a lot of homework, whereas othershave little?

10. Do some classes/students typically read and answer questions onparagraphs instead of whole stories and books?

11. Do some classes encourage in-depth higher thinking skills, whileothers focus only on basic skills?

12. Do some classes engage students in discussions and thoughtfulwriting assignments while others do mostly multiple-choicequestions?

13. Are there “gateway” courses that, if not completed by a certain pointin a student’s career, preclude access to other critical courses later?(For example, what are the effects in your school of not completingalgebra in the ninth grade?)

14. Is there an appropriate balance of higher order learning with basicskills for all students?

15. If there are courses such as AP or honors, are they open to allstudents?

16. Are there ways that student progress is frequently monitored andused to ensure high expectations of outcomes for all students?

17. Do teachers tend to have a different view of the ‘work ethic’ ofstudents in certain kinds of classes as opposed to other kinds?

Adapted from a list of questions entitled “Is Your Child Being Tracked?” inRethinking Schools: An Agenda for Change, edited by David Levine, RobertLowe, Bob Peterson, and Rita Tenorio (The New Press, 1995).


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Teaching and Learning Practices forHeterogeneous Learning EnvironmentsSmall Schools Coaches Collaborative

Members of the Small Schools Coaches Collaborative compiled this list ofpedagogical principles and teaching strategies for heterogeneous groupings.While each item requires a more extensive explanation, and the pedagogiescall for extensive training, this resource can be used as an outline for staffconversations and professional development planning.

When students are de-tracked, there must be shifts in the way teachingoccurs, to meet the needs of diverse learners in the same classroom. Theword “track” indicates a lack of flexibility. De-tracking is all about bringingflexibility to the learning process. The focus must be on the students, ratherthan on the curriculum. The following principles should guide teaching andlearning:

1. FLEXIBILITY Curricula and grouping structures should be easilymodified according to changing student needs.

2. EQUITY De-tracking must change the two fundamentally distinctmessages that are currently taught to prepare students for theirrespective roles in society. Upper-track students are taughtindependence while lower-track students are taught compliance.

3. EMPOWERING and HONORING STUDENTS All students shouldbe in learning environments that make them feel influential,respected, and appreciated.

4. HIGHER ORDER THINKING In-depth learning and active inquiryas essential classroom components for all students.

5. STUDENT CHOICE Students should have input in shaping theirlearning environment to be meaningful to them.

6. BUILD ON STRENGTHS Rewards should be built in to enhancestudent strengths, rather than penalize their weaknesses.

7. FEEDBACK BASED There should be continual feedback to adjustlearning processes to maximize growth of each individual student.

8. MAXIMIZE BENEFITS OF DIVERSITY Design interdependentheterogeneous grouping learning environments where students learnfrom one another’s diverse perspectives and talents.

9. STUDENT LEARNING ABOVE TEACHER CONVENIENCETeachers may have to plan better, collaborate more, and teach morediverse areas to facilitate more effective student learning.


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10. STUDENT CENTERED RESPONSIBILITY Provide ways forstudents to take more responsibility for their learning to motivate andenable students to learn more from one another. This frees teachersto work with individuals or small groups of students.

11. HETEROGENEOUS GROUPING Shifts the emphasis fromcurriculum to students and counteracts the tendency of tracking tolock students into homogeneous categories.

12. HIGH EXPECTATIONS Each student should be supported toachieve at her/his highest level.

13. MULTICULTURAL AWARENESS To better design the learningenvironment to honor and benefit from cultural differences.

Pedagogical principles of heterogeneous grouping include the following:

1. PROJECT-BASED LEARNING With appropriate guidance to keepeach student optimally challenged, whether working individually orin groups.

2. LITERATURE CIRCLES Methodologies that help students takeresponsibility for engaging in group literature discussions.

3. WRITER’S WORKSHOP Engaging students in writing thatindividually challenges them.

4. CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING Many educators believe thatstudents come to understand abstract concepts best throughexploration, reasoning, and discussion.

5. COOPERATIVE LEARNING GROUPS A teaching strategycombining teamwork with individual and group accountability,which allows students to acquire both knowledge and social skills.

6. DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION Providing differentapproaches to learning within the same classroom, according todiverse student needs.

7. MULTI-INTELLIGENCE APPROACHES Teachers who use amultiple-intelligences approach strive to present subject matter inways that allow students to use several intelligences.

8. MULTI-AGE CLASSES Another form of diverse grouping thatdrives the learning to focus more on students and less on curriculum.

9. PERFORMANCE BASED ASSESSMENT When assessment isauthentic, it isn’t limited to one discriminating modality, such asstandardized testing, but evaluates different facets of understandingin diverse ways.


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Small Schools’ College Admissions Questions:Staying Competitive with Heterogeneous ClassesSmall Schools Coaches Collaborative

Admissions officers from Reed and Dartmouth Colleges answered thefollowing questions about how non-traditional classroom practices affectstudents’ chances of being admitted to these schools. This resource providesa helpful reality check and good information for teachers.

1. If a school offered only Honors classes, and no longer provided AP or IBclasses, how would this impact the competitiveness of their students in youradmissions process?

ß Hardly at all. Many schools do not offer AP or IB courses. We look forstudents taking challenging classes and doing well. However thishappens at the high school level is fine with us. As long as we can clearlysee which students are at the top of their classes and which classes aremore challenging, we'd be set and our process wouldn't hurt theapplicants applying from these small schools.

ß Our basic rule of thumb is that we like to see students take the mostrigorous classes available. Therefore, we cannot penalize a student whodoesn't have access to AP classes for not taking them. I think the keywould be to give colleges a very clear understanding of the workrequired by an honors class. If the level of preparation is the same as anAP or IB class, then the exact label loses importance. The one rider tothis, is that Reed will potentially grant credit for AP or IB exam resultsrather than completing the class, so you may want to consider teaching acurriculum that allows students to register for AP exams if they wish.

2. How competitive would an applicant be who came from a school thatgave only pass/no pass transcripts, but depended upon a narrative transcriptas a supplement to a traditional graded transcript? Going to non-gradedclasses is a change that some small schools are contemplating.

ß The less we know about who is truly excelling and who is simply doingwell, the more we would have to rely on standardized means (i.e. theSAT, ACT). Receiving a narrative based transcript would be similar toreceiving a bunch of teacher recommendations. Since that is already apart of the application process, having it in place of a traditionaltranscript would simply leave us with less information. That said, wetake a careful look at each application and examine it holistically. If wecould discern that a student is an exceptional student from the pass/nopass transcript and a narrative explanation on the transcript, that wouldbe fine. We receive applications from students who come from non-traditional schools and we certainly do admit such students. It just meanswe need as much information as possible given the lack of grades.

ß Again, grades at Reed College are merely a convenient and easy labelthat allow us to "eyeball" a transcript and get a sense of the student's


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success. We receive such transcripts from around the country, and Idon't think it would necessarily put the students at a disadvantage if thenarratives are comprehensive and we have a sense of the rigor of classes.Pacific Crest School here in Portland has narrative/portfolio types oftranscripts, and they may be worth checking to see how they approachthis. One thing you will probably find, however, is a greater reliance ontest scores, as we look to those to confirm a student's strengths andweaknesses. Although test scores do not determine admission, they arean easy and standard measure.

3. How would you perceive a student who did not have the traditional fouryears of study in the traditionally distributed subject areas of science(biology, physics and chemistry), but instead had greater depth in one or twoof those disciplines?

ß This would be ok, so long as we saw that the merits of the depth in a fewareas prepared the student for college as well as the cross section ofmany areas.

ß Again, I think if we know that this is the curriculum in place, it wouldnot be a problem. However, we would then expect a fairly high level ofproficiency in those concentrations.

4. How would you receive inquiries from schools who want to develop anongoing relationship between their advisors and your admissions office, as ameans for helping you to understand more about the quality and rigor oftheir educational programs? Again, honoring the time constraints that youmust have in managing your large number of applicants.

ß We take calls everyday from guidance counselors and maintainrelationships via email and letters as well. It is important for us tounderstand the school environment from which a student comes becausewe can not make an appropriate assessment of that student without it.Each application comes with a school profile and we read each and everyone. The reason why your email ended up in my inbox is because wehave the world divided into regions and Washington is part of my region.Part of my job responsibility is to understand the schools in my regionand the policies that govern the opportunities the students have.

ß I think this is very important. I think the International CommunitySchool in Kirkland is a good case where the counselor has been veryeffective in putting a new school on admission offices radar screens. Theschool has a brief but fairly comprehensive outline of the curriculum inits profile, and the counselor has actively promoted the school.

ß This contact could come in any number of ways, either through a centralperson such as yourself or from individual counselors at the high schools.Obviously the universities that will receive the bulk of the school collegeapplications will take priority, but, given that we are all too busy, smallermore rigorous colleges should not be forgotten.

In every case, with any school, once a student or two enrolls from a certainschool or system, that is when we can really begin to tell how effective theschool's preparation is.


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Readings on De-Tracking:

This list represents resources available from well-known commentators onboth sides of the issues. Though it is by no means comprehensive, anassiduous searcher who follows these paths will find most other existingresources.

Allan, Susan Demirsky (1991). Ability-Grouping Research Reviews: WhatDo They Say About Grouping and the Gifted?http://www.donet.com/~eprice/sdallan.htm

Burnett, Gary (1995). Alternatives to Ability Grouping: Still UnansweredQuestions. http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed390947.html

Grosssen, Bonnie (1996). How Should We Group to Achieve Excellence withEquity? http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adiep/grp.htm

Holloway, John H (2001). “Research Link / Grouping Students for IncreasedAchievement” from Educational Leadership.http://www.ascd.org/publications/ed_lead/200111/holloway.html

Kohn, Alfie (1998). Only For My Kid: How Privileged Parents UndermineSchool Reform. http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/ofmk.htm

Loveless, Tom (1998). The Tracking and Ability Grouping Debate.http://www.edexcellence.net/library/track.html

O’Neil, John (1992). On Tracking and Individual Differences: AConversation with Jeannie Oakes.http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/edlead/9210/oneil.html

Singer, Jessie (2002). “Getting Students Off The Track” from RethinkingSchools. http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/17_01/Gett171.shtml


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Differentiated InstructionThe Learning Network, February 2003 (Issue 6, Vol. 1)

http://www.smallschoolsproject.org/articles/ssp_news.html

This article profiles one high school’s introduction to differentiatedinstruction and some teachers’ first steps at changing their classroompractice. An in-depth definition of differentiated instruction follows.

Additional tools that are mentioned in the article, such as backwardsplanning, Critical Friends Groups and the Tuning Protocol, are addressedelsewhere in this section.

Clover Park Teachers Look at Differentiated InstructionTo Help All Students Reach High Standards

Teachers at Clover Park High School have begun to implement classroom-level changes that focus on helping all students reach high standards. Thestrategy they are learning about and trying out in their own classrooms iscalled differentiated instruction and it involves providing students withmultiple options for taking in information, making sense of ideas, andexpressing what they learn. For the teachers at Clover Park, it also meansrecognizing that students come from varied backgrounds, skills, andknowledge and that they need varied opportunities to acquire mastery ofskills and topics.

Carol Ann Tomlinson writes in the September 2000 Educational Leadershipmagazine that differentiated instruction “is a way of thinking about teachingand learning. It is a philosophy…based on a set of beliefs” such as “studentswho are the same age differ in their readiness to learn, their interests, theirstyles of learning, their experiences, and their life circumstances.”

According to Carol Ann, teachers can differentiate three aspects of theircurriculum:

1. Content—the skills, concepts, and principles,2. Process—the activities that help students understand the ideas and

skills that are being taught, and3. Products—the culminating projects where students demonstrate what

they have learned. (ASCD Winter 2000 Curriculum Update)

Dr. Stephanie Bravmann, a school coach and former education professor atSeattle University who has taught teachers about differentiated instruction,adds a fourth aspect – environment – which she says refers to the classroomor other learning sites and includes providing students with multiple settings,such as texts, learning centers, learning contracts, and group investigationwith peers having similar abilities.


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The impetus for Clover Park teachers to begin learning about differentiatedinstruction came this fall, when the school implemented 9th and 10th gradehouses. One of the consequences was that they didn’t have enough faculty ineach house to teach both regular English and pre-AP English. They decidedto blend the classes so that each English class would include regular, pre-AP,and inclusion students who didn’t need self-contained classrooms.

After the first couple of weeks, students and teachers in these blended classeswere concerned that the classes weren’t working as intended and PrincipalPaul Tytler realized that teachers and administrators alike needed a sharedunderstanding of differentiation and an ongoing investment in professionaldevelopment and the accompanying support mechanisms.

Clover Park’s Instructional Facilitators Katie Taylor and Judi Orr, whoconsider themselves “guides” in the English faculty’s exploration, developeda series of professional development sessions on differentiated instruction fortheir colleagues. During the first half-day session, Katie and Judi introducedthe concept of differentiation, discussed the connection betweenpersonalization and differentiation and looked at examples of differentiationtaken from Tomlinson’s books.

During one activity, staff members looked at the different student learningprofiles that were used at the fall high school meeting hosted by the GatesFoundation. “We learned that as a group, we all liked school, were eager tolearn, and behaved as such. But, many of our students have different attitudesthan we did about school,” says English teacher Casey Curtis. “It forced meto think about how my students are different from me and to ask myself whatengages them? And, how can I engage them and meet their learning needsthrough my lessons?”

During the second half-day professional development session led by Katieand Judi, teachers brought lessons they had developed to share with theircolleagues using a tuning protocol. The group discussed how the lessonswere differentiated and ways in which greater differentiation could beprovided. Katie and Judi facilitated the discussions and used prompts such as“What have you done with struggling learners that has been successful?”

During the second session, the group also discussed how assessment could bea useful tool. “Assessment holds students to the same high standard, but withdifferentiation, how you get there can be different,” explains Katie. Forexample, if a teacher wants to assess her students’ understanding of grammarand punctuation, some students may be able to demonstrate what they knowin a paragraph, while others may need several paragraphs. The importantthing is not the length of their assignment, but that each student demonstrateswhat she knows about grammar and punctuation.

The third and final professional development session [was] an all-day sessionin mid-February, [focusing] on the differences between tracking anddifferentiation. “Differentiated instruction is not a form of tracking,” saysTomlinson. “It is intended to be the exact opposite. Teachers must give everychild access to the curriculum and ensure that every child makes progress.”


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The Clover Park teachers [also spent] the third day embedding differentiationinto lesson and unit planning so that it [was] not perceived as an “add on,”but an integral part of designing curriculum, assessment and instruction.

Although the efforts to differentiate instruction at Clover Park are justbeginning, Katie says the response from teachers and students has beenpositive.

“Teachers now understand that it’s not about creating more work, but insteadlooking at students’ different abilities and figuring out how to get everyoneto the same high standard. The students like having choices and being able todemonstrate in different ways what they know.”

English teacher Casey Curtis says her efforts to differentiate in her classroomhave had a couple of unanticipated outcomes. “I realized that creating off-the-cuff lessons wouldn’t work for every student. Differentiation pushes meto plan backwards and be very clear about what I want my students to knowand then figure out how to get them there and how they will demonstrate it.”Casey, who participates in a Critical Friends Group (CFG), says her efforts todifferentiate have also benefited from the support and feedback she receivesfrom her CFG colleagues.

Readings on Differentiated Instruction

ß Differentiating Instruction: Finding Manageable Ways to MeetIndividual Needs, by Scott Willis and Larry Mann, ASCDCurriculum Update, Winter 2000.

ß How to Differentiate Instruction, Educational Leadership,September 2000.

ß How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, byCarol Ann Tomlinson, ASCD, 1995. http://www.ascd.org

ß Targeting Learning with Differentiated Instruction, NW Teacher,Northwest Regional Education Laboratory, Spring 2002http://www.nwrel.org/msec/images/nwteacher/spring2000/spring2002.pdf


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What it is What it is NOTDifferentiated Instruction is proactive.The teacher assumes that different learners have differentneeds and plans for this ahead of time.

Differentiated instruction is NOT the “individualizedinstruction” of the 1970s.We cannot do something different for each of our 30+ studentsin each classroom – it is too exhausting! It does not assume aseparate level for each learner.

Differentiated instruction is more qualitative thanquantitative.Simply adjusting the quantity of an assignment will generallybe less effective than adjusting the nature of the assignment tomatch student needs.

Differentiated instruction is NOT chaotic. It isn’t a freefor all of students doing whatever they want. Instead, teachersmanage and monitor many activities simultaneously. Theclassroom includes purposeful student movement and talking,not a disorderly or undisciplined atmosphere.

Differentiated instruction is rooted in assessment.A teacher who understands the needs of students seesassessment as an opportunity to learn more about studentlearning and how to modify instruction to meet those needs.Assessment no longer happens at the end to see “who got it”but happens throughout the unit to inform the teacher aboutstudents’ developing readiness, comprehension andapplication.

Differentiated instruction is NOT just another way toprovide homogeneous grouping.It is not separating the class into thirds – advanced, middle andstruggling. It is not segregating by putting all the “bluebirds”in one group together all the time. It the use of flexiblegrouping, where students may be in many different groupsdepending on the task and objective. Sometimes groups areformed by a common link, but most often they are groups thatmix strengths and weaknesses of all students.

Differentiated instruction provides multipleapproaches to content, process and product.Teachers offer different approaches to what students learn,how they learn it and how they demonstrate what they’velearned.

Differentiated instruction is NOT “tailoring the samesuit of clothes.” It is often more than just asking a fewstudents to answer a more complex question in a discussion orto research and share more advanced information on a topic.While these are not “bad” strategies, they are often not enoughto really differentiate instruction.

Differentiated instruction is student centered.Classrooms operate on the premise that learning experiencesare most effective when they are engaging, relevant andinteresting, recognizing that students will not always find thesame avenues to learning equally engaging, relevant orinteresting. Additionally, teachers in a student-centeredclassroom understand the need to help students takeincreasing responsibility for their own growth.

Differentiated instruction is NOT teaching to thelowest common denominator.Though the temptation is to slow down to not leave thestruggling learners behind, it does not serve the interest of ouradvanced learners or our struggling learners to do this.Differentiated instruction is offering powerful teaching andlearning opportunities for all students – not just for some.

Differentiated instruction is a blend of whole-class,group, and individual instruction.Method of instruction and organization of an activity ispredicated upon what the most effective and efficient way tolearn the information might be for students, and arranging theclass activities accordingly.

Differentiated instruction is NOT adding extra workto keep advanced students busy.Adding work is only adding to the workload – the way thischallenges an advanced learner is that is challenges their timemanagement skills. It may be assigning advanced learners amore complex task to begin with so that they will finish inabout the same time as the other students.

Differentiated instruction is organic.Students and teachers learn together. Teachers continuallymake adjustments to plans based on the dynamic in theclassroom.

Differentiated instruction is NOT a strategy that is“done.” Teachers see that differentiated instruction is not somethingthat is done when there is extra time or that has one applicationin one aspect of teaching – it is a philosophy about teachingand learning that permeates every aspect of the classroom.

Differentiated Instruction – What it is & What it is not

Prepared by Katie Taylor, Clover Park High School, and based on the article “Different Learners,Different Lessons” by Carol Ann Tomlinson, Scholastic Instructor, September 2002.


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Three questions to consider when differentiating curriculum andinstruction:

• What is the teacher differentiating?• How is he or she differentiating?• Why is he or she differentiating?

Differentiate What refers to the curricular element the teacher has modifiedin response to various learner needs (content, process, product or learningenvironment).

Differentiate How refers to the student trait to which the differentiationresponds (readiness, interest, or learning profile).

Differentiate Why addresses the teacher’s reason for modifying the learningexperiences (access to learning, motivation to learn, and efficiency oflearning).

TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM DIFFERENTIATEDCLASSROOM

Student differences are masked oracted upon when problematic

Student differences are studied asbasis for planning

Assessment is most common at theend of learning to see “who got it”

Assessment is ongoing and diagnostic

A relatively narrow sense ofintelligence prevails

Focus on multiple forms ofintelligence is evident

A single definition of excellenceexists

Excellence is defined by individualgrowth from a starting point

Student interest is infrequentlytapped

Students are guided in makinginterest-based choices

Whole-class instruction dominates Many instructional arrangements areused

Coverage of texts and curriculumdrives instruction

Student readiness, interest, andlearning profile shape instruction

“In differentiated classrooms, teachers ensure that a student competesagainst himself as he grows and develops, more than he competes againstother student.”

- Carol Ann Tomlinson


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Inclusive Classroom: Meeting the Needs of Gifted Students:Differentiating Mathematics and Science InstructionExcerpts from an article by Jennifer StepanekNorthwest Regional Educational Laboratory, December 1999http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/

The following is an excerpt from a 50-page booklet that offers teachers avariety of strategies and resources for providing different levels of contentand activities that will challenge all students, including gifted learners.

“While many of the ideas come from the body of literature and research ongifted education, the strategies are appropriate and effective for a wide rangeof students. [Also important]… is the need to re-examine the criteria andprocesses used to designate some students as gifted, and thus by implicationall other students as not gifted. Clearly, relying on a narrow definition suchas those who score in the top 10 percent on a standardized achievement testcan exclude students with special talents who may have difficulty in takingtests.” (p. 1)

Strategies for Teaching Gifted Students in theInclusive Classroom

In a review of research on gifted students in the regularclassroom, Johnsen and Ryser (1996) describe five overallareas for differentiation: modifying content, allowing forstudent preferences, altering the pace of instruction,

creating a flexible classroom environment, and using specific instructionalstrategies. The bulk of the research concentrates on instructional strategiesthat have been linked to improved student achievement and have been shownto increase critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and creativity. Thefollowing have been established as effective strategies (Johnson & Ryser,1996):

ß Posing open-ended questions that require higher-level thinkingß Modeling thinking strategies, such as decision-making and evaluationß Accepting ideas and suggestions from students and expanding on themß Facilitating original and independent problems and solutionsß Helping students identify rules, principles, and relationshipsß Taking time to explain the nature of errors

Differentiated Instruction is an approach to teaching that iscomprehensive and guides teachers in all aspects of their practice. It doesnot mean grading gifted students harder than other students or assigningextra work to keep students busy (Tomlinson, 1995). It is a continuousprocess of learning about students’ needs and interests and using thatknowledge to guide instruction. Teachers use their knowledge of studentsto determine how content is presented, what activities are appropriate, andhow to guide students in demonstrating what they have learned(Tomlinson, 1999).


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The Learning Environment

The process of differentiating instruction is most effective in a flexible andsupportive learning environment, which encompasses both the physicalsetting of the classroom and its climate. The teacher sustains a relaxed yetchallenging environment by encouraging responsibility and autonomy,supporting students’ different needs, and emphasizing students’ strengths. Inaddition, sharing responsibility for the classroom climate with students helpsto ensure that it is productive and comfortable for everyone.

Classroom Organization and ManagementThe classroom itself must be organized for flexibility and openness. Therewill be space for students to engage in a variety of activities, bothindependently and in small groups. Students are free to move as they need to,as long as they remain on task. They are able to leave the classroom in orderto go to the library, for example, or to a resource room or computer lab(Feldhusen, 1993).

When students work on different content, use different learning strategies,and create different products, the teacher takes on an altered role in theclassroom. Presenting the curriculum to students is no longer the teacher’sprimary focus. Instead, she concentrates on creating and selecting learningopportunities for students, guiding them, and working with them to assesstheir progress.

Giving students choices and allowing them to schedule their activitiesencourages independence and keeps students engaged (Feldhusen, 1993). Itis recommended that students be allowed to choose what they want to workon at least part of the time. Students are still accountable for completingspecific activities or demonstrating what they have learned within a certainperiod of time, but they choose when or how they will work.

The following strategies are helpful in organizing and managing theclassroom for differentiated instruction:

ß Using “anchor activities” that students can complete with littlesupervision—tasks such as writing journal entries or working on aportfolio—provides time for the teacher to work directly with otherstudents (Feldhusen, 1993; Tomlinson, 1999).

ß When students are working on different activities, it will be helpful to

“Acknowledging that students learn at different speeds and that theydiffer widely in their ability to think abstractly or understand complexideas is like acknowledging that students at any given age aren’t all thesame height: it is not a statement of worth but of reality.”

- Carol Ann TomlinsonHow to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms (1995)


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have instructions available for easy access. The teacher may want tocreate assignment cards rather than giving directions orally or writingmultiple sets of directions on an overhead (Tomlinson, 1999).

ß Teachers will also need to be sure that all students know how to get helpwhen they need it, either by asking another student, going back to thedirections, or working on another task until an appropriate moment forasking the teacher (Tomlinson, 1999). A student might serve as “Expertof the Day” when she has shown a deep understanding of the concept ortask.

ß Involving the students in creating classroom procedures and rules and inorganizing their time helps them to build important skills in decision-making, negotiating, and planning. It also ensures that students feel athome and involved in the classroom (Feldhusen, 1993).

Social and Emotional ClimateA nonthreatening atmosphere is important for all students, including highability learners. Gifted students are often perfectionists, and they may placegreat significance on getting the right answers or completing tasks quickly.They are sometimes outsiders among their classmates because of theirunusual abilities, or they may be accustomed to having a higher status thanother students in the classroom.

The foundation of a good learning environment is a feeling of safety andacceptance. Teachers help to create this atmosphere by modeling respect andcare for all members of the classroom. Emphasizing every student’s strengthsis another important element of an effective atmosphere for learning. Allstudents need to feel and recognize the value of the abilities and experiencesof themselves and others.

Sometimes gifted students feel insecure when they are presented with open-ended inquiry or problem-solving activities. Students may insist that theyneed procedures spelled out for them so that they can follow directions and“do it the right way.” The teacher might remind students that mistakes are animportant part of learning. It is possible to communicate understanding forstudents’ feelings while also being firm about the requirements of the task.

Gifted students may also resist when they are asked to show their work orexplain their thinking processes. If they are accustomed to finishing tasksquickly, some students resist what they see as unnecessary work that slowsthem down. Explain to the students that it is just as important to show howthey got an answer as it is to be correct. Using a scoring guide withdescriptive criteria helps students understand how their work will beevaluated and articulates high standards.

Support for Gifted Minority StudentsAlthough there has recently been a significant increase in research aboutidentifying gifted students from cultural minority groups, there is not yetcomparable attention to the challenge of providing support for giftedminority students. All gifted students may experience isolation and pressure


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to hide their abilities, but minority students tend to feel the weight of theseforces to an even greater degree. Gifted minority students report feelings ofinferiority, as well as the need to constantly choose between using theirtalents and fitting in with their peers (Cropper, 1998).

Providing students with extra support is especially important in mathematicsand science. In these fields, cultural stereotypes have contributed to theunder-representation of minorities. Although there is not yet a substantialbody of published research, there are many suggestions and strategiesdeveloped by educators for meeting the needs of gifted minority students:

ß Communicate high expectations.

ß Be sensitive to the experiences and beliefs of people from differentcultural groups. Get to know all students and their cultures. Consider thechallenges that students may face in school.

ß Continuously and firmly encourage students to go to college. Discuss thenecessary coursework, tests, and other preparations with students andparents.

ß Create a multicultural learning environment and make sure thecurriculum reflects a variety of cultures.

ß Help students connect with role models and mentors. Organize peersupport groups for students with similar interests and abilities.

Indicators of Mathematical Giftednessß Unusual curiosity about numbers and mathematical informationß Ability to understand and apply ideas quicklyß High ability to see patterns and think abstractlyß Use of flexible and creative strategies and solutionsß Ability to transfer a mathematical concept to an unfamiliar situationß Use of analytical, deductive, and inductive reasoningß Persistence in solving difficult and complex problems

(Holton & Gaffney, 1994; Miller, 1990)

Indicators of Scientific Giftednessß Strong curiosity about objects and environmentsß High interest in investigating scientific phenomenaß Tendency to make observations and ask questionsß Ability to make connections between scientific concepts and

observed phenomenaß Unusual ability to generate creative and valid explanationsß Interest in collecting, sorting, and classifying objects

(Yager, 1989)

http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/ch2.html


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ß Reach out to parents and family members. Enlist their support inproviding encouragement and high expectations.

ß Provide students with a variety of learning options. Create or selectactivities that are engaging, active, and grounded in reality.

ß Listen to students’ concerns, fears, and beliefs about their experiencesand their education.(Cropper, 1998; Ford, 1996)

Support for Gifted GirlsGifted female students face many unique challenges and problems that tendto undermine their abilities and potential. Gifted girls do not achieve atexpected levels, especially in middle school and high school, and they oftendo not pursue careers appropriate to their abilities (Badolato, 1998).Researchers have identified a number of reasons for female students’underachievement: gender stereotypes pervasive in society, lack of rolemodels, declining confidence in their abilities, mixed messages andconflicting expectations from teachers and parents, and peer pressure to hidetheir abilities and intelligence (Smutny & Blocksom, 1990).

More specifically, teachers often have less tolerance for girls who call outanswers in class, ask numerous questions, and are confident in their opinionsand willing to argue—behaviors that are likely to be accepted as evidence ofgiftedness in boys (Kerr, 1994). Often girls are socialized in school and athome to be attractive, obedient, caring, agreeable, and submissive. As aresult, girls have a tendency to hide their intelligence and downplay theirabilities in order to conform to the socially accepted stereotypes of femininity(Ryan, 1999).

To counteract the forces that work against gifted girls’ achievement, teachersand parents must become aware of their biases about gender and appropriatebehavior for females. It is also important to strike a balance betweenencouraging girls to pursue nontraditional fields while not devaluingtraditional female strengths and interests. Some recommended practices inmeeting the needs of gifted girls include:

ß Communicate with parents about their daughter’s abilities and theimportance of mathematics and science for higher education and careers.Encourage them to identify and address sources of gender bias.

ß Organize peer support groups for girls. Mathematics and science clubsencourage girls to develop their skills and abilities and help connect themto other girls who share their interests.

ß Avoid praising girls for their neatness or behavior. Point out specificexamples of their excellent work and achievements. Actively correctthem if they attribute their accomplishments exclusively to luck or hardwork.

ß Provide opportunities for girls to use their leadership abilities.


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ß Expose students to women in nontraditional careers. Help them toidentify and connect with role models and mentors.

ß Openly discuss gender stereotypes and the mixed messages that societybroadcasts about femininity, intelligence, and achievement.

ß Provide a safe environment for girls to share their confusion and fears.

ß Actively recruit girls to participate in advanced courses andextracurricular activities related to mathematics, science, and technology.

ß Encourage students to research and report on female contributions tomathematics and science.(Davis & Rimm, 1994; Smutny, 1998)

Differentiating ContentMaking modifications to mathematics and content is one aspect of inproviding challenging learning opportunities. Gifted educators recommendthat science curriculum for high-ability students should move at a faster paceand feature less repetition. It should also allow students to delve intoimportant ideas and thought processes (Boyce et al., 1993). In mathematics,students should study advanced content in earlier grade levels (Johnson &Sher, 1997).

Organizing the curriculum around major themes and ideas is one of the firststeps in differentiating content. Using broad concepts helps to createopportunities for students to learn and apply integrated and complex ideas(Berger, 1991). Some key themes in mathematics include functions, patterns,scale, rates, and change (Johnson & Sher, 1997). Systems, models,reductionism, and evolution are among the major concepts in science (VanTassel-Baska, Bailey, Gallagher, & Fettig, 1993). The following publicationsmay be helpful in identifying other major themes and concepts inmathematics and science: Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science, 1993), Curriculum andEvaluation Standards for School Mathematics (NCTM, 1989), and NationalScience Education Standards (NRC, 1996).

It is important that mathematics and science content focus on more thancomputation, formulas, and vocabulary. All students benefit from acurriculum that does not focus exclusively on basic skills. A broader focusallows students who may not have strong computation or memorization skillsto demonstrate their abilities in abstract reasoning, creativity, and conceptualunderstanding. There are different methods for encouraging students to movebeyond the basic concepts of the mathematics and science curriculum.

One recommendation for differentiating content for gifted students isincreasing the level of abstractness and complexity (Maker & Nielson, 1996).For example, students might study a concept at the theory level: identifyingand testing mathematical or scientific laws or connecting seemingly disparateideas. Students might learn about or develop complex systems that havemany sections and processes.


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Adding variety to the content that students work with is another importantstrategy. Students are exposed to new materials, books, tools, and people,which helps to stimulate curiosity and creativity. Gifted students might workon projects in which they investigate the history of an idea or generateformulas or laws from their own observations (Tirosh, 1989). Adding topicsthat are not part of the regular curriculum can also be effective. For example,in mathematics, students might learn about transformational geometry,topology, number theory, and logic (Wilmot & Thornton, 1989).

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives can be helpful in designingcontent for gifted students (Bloom, 1956). Bloom’s six levels of knowledgeare knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, andevaluation. The final three levels are most appropriate for gifted students andmay help teachers to identify ways for students to work with content in moreadvanced and more challenging ways (Smutny & Blocksom, 1990). Analysisinvolves using content to classify, compare, contrast, investigate, and deduceinformation and ideas. Synthesis will require students to use ideas andknowledge to create original work, using it to invent, design, and plan—forexample, developing a theory or hypothesis. Evaluation requires students tointerpret, verify, criticize, defend, and judge ideas and information.

One of the simplest ways to present more challenging content is to provideadvanced materials for gifted students. Textbooks, tradebooks, and otherresources from higher grade levels or even written for adults will helpprovide more complexity and will often be more appropriate (Maker &Nielson, 1996). Teachers might want to provide library books on the subjectsthe class is working on or on related topics. Students might also use a list ofsuggested resources to find and select their own materials. It will also behelpful to provide mathematics or science texts from higher grade levels oreven from the college level.

Curriculum Compacting and Flexible PacingCurriculum compacting is a method of differentiating content for high abilitylearners developed by Renzulli and Reis (1998). There are three basic steps:pretesting students at the beginning of a unit, eliminating content or skillsthat students already know, and replacing the skipped content withalternative topics or projects.

In order to plan for curriculum compacting, the teacher analyzes anupcoming unit to determine the key concepts and skills. Next, she selects thebest way to identify students who have already met the learning objectives.The choice of pretest will depend on the type of knowledge or skills thatneed to be assessed. Some options include unit tests, essay questions, briefinterviews, and observations (Reis & Renzulli, 1992).

Students who demonstrate their proficiency on a pretest will collaborate withthe teacher to select alternative activities. Students may use the time to workon independent projects of their own design. Or the teacher might assign anenrichment activity that the class is not yet ready to pursue. The students whocomplete the activity may wish to act as advisors when the whole class isready to begin (Smutny et al., 1997).


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Sometimes there will be specific areas in which the student is still developingskills. In this case, the teacher might ask the student to rejoin the class atcertain points during the unit. Alternatively, the student might complete skill-building activities on her own. The student may also need to join the class fordiscussions and problem-solving or inquiry activities.

Curriculum compacting should be an option for all students in the classroom,not just those labeled “gifted” (Renzulli & Reis, 1998). Students who havestrengths in a particular content area or who have studied a topic that they areinterested in on their own time will benefit from having an opportunity topursue other activities.

Another strategy for changing the pace of the curriculum is called “MostDifficult First” (Winebrenner, 1992), and it is most appropriate formathematics. Students are allowed to work on the five most difficultproblems instead of completing the whole assignment. If the students aresuccessful, they are allowed free time or are asked to work on an alternativeactivity (Winebrenner, 1992). Again, this option is available to all students inthe class.

Flexible pacing means that students are allowed to work at the level mostappropriate to their abilities (Miller, 1990). There are several ways to providestudents with suitable options. Advanced students might join higher levelclasses in mathematics or science. A group of students might move throughmaterial at an accelerated pace. Or high-ability students might be allowed towork independently at their own pace (Daniel, 1989).

As they plan for flexible pacing, teachers will probably find it necessary toconsult with their colleagues who teach higher grade levels or advancedclasses. Their guidance will help to identify the advanced content and skillsthat students learn. They will also need to be aware of the students who havebeen working at an accelerated pace when those students join their classes inthe future (Conroy, 1993).

Key Components of Mathematics Curriculum for the Giftedß Content with greater depth and higher levels of complexityß A discovery approach that encourages students to explore conceptsß Focus on solving complex, open-ended problemsß Opportunities for interdisciplinary connections

(Johnson, 1993)

Key Components of Science Curriculum for the Giftedß Significant and deep contentß Emphasis on understanding concepts rather than memorizing factsß An inquiry approach with students as active investigatorsß Opportunities for interdisciplinary connectionsß Investigating real problems and situationsß Guiding students toward scientific habits of mind

(Van Tassel-Baska, 1994)

http://www.nwrel.org/msec/just_good/9/ch6.html#models


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Models for Differentiating ContentThe Enrichment Triad Model (Renzulli & Reis, 1986) is intended to guidethe development of enrichment activities, but it can also be used as a methodfor structuring a unit for the whole class. The model consists of threesequential levels of activities that are increasingly challenging and complex.Type One activities are exploratory and expose students to new topics. Theprimary purpose of these activities is to engage students and spark theirinterest. Some possible activities include demonstrations, guest speakers,field trips, and exploration through open-ended discovery tasks (Renzulli &Reis, 1986).

Type Two activities are designed to help students learn and develop theinformation and skills related to the subject of the unit. They will involvesuch concepts and skills as problem solving, critical thinking, interviewing,analyzing and organizing data, and communicating orally and in writing(Renzulli & Reis, 1986). These skills are often needed for the next level,Type Three activities, which are very challenging and require a high level ofcreativity and persistence. Students become firsthand inquirers andexperimenters, working as if they were professional scientists ormathematicians, and creating authentic products (Renzulli & Reis, 1986).

The Cognitive-Affective Interaction model was designed to help studentsdevelop the skills for divergent and creative thinking (Williams, 1986).Williams defines eight factors—four cognitive and four affective—neededfor divergent thinking. The four cognitive qualities are fluent thinking,flexible thinking, original thinking, and elaborative thinking. Risk-taking, complexity, curiosity, and imagination are the four affectivequalities (Williams, 1986).

Williams also suggests 18 teaching approaches that will encourage creativethinking and that can be used across the disciplines. The following are someof the strategies from the model:

ß Present students with paradoxes to analyze and testß Use analogies to introduce new concepts; ask students to create their

ownß Allow students to think about discrepancies in what is knownß Ask provocative questions and provide time for inquiryß Examine examples of change and the process of changeß Use examples of habit and the results of habit-bound thinkingß Encourage tolerance for ambiguity with open-ended problemsß Encourage students to use their intuition and follow their hunchesß Study creative people and their thinking processesß Evaluate situations by analyzing possible consequences and

implicationsß Help students practice creative reading, listening, and writing skills

(Williams, 1986)

The following chart shows how Content (D1) interacts with TeachingApproaches (D2) to yield Student Behaviors (D3).


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Williams, F. E. (1970). Classroom Ideas for Encouraging Thinking andFeeling. Buffalo, NY: DOK Publishers.


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The Heterogeneous ClassroomInteractive Mathematics Programhttp://www.mathimp.org

The Interactive Mathematics Program (IMP) has created a four-year programof problem-based mathematics that replaces the traditional Algebra I-Geometry-Algebra II/Trigonometry-Precalculus sequence. IMP units aregenerally structured around a complex central problem. The following articlediscusses why IMP believes in heterogeneous math classes and how theydesigned their curriculum to be used in them. The philosophy and principlesapply to any heterogeneous class.

What Is Meant by Heterogeneous?

It seems as if you cannot read an article or attend an in-service onmathematics education reform without hearing the terms heterogeneousclassroom and untracking. According to Webster's New CollegiateDictionary, heterogeneous means "consisting of dissimilar ingredients orconstituents: mixed." The movement in education is away from grouping ofstudents by perceived ability level--tracking--and toward a heterogeneouslearning environment, where students with different mathematical maturityand development levels are in the same classroom.

Instead of helping students, sorting and tracking them according to abilityinstitutionalize failure in mathematics. However, placing students inheterogeneous classes and groups and teaching the same old curriculum willnot solve the problem… The curriculum must be untracked just as the schoolstructure must be untracked. A multidimensional curriculum will beaccessible to more students and more interesting and more valuable to themost mathematically sophisticated.1

A heterogeneous classroom coupled with a curriculum written to engage allstudents creates the ideal.

Why IMP Believes in Heterogeneous Classes

Our educational system needs to broaden the range of students who learnmathematics. The heterogeneous classroom promotes access to genuinemathematics for a larger pool of students than does a system based on ability-level tracking.

The IMP curriculum is designed to be used with heterogeneous classes, andthus to make the learning of a core mathematics curriculum more accessible,especially to those groups, such as women and minorities, who traditionally

1 Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools (Sacramento, CA:California Department of Education, 1992), p. 62.


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have been underrepresented in college mathematics classes and math-relatedfields.

A curriculum built around complex, open-ended problems can be explored atmany levels of sophistication. The central problems in IMP units have arichness that will challenge the brightest student, yet their concretenessallows all students to do meaningful mathematical work.

How to Work with a Heterogeneous Class

Your Own ExpectationsFirst on the agenda for working with a heterogeneously grouped class is toconfront the expectations created in all of us by conventional conceptions ofintelligence--conceptions that have led to ability-level grouping. We need tobelieve that all our students are capable of learning mathematics and, as agroup, are rich in their differences.

Students' ExpectationsYou will probably have some students, previously identified as "gifted," whodon't want to be in a class with "normal" students. You will probably alsohave students who have never enjoyed or succeeded in math and now feelintimidated in a class that includes all the "smart kids." In order to work withboth groups, you need to convey the idea that a variety of backgrounds andlearning styles will prove to be a benefit, not a detriment, to the learningprocess. To take full advantage of the various learning styles andbackgrounds in your IMP classroom, foster as much communication amongstudents as possible. Provide a learning environment where students areencouraged to present their methods and ideas as well as to listenthoughtfully to the presentations of others. Provide a model, showing how toask thoughtful questions when trying to understand another's point of view.The heterogeneous classroom needs to provide an environment wherecooperation for the common good is highly valued. Help students build anappreciation of each other's differences and encourage them to learn fromother approaches and points of view.

Supplemental ProblemsWhen you work with students who have a wide variety of math backgrounds,there may be times when discrepancies in learning arise. The supplementalproblems in each unit can help you deal with these situations; they werecreated in response to requests from IMP teachers. These teachers asked forproblems, written with the IMP style and philosophy, that could be usedwhen students showed a need for more experience or more challenge whenthey approached a topic in the unit.

Using the supplemental problems often requires planning ahead. As you lookover the next week of a unit, ask yourself, "Which lessons are likely toinvolve wide discrepancies in student response?" and "How can I meet theneeds of different students?" The teacher guide will often give you guidance,since it indicates where in the unit each problem fits best.


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There are two types of supplemental problems.

Reinforcements: The reinforcement problems exist for those times when yourstudents struggle with a concept in the unit. Since they come to you fromvarious backgrounds, some of your students may need to investigate a topicfrom approaches besides those provided by the basic unit. You may even findthat, at some point in time, your whole class needs more work on a concept.The reinforcement problems provide such additional experience.

Extensions: There may be times when students understand a concept andwant more challenge. The extension problems are provided for those studentswho are ready to take concepts from the IMP curriculum farther than thebasic unit does. Extension problems give students greater depth ofunderstanding of topics in the current unit, rather than having them"accelerate" to material that appears later in the curriculum. In this way, theywill gain appropriate challenge and enrichment and yet each new unit will befresh for them.

Whenever you use supplemental problems, be cautious of tracking withinyour IMP classroom. Students should be in on the decision as to which typeof supplement, if any, they work on. You should avoid giving them a sensethat you are labeling them one way or the other. Let it be known that thosewho need reinforcement this time are not necessarily the same students thatwill need it next time and that all students can tackle the extension problems,not just those who the teacher feels are "capable."

Revision of WorkStudents in a heterogeneous class will not vary only in their mathematicsbackgrounds; they will also vary in their writing ability. One way to workwith these differences is to encourage revision of written work. This willbenefit students who find it difficult to express ideas. Also, if a student hasnot solved a particular problem or completed an assignment, this will allowthe student to show what he or she learned from the class discussion of theactivity.

It is possible for all students to meet high standards; some simply have towork harder to get there. Opportunities to revise their work provide suchstudents with a chance to learn from others and to improve upon their initialattempts.

Getting Students StartedFor a variety of reasons, including weak English-language skills, studentsmay sometimes have trouble getting started on an assignment. One key togetting all the students involved in a problem or activity is ensuring that eachstudent has access to the task at hand. To give students access, you may wantto have a student read the directions aloud and then have each group discussor rewrite the task in their own words. You may throw out an open questionabout how to get started. You may even let the students get to work on anactivity, then stop them after five minutes for group reports on where theyare headed. Your goal should be to ensure that all students at least starteverything you assign.


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The Honors OptionA heterogeneous mathematics classroom may include students who werepreviously labeled "Gifted" or "Honors" and placed in separate classes. As aresult, there may be parental or administrative pressure to provide anopportunity for students to have an "Honors" designation on their transcripts.

You can provide this option within your heterogeneously grouped class,offering it to every student in your IMP class, not just a select few. Forexample, you can have students elect to attempt some combination of theextension problems. You will need to set clear criteria for the quantity andquality of work needed for a student to receive the "Honors" designation atthe end of the grading period.

You can enhance your IMP classroom by having those who do extra workmake presentations to the whole class on their findings. Or you may prefer tokeep this activity separate, providing regular time outside of class forstudents who are working on the extension problems to meet and share ideas.

From Strategies for Meeting the Needs of Gifted StudentsBoulder Valley School District, COhttp://www.bvsd.k12.co.us/schools/heatherwood/specialprograms/tag/tagstrategies.html

Tiered AssignmentsIn a heterogeneous class, various levels of activities and assignments areplanned to meet a range of student needs for task complexity,abstractness, concreteness, and independence. All activities, regardless oflevel, should focus on the same key concept of the curriculum. Activitiesshould be designed to build on prior knowledge and prompt continuedgrowth. Differences in activities are more qualitative than quantitative.

Varying QuestionsIn discussions, assignments and tests, questions vary according tostudent's readiness, interests and learning style. Adjustments should bemade on complexity, abstractness, degree of mental leap, timeconstraints, and connections required between topics. All students shouldbe responsible for information and thinking at high levels.


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Guidebook for Cooperative LearningDee Dishon and Pat Wilson O’Leary (1998) 3rd Edition

Cooperative learning is a key component of heterogeneous groupings. Intheir book, Dishon and O’Leary outline Five Underlying Principles that makecooperative learning different from typical classroom groups. The chartbelow is a tool for teachers to begin thinking about their own beliefs aboutgroup work.

What is Cooperative Learning?

“Cooperative Learning is one of the best researched of all teaching strategies.The results show that students who have opportunities to workcollaboratively, learn faster and more efficiently, have greater retention, andfeel more positive about the learning experience.

“There are very specific methods to assure the success of group work, and itis essential that both teachers and students are aware of them. Cooperativelearning is a way for students to learn essential interpersonal life-skills and todevelop the ability to work collaboratively – a skill now greatly in demand inthe workplace. In a cooperative group, every student has a specific task,everyone must be involved in the learning or project, and no one can‘piggyback.’ The success of the group depends on the successful work ofevery individual” (http://www.newhorizons.org).

Belief/Behavior Inventory

This chart, adapted from the Belief/Behavior Inventory (page 19), helpsteachers examine their beliefs about group work. According to the authors, ifyou tend to agree with statements on one side of the chart (left or right), yourbeliefs are consistent with your behavior. If not, it may be causing you stresswhen engaging students in group work.

Five Principles Cooperative Groups Typical Class GroupsAll group members arecapable of understanding,learning and performingthe tasks required for agroup to complete a taskand like each other whenthe task is done.

One group member, chosenby the teacher or the group,is responsible for seeingthat the task is completedand everyone likes eachother when the job is done.Distributed

LeadershipNo leader is assigned orchosen. All groupmembers perform theleadership skills whenappropriate.

One leader is assigned orchosen. That leaderperforms all leadershipskills or assigns them togroup members.


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The most effective groupsare heterogeneous interms of socialbackground, skill levels,physical capabilities, andgender.

The most effective groupsare homogeneous in termsof social background, skilllevels, physical capabilities,and gender.

HeterogeneousGroups

Selection of groups ismade randomly or by theteacher to insureheterogeneity.

The teacher selects groupsbased on similarities ofgroup members.

All students are notwilling to work in groupsunless there is a built-inreason to do so.

Students will work togetherif desks are pushedtogether.

PositiveInterdependenceand IndividualAccountability

There are shared and/orjigsawed materials, oneproduct, common goals,and/or rotated roleswithin the group. Eachstudent signs a groupproduct, is prepared toreport for the group, and/or shows understandingof mastery of material.

Group members each haveown materials, make owndecisions, and /or createtheir own product. Studentsare assessed based only onthe product created.

The ability to workeffectively in a groupcomes from skills thatcan be taught and learned.

Students come to schoolknowing how to get alongand work in groups.

Social SkillsAcquisition Social skills are defined,

discussed, practiced,observed, and processed.

Groups are told tocooperate.

Students learn to solvetheir own problems byresolving them on theirown rather than beingrescued from them by theteacher.

Group members alwaysneed the teacher’s help tosolve problems.

GroupAutonomy

In problem situations, theteacher suggests andprompts at the request ofthe entire group.

The teacher directs andorders groups to solveproblems according to theteacher’s observations.


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Group Activity ChecklistExcerpted from NCREL Pathways to School Improvementwww.ncrel.org

This checklist will help you reflect on how well you form student workgroups and assign group tasks. You might also consider how these factors areaddressed in your own professional work groups and how that experienceinforms your classroom practice.

The following was posted to the NCREL Pathways Internet server under thesubject of strategies for helping students work in groups and was contributedby Gail Foster of BSCS (producers of Science for Life and Living:Integrating Science, Technology, and Health) in Colorado Springs, CO.

In a hands-on approach to teaching, some basic factors contribute to thesuccess of students working in groups. Review the checklist to assesswhether you attend to these factors.

Team Task

ß Do you evaluate a task to determine if it actually lends itself to a teamapproach? (If students can do the task just as well on their own, whyshould they work in a group?)

ß Do you provide enough structure and support for teams to complete thetask independently and successfully? (Is the structure and support in theform of clearly stated, written, and illustrated, or tape-recordedinstructions, rather than in the form of your constant intervention?)

Team Interdependence

ß Do you structure the task so that all members of a team must be involvedto successfully complete the task? (You can provide such structure bylimiting supplies so that teammates must share them, requiring oneproduct from each team, providing different information to each memberof the team, and requiring that all members share the information tocomplete the task.)

ß Do you require teammates to assume some level of responsibility for theunderstanding and performance of others on their team?

ß Do you allow for teams to assess their effectiveness at working togetheras a team?

Team Jobs

ß Do you select jobs that are appropriate for the age of the student?


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ß Do you select jobs that will promote team interdependence? (If youassign a team reporter rather than randomly calling on members of ateam, why should the other members of the team be attentive andinvolved?)

ß Do you clearly describe the responsibilities of each job and review thedescriptions as necessary?

ß Do you monitor whether students are effectively performing theirassigned jobs?

Team Memberships

ß Is the size of the team appropriate? (The larger the team, the less eachstudent can interact with the other students and the more it takes for eachstudent to contribute to the work of the team.)

ß Do you thoughtfully assign teams rather than allow students to selecttheir teammates?

ß Do you vary the composition of each team?

ß Do students remain in the same team long enough to developinterdependence and the ability to resolve conflicts, but not long enoughto become bored with one another?

What do you do if groups finish their work at different rates?

ß Plan in units, not class periods, so that work can be continuingß Provide “enrichment” activities, “one shot” and “on-going”ß Have students become “observers” for other groupsß Have students think of questions for the entire classß Have groups that are finished collaborate to check/compare their

work

What do you do to help students keep on task?

ß Make on-task behavior part of the group responsibilityß Have students debrief on-task behavior during their work time and at

the endß Make on-task behavior a collaborative skill focusß Hold students responsible for solving the problem

- Dr. Stephanie Bravmann


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Book suggestions are made throughout this section:

Lesson Study page 39Democratic Classrooms page 64De-Tracking page 90Differentiated Instruction page 93

These additional books on adapting classroom practice were recommendedby school practitioners. The reviews are drawn from book jackets, publishersand websites.

Teacher Stories of Curriculum ChangeBarbara Wallace and Jane Braunger, Editors(1998)Northwest Regional Educational LaboratoryCurriculum and Instruction Serviceshttp://www.nwrel.org/lld/teacherstories.pdf

K-12 teachers in the Northwest describe theirexperiences with curriculum change as professionalgrowth. These personal narratives explore connections

between teacher beliefs about learning and their classroom practice. Theyillustrate the benefits to teachers and students when teachers take a largerrole in curriculum decisions.

The Challenge to Care in Schools:An Alternative Approach to EducationNel Noddings (1992)Teachers College Presshttp://store.tcpress.com/

Noddings emphasizes that to care and be cared for arefundamental human needs absent in today's educationalsystem. She states that in the same environment inwhich children learn to respond to dependable caring they can achieveacademic goals and begin to develop the capacity to care.

In analyzing the educational needs of a diverse student population, Noddingschallenges readers to imagine being parents of a large heterogeneous family.In determining what would be best for each child's education she advocatestaking into account the unique interests and capabilities of each individual. Incontrast, liberal education draws on a narrow set of human capacities andthus should be rejected as a model of universal education, according toNoddings. She claims a more balanced curriculum would help all students todiscover their unique talents and develop respect for the talents of others.


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Negotiating the CurriculumGarth Boomer (Editor), Nancy Lester, CynthiaOnore, Jonathan Cook (Editor) (1992)Taylor & Francis Groupwww.taylorandfrancis.com

Negotiating the Curriculum can be used to involvestudents in classroom curriculum planning. Fourquestions are presented which will assist learners infocusing in on the problem, question, or issue of theintended study, whether determined by the teacher or bythe students and teacher together.

1. What do we know already? (Or where are we now and what don't weneed to learn or be taught?)

2. What do we want and need to find out? (Or what are our questions?What don't we know? What are our problems, curiosities, andchallenges?)

3. How will we go about finding out? (Where will we look? Whatexperiments and inquiries will we make? What will we need? Whatinformation and resources are available? Who will do what? Whatshould be the order of things?)

4. How will we know and show that we've found out when we'vefinished? (What are our findings about what we have learned?Whom will we show? For whom are we doing the work and wherenext?) (p. 21).

Uncommon Sense:Theoretical Practice in Language EducationJohn Mayher (1990)Boynton/Cookhttp://www.boyntoncook.com

In this book, Mayher traces his own evolution as ateacher/learner by recapturing the processes ofreflection and inquiry he went through whenconfronted by contradictions between the waycommonsense teaching and learning weresupposed to work and the actual experiences ofstudents in his classrooms.


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The Differentiated Classroom: Responding tothe Needs of All LearnersCarol Ann Tomlinson (1999)ASCDhttp://www.ascd.org

It's an age-old challenge: How can teachers dividetheir time, resources, and efforts to effectivelyinstruct students of diverse backgrounds andinterests, as well as skill and readiness levels? TheDifferentiated Classroom: Responding to the Needs

of All Learners offers a powerful, practical solution.

Drawing on nearly three decades of experience, author Carol Ann Tomlinsondescribes a way of thinking about teaching and learning that will change allaspects of how you approach students and your classroom. She looks to thelatest research on learning, education, and change for the theoretical basis ofdifferentiated instruction and why it's so important to today's children. Yetshe offers much more than theory, filling the pages with real-life examples ofteachers and students using-and benefitting from-differentiated instruction.

At the core of the book, three chapters describe actual lessons, units, andclassrooms with differentiated instruction in action. Tomlinson looks atelementary and secondary classrooms in nearly all subject areas to show howreal teachers turn the challenge of differentiation into a reality. Her insightfulanalysis of how, what, and why teachers differentiate lays the groundworkfor you to bring differentiation to your own classroom.

Tomlinson's commonsense, classroom-tested advice speaks to experiencedand novice teachers as well as educational leaders who want to fosterdifferentiation in their schools. Using a "think versus sink approach,"Tomlinson guides all readers through small changes, then larger ones, untildifferentiation becomes a way of life that enriches teachers and students.

Cooperative Work Groups:Preparing Students for the Real WorldScott Mandel (2003)Corwin Presshttp://www.corwinpress.com

In his new book, Scott Mandel outlines howeducators can design meaningful learningexperiences that will address standards and utilizemodern-day cooperative learning, brain research,and the Internet to effectively develop a student’sability to thrive in the twenty-first century’s workforce.


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Key features include:

ß Benefits of cooperative work groups and how students accomplish tasksin groups

ß Application of brain research in the classroom to maximize learningß Integration of technology into the curriculum, even when computer

accessibility is extremely limitedß Classroom-tested, ready-to-use unit plansß Modification strategies for learning disabled and English Language

Learnersß Reproducible forms, Multiple Intelligence assessments, group and

individual assessment strategies, and grading rubricsß Numerous references and Web resources for further support, including

the author’s weekly updated Web site

Cultures of CurriculumPamela Bolotin Joseph (Editor), Stephanie LusterBravmann, Mark A. Windschitl, Edward R. Mikel,and Nancy Stewart Green (2000)Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.http://www.erlbaum.com

This book is meant to foster awareness, examination,and deliberation about the curricula planned for andcarried out in classrooms and schools; to inspire

conversations about theory and practice as well as political, social and moralissues; and to expand critical consciousness about individuals’ approaches tocurriculum and practice. Using Cultures of Curriculum as a lens, the authorsreveal, and critically examine, the belief systems and classroom practices ofsix curricular orientations in contemporary American society.

Readers are encouraged to give serious attention to the issues this book raisesfor them, and to join with their colleagues, students, and communities inconsidering how to create curricula with purpose and congruent practices. Aframework of inquiry is presented to facilitate such reflection.


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NOTES:

TEACHING FOR EQUITY

An Introduction

Teaching for equity suggests that all educators envision an equitable teaching and learningenvironment, and work to make equity a reality in their practice. Both students and teachers enterthe classroom with varied experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. In each case, those uniqueperspectives play a central role in both expectations and behavior, though teachers carry a deeperresponsibility for understanding the ways their perspectives may limit possibilities for studentsand for themselves.

Definitions of equity will almost surely vary widely among educators. For our purposes, equity—whatever the fine points of the definition—focuses on equity of outcomes. In a time when theexpectations are that schools will serve all students well, not just some of them, giving everyonethe same treatment and resources is inadequate as well as disrespectful. Equity of outcomesmeans providing each student with what she [or he] needs to meet the standards the school hasset for all it students.

One good place to begin thinking about equity is by learning how students feel about their schoolexperiences. The student voices emerge from the resources in this section through the work ofpeople like Lisa Delpit and Marilla Svinicki, who have found that students are saying:

ß They want to participate in classß They want to be able to make decisions and solve problems on their ownß They want to have resources to do their work wellß They want their teachers to listen to them and understand themß They want to be respectedß They want their cultures to be respected

Once we listen to the voices of our students we need to examine our educational institutions,societal structures, and teaching practices to see if they meet the needs of all students in ourschools and classrooms. Fostering equitable environments requires looking at personal bias anddeciding individually and as a staff how to address those biases and move forward with an honestawareness. Many of the resources in this section offer tools for evaluation and reflection, andoffer suggestions for making the school and classroom a more equitable place.

To help you address issues of equity in your classroom, this section includes resources forculturally responsive teaching. Culturally responsive teaching is not about defining students basedon race or ethnicity, but using strategies that have proven effective with all students, particularlythose marginalized by the current educational system. Tapping into students’ prior knowledge,creating democratic classrooms, having high expectations for all students, and cultivating positiveperspectives on parents and families are just a few of the elements of culturally responsiveteaching.

The recommended readings at the close of this section are critical to further the work of teachingfor equity. A commitment to equitable practice happens with deliberate effort on the part of theeducator and school community. This commitment requires more than good intentions. It requiresgaining a knowledge of equity resources through personal and professional development,allocating time to address equity issues as a staff, setting forth a plan to build an equitable school,and getting the input of students and families on how to promote an equitable community.

TEACHING FOR EQUITY

TEACHING FOR EQUITY

The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy

Securing a Knowledge Base for Democratic Teaching

The Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning

Strategies for Inclusive Teaching

Encouraging Students in a Racially Diverse Classroom

Confronting the Challenge of Diversity in Education

Ebonics and Culturally Responsive Instruction

Teaching Diverse Learners: An Observation Guide

Virtual Museum Projects in Native America

Readings: Teaching for Equity

Readings: Multicultural Education

Recommended Websites

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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TEACHING FOR EQUITY

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The Five Standards for Effective PedagogyCREDE - Center for Research on Education, Diversity & Excellence

http://www.crede.ucsc.edu/standards/standards.html

The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy, developed by CREDE, arepractices that have proven effective for all students, and have been especiallysuccessful with typically marginalized students. The five standards, eachmatched with indicators for classroom practice, are an accessible and safeway to start discussions with teachers surrounding equity in their practice.

One: Teacher and Students Producing Together

Facilitate learning through joint productive activity among teacher andstudents.

Learning occurs most effectively when experts and novices work together fora common product or goal, and are therefore motivated to assist one another."Providing assistance" is the general definition of teaching; thus, jointproductive activity (JPA) maximizes teaching and learning. Workingtogether allows conversation, which teaches language, meaning, and valuesin the context of immediate issues. Teaching and learning through “jointproductive activity” is cross-cultural, typically human, and probably "hard-wired." This kind of "mentoring" and "learning in action" is characteristic ofparents with very young children; of pre-school, graduate school, adultlearning, school-to-work and service learning, on-the-job training - of alleducation, except the common K-12 tradition. In schools, there is ordinarilylittle joint activity from which common experiences emerge, and therefore nocommon context that allows students to develop common systems ofunderstanding with the teacher and with one another. Joint activity betweenteacher and students helps create such a common context of experiencewithin the school itself. This is especially important when the teacher and thestudents are not of the same background.

Joint activity and discourse allow the highest level of academic achievement:using formal, “schooled,” or “scientific” ideas to solve practical, real worldproblems. The constant connection of schooled concepts and everydayconcepts is basic to the process by which mature schooled thinkersunderstand the world. These joint activities should be shared by both studentsand teachers. Only when the teacher also shares the experiences can the kindof discourse take place that builds basic schooled competencies.

Indicators of Joint Productive Activity

The teacher:

1. Designs instructional activities requiring student collaboration toaccomplish a joint product.

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2. Matches the demands of the joint productive activity to the timeavailable for accomplishing them.

3. Arranges classroom seating to accommodate students' individual andgroup needs to communicate and work jointly.

4. Participates with students in joint productive activity.5. Organizes students in a variety of groupings, such as by friendship,

mixed academic ability, language, project, or interests, to promoteinteraction.

6. Plans with students how to work in groups and move from oneactivity to another, such as from large group introduction to smallgroup activity, for clean-up, dismissal, and the like.

7. Manages student and teacher access to materials and technology tofacilitate joint productive activity.

8. Monitors and supports student collaboration in positive ways.

Two: Developing Language Across the Curriculum

Develop competence in the language and literacy of instruction acrossthe curriculum.

Developing competence in the language(s) of instruction should be ametagoal of all educational activity throughout the school day. Whetherinstruction is bilingual or monolingual, literacy is the most fundamentalcompetency necessary for school success. School knowledge, and thinkingitself, are inseparable from language. Everyday social language, formalacademic language, and subject matter lexicons are all critical for schoolsuccess.

Language development at all levels – informal, problem-solving, andacademic – should be fostered through use and through purposeful, deliberateconversation between teacher and students, not through drills anddecontextualized rules. Reading and writing must be taught both as specificcurricula and integrated into each content area.

The ways of using language that prevail in school discourse, such as ways ofasking and answering questions, challenging claims, and usingrepresentations, are frequently unfamiliar to English language learners andother students at risk of educational failure. However, their own culturallybased ways of talking can be effectively linked to the language used foracademic disciplines by building learning contexts that evoke and build uponchildren’s language strengths.

The development of language and literacy as a metagoal also applies to thespecialized language genres required for the study of science, mathematics,history, art, and literature. Effective mathematics learning is based on theability to “speak mathematics,” just as the overall ability to achieve acrossthe curriculum is dependent on mastery of the language of instruction.Reading, writing, speaking, listening, and lexicons can be taught and learnedin every subject matter, and indeed all the subject matters can be taught as

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though they were a second language. Joint Productive Activity provides anideal venue for developing the language of the activity's domain.

Indicators of Language Development

The teacher:

1. Listens to student talk about familiar topics such as home andcommunity.

2. Responds to students' talk and questions, making 'in-flight' changesduring conversation that directly relate to students' comments.

3. Assists written and oral language development through modeling,eliciting, probing, restating, clarifying, questioning, praising, etc., inpurposeful conversation and writing.

4. Interacts with students in ways that respect students' preferences forspeaking that may be different from the teacher's, such as wait-time, eyecontact, turn-taking, or spotlighting.

5. Connects student language with literacy and content area knowledgethrough speaking, listening, reading, and writing activities.

6. Encourages students to use content vocabulary to express theirunderstanding.

7. Provides frequent opportunity for students to interact with each other andthe teacher during instructional activities.

8. Encourages students' use of first and second languages in instructionalactivities.

Three: Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives

Connect teaching and curriculum to students' experiences and skills ofhome and community.

The high literacy goals of schools are best achieved in everyday, culturallymeaningful contexts. This contextualization utilizes students’ funds ofknowledge and skills as a foundation for new knowledge. This approachfosters pride and confidence as well as greater school achievement.

Increase in contextualized instruction is a consistent recommendation ofeducation researchers. Schools typically teach rules, abstractions, and verbaldescriptions, and they teach by means of rules, abstractions, and verbaldescriptions. Schools need to assist at-risk students by providing experiencesthat show abstract concepts are drawn from and applied to the everydayworld.

“Understanding” means connecting new learning to previous knowledge.Assisting students in making these connections strengthens newly acquiredknowledge and increases student engagement with learning activities.Schema theorists, cognitive scientists, behaviorists, and psychologicalanthropologists agree that school learning is made meaningful by connectingit to students' personal, family, and community experiences. Effective

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education teaches how school abstractions are drawn from and applied to theeveryday world. Collaboration with parents and communities can revealappropriate patterns of participation, conversation, knowledge, and intereststhat will make literacy, numeracy, and science meaningful to all students.

Indicators of Contextualization

The teacher:

1. Begins activities with what students already know from home,community, and school.

2. Designs instructional activities that are meaningful to students in termsof local community norms and knowledge.

3. Acquires knowledge of local norms and knowledge by talking tostudents, parents or family members, community members, and byreading pertinent documents.

4. Assists students to connect and apply their learning to home andcommunity.

5. Plans jointly with students to design community-based learningactivities.

6. Provides opportunities for parents or families to participate in classroominstructional activities.

7. Varies activities to include students' preferences, from collective andcooperative to individual and competitive.

8. Varies styles of conversation and participation to include students'cultural preferences, such as co-narration, call-and-response, and choral,among others.

Four: Teaching Complex Thinking

Challenge students toward cognitive complexity.

Students at risk of educational failure, particularly those of limited standardEnglish proficiency, are often forgiven any academic challenges on theassumption that they are of limited ability, or they are forgiven any genuineassessment of progress because the assessment tools are inadequate. Thus,both standards and feedback are weakened, with the predictable result thatachievement is impeded. While such policies may often be the result ofbenign motives, the effect is to deny many diverse students the basicrequirements of progress - high academic standards and meaningfulassessment that allows feedback and responsive assistance.

There is a clear consensus among education researchers that students at riskof educational failure require instruction that is cognitively challenging; thatis, instruction that requires thinking and analysis, not only rote, repetitive,detail-level drills. This does not mean ignoring phonics rules, or notmemorizing the multiplication tables, but it does mean going beyond thatlevel of curriculum into the exploration of the deepest possible reaches ofinteresting and meaningful materials. There are many ways in which

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cognitive complexity has been introduced into the teaching of students at riskof educational failure. There is good reason to believe, for instance, that abilingual curriculum itself provides cognitive challenges that make it superiorto a monolingual approach.

Working with a cognitively challenging curriculum requires careful levelingof tasks, so that students are motivated to stretch. It does not mean drill-and-kill exercises, nor does it mean overwhelming challenges that discourageeffort. Getting the correct balance and providing appropriate assistance is, forthe teacher, a truly cognitively challenging task.

Indicators of Challenging Activities

The teacher:

1. Assures that students - for each instructional topic - see the whole pictureas a basis for understanding the parts.

2. Presents challenging standards for student performance.3. Designs instructional tasks that advance student understanding to more

complex levels.4. Assists students to accomplish more complex understanding by building

from their previous success.5. Gives clear, direct feedback about how student performance compares

with the challenging standards.

Five: Teaching Through Conversation

Engage students through dialogue, especially the InstructionalConversation.

Thinking, and the abilities to form, express, and exchange ideas are besttaught through dialogue, through questioning and sharing ideas andknowledge. In the Instructional Conversation (IC), the teacher listenscarefully, makes guesses about intended meaning, and adjusts responses toassist students’ efforts--just as in graduate seminars, or between mothers andtoddlers. Here the teacher relates formal, school knowledge to the student'sindividual, family, and community knowledge. The IC provides opportunitiesfor the development of the languages of instruction and subject matter. IC isa supportive and collaborative event that builds intersubjectivity and a senseof community. IC achieves individualization of instruction; is best practicedduring joint productive activity; is an ideal setting for language development;and allows sensitive contextualization, and precise, stimulating cognitivechallenge.

This concept may appear to be a paradox; instruction implies authority andplanning, while conversation implies equality and responsiveness. But theinstructional conversation is based on assumptions that are fundamentallydifferent from those of traditional lessons. Teachers who use it, like parentsin natural teaching, assume that the student has something to say beyond the

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known answers in the head of the adult. The adult listens carefully, makesguesses about the intended meaning, and adjusts responses to assist thestudent’s efforts - in other words, engages in conversation. Such conversationreveals the knowledge, skills, and values - the culture - of the learner,enabling the teacher to contextualize teaching to fit the learner’s experiencebase.

In U.S. schools the instructional conversation is rare. More often, teaching isthrough the recitation script, in which the teacher repeatedly assigns andassesses. Classrooms and schools are transformed into communities oflearners through such dialogic teaching, and when teachers reduce thedistance between themselves and their students by constructing lessons fromcommon understanding of each others’ experience and ideas and maketeaching a warm, interpersonal and collaborative activity.

Indicators of Instructional Conversation

The teacher:

1. Arranges the classroom to accommodate conversation between theteacher and a small group of students on a regular and frequent basis.

2. Has a clear academic goal that guides conversation with students.3. Ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk.4. Guides conversation to include students' views, judgments, and rationales

using text evidence and other substantive support.5. Ensures that all students are included in the conversation according to

their preferences.6. Listens carefully to assess levels of students' understanding.7. Assists students’ learning throughout the conversation by questioning,

restating, praising, encouraging, etc.8. Guides the students to prepare a product that indicates the Instructional

Conversation's goal was achieved.

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Securing a Knowledge Base for Democratic TeachingNorth Central Regional Education Laboratoryhttp://www.ncrel.org/cscd/pubs/lead41/41base.htm

Establishing an equitable, democratic classroom is not something thathappens quickly, nor is there agreement among practitioners as to how tofoster that environment. There are, however, tools for discussion andobservation around the topic. This article is one educator’s perspective onwhat it takes to make a school embody democracy, and is followed by aquestionnaire that can assist in goal-setting and prioritizing. Thequestionnaire lacks a reflection piece that could be developed andpersonalized by your staff.

Given the demands of teaching, how do teachers or school leaders secure anadequate knowledge base to ensure that democratic teaching will occur?What are the most pressing needs in teacher education?

To Margaret C. Wang, the current lack of interprofessional programming forpreservice and inservice education contributes significantly to thefragmentation of service delivery. "We train regular and special educationteachers in separate programs," she observes. "We train school socialworkers and school psychologists as separate entities. They may be trained inthe same university but they meet in the field as strangers. Yet we need all ofthese professionals to work collaboratively in coordinated ways in the serviceof students.

"There is not an undergraduate or graduate course that provides trainingexperiences that foster interprofessional collaboration among differentdisciplines. We view collaboration and coordination as key reform strategies,but we don't make the structural changes required for implementation."

Collaboration with social services is also necessary, even critical, Wangargues, and yet teachers lack adequate training to know how to engage in thattype of collaborative process. "School staff need to know how to work withother educational and related social services providers such as throughworking on after-school programs or second-chance adult educationprograms with public housing, public libraries, and other educational andsocial services agencies. We need to take the scarce resources we have andpull them together in the most facilitative and efficient ways possible. Weknow what needs to be done to achieve the types of outcomes we want for allchildren. We even know different ways of achieving this vision.Implementation won't be easy — it takes hard work and resilience. Wesimply need to make the commitment to begin and persist."

Different and creative ways to reach parents and families are necessary aswell, she believes. "We need to figure out and gain insights on the multiplebest ways to reach the targeted audience," she says. "People often don’taccess services because they don't know how. Perhaps more importantly, we

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don't have the knowledge base or credibility for making our servicespalatable or accessible to those who may benefit from them. We need tobuild a knowledge base on how to involve parents and communities innontraditional ways, such as linking school efforts to involve parents with theefforts of community organizations working on community revitalizationactivities."

The solution, she says, is not simple: It demands a multipronged approach toeducation and social services delivery. "My point, however," she concludes,"is that there are multiple ways of knowing and problem solving. We knowfar more than we use. What we need is a genuine commitment to take actionand persevere. We need to commit to it. Once we have the commitment, wecan chip away at the barriers and maximize what works."

Margaret C. Wang is Professor of Educational Psychology, and the founderand current Director of the Temple University Center for Research in HumanDevelopment and Education (CRHDE), the sponsoring institution of theMidAtlantic Laboratory for Student Success — one of ten regionaleducational laboratories funded by the U.S. Department of Education. Wangis the author of 14 books and over 100 articles.

Educating for Democracy: School and Classroom Practices

The following questions are designed to help you evaluate and reflect uponthe concepts central to educating for democracy as it exists currently in yourschool.

Democratic School StructuresTo what extent does my school involve teachers, parents, and communitymembers in important decisions about resource allocation, staffing, andcurriculum?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent does the size and structure of my school allow all staff toknow one another, share concerns and solutions to common problemsinformally, and draw upon one another as a source of collegial support?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent does staff in my school have frequent opportunities - bothstructured and informal - to talk to one another about their classroompractices?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do staff in my school observe one another teaching and offerconstructive feedback?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

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To what extent is professional development an ongoing, continuous processrather than "one-shot" workshops with little follow-up?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent does staff have real authority to make decisions pertaining tocurriculum and instruction, resource allocation, and professionaldevelopment?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

Culturally Relevant and Academically Rigorous LearningTo what extent does staff at my school invite students to bring their lifeexperiences, cultures, and languages into the classroom as a foundation forcurriculum that will be relevant to their lives outside school?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do teachers and administrators listen carefully and clinicallyto what students have to say, using that information to improve and refine thenature of curriculum and instruction?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do teachers hold all students to the same academicallyrigorous standards and expectations for behavior?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do teachers and other school professionals workcollaboratively to solve students' special needs in an integrated, personalizedmanner?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do teachers achieve critical awareness of their own attitudesabout students from backgrounds different from their own?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

Working With Parents and Community MembersTo what extent do staff at my school want to hear what parents really thinkabout school practices and their children's achievement?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what degree are there creative and informal mechanisms for parents andother community members to ask questions, offer feedback, share concerns,and acquire learning tools for themselves (e.g., after-schoolparent/family/staff potlucks in neighborhoods where evening meetings wouldbe unsafe, parenting classes for potential dropouts, computer or GED classesfor recent immigrant parents)?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

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To what extent does school staff reach out to parents and other familymembers beyond formal, structured parent/teacher conferences (e.g., homevisits, phone calls, radio announcements of school events in languages otherthan English)?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

In addition to informal opportunities for parents and family members tointeract with school staff, to what degree are there structured opportunitiesfor family members to participate in decisions that directly affect the qualityand content of student learning?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

If parental feedback about school practices is not positive, to what degreedoes school staff respond in constructive, non-defensive ways?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

The Quality and Content of LearningTo what extent do students at my school learn content that engages them inthe solution of complex, real-life problems, working both individually andcollaboratively?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what degree do teachers treat different languages, socioeconomicbackgrounds, races, cultures, and ethnicities as rich learning opportunities forall students?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what extent do assessments reflect the thinking skills and reasoningrequired of students as they engage with challenging content?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

To what degree do students learn to present reasoned arguments and entertaindifferent points of view, supporting their arguments with compellingevidence?Always ____ Frequently ____ Sometimes ____ Never ____

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What They Don't Know Can Hurt Them:The Role of Prior Knowledge in Learning

Marilla Svinicki, University of Texashttp://www1.umn.edu/ohr/teachlearn/MinnCon/dontknow.html

We often hear the phrase “tapping into students’ prior knowledge” but we arerarely given the background or philosophy to gain a firm understanding ofwhy it is necessary. Through a concise, conversational article by Svinicki,one understands not only the need for using students’ prior knowledge, butthe practicalities of how to begin to do it in the classroom.

Admit it. You've watched the broadcasts of the Olympics and had your eyesglaze over while Dick Button waxed rhapsodic about the difference betweena double axle and a triple lutz. They looked pretty much the same to you,didn't they? You were experiencing what many students face every day inour classrooms, a distressing lack of the prior knowledge necessary to helpthem understand or appreciate a new experience or content. Current researchon learning has offered more and more evidence for the extent to which newlearning is determined by what the learner already knows about the topic orrelated topics. The effect can be either positive or negative, positive if thepre-existing knowledge is correct and consistent with the new information ornegative if it is full of misconceptions or conflicts with the new information.

Prior knowledge & current learning

Prior knowledge affects how the learner perceives new information. Thisphenomenon is readily demonstrated by a simple experiment. What is thefirst image that you associate with the word "cardinal"? Some people thinkimmediately of football, some of baseball, birds, Roman Catholic priests, orthe color red. In the absence of a context, the association you make willdepend on your prior knowledge. Your interpretation of this newinformation, the word "cardinal," was dependent on what you brought to thesituation.

Fortunately, in most learning tasks, words occur in a context to assist ininterpretation. If the word "cardinal" had occurred in the context of adiscussion about the Inquisition, the number of associations which you couldchoose from would be dramatically circumscribed. But sometimes thecontext is no more meaningful than the word itself. If you had never heard ofthe Inquisition, that context would be no help.

Much the same thing happens in the classroom every day. Instructors useterms and concepts of which students have no prior knowledge to provide anadequate context for interpretation. Used at the rapid pace of the expert, thisis what they complain about as "jargon" and its over-use leaves gaps instudent ability to process new information. The phenomenon is similar to thatexperienced by the average computer novice attempting to obtain help froman expert. Half of the words are totally unfamiliar and the other half are used

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in an entirely new and illogical way. After two or three sentences, the listeneris left in the dust and feeling hopelessly ignorant and hostile. This may be thestuff of great comedy routines, but it is disaster in a classroom.

Alternatively, an incorrect bit of prior knowledge which is not correctedcould keep the students from understanding an entire lecture. This isfrequently the case in science classes, where naive conceptions of naturallaws must be unlearned before the correct version can be understood. Forexample, in chemistry, instructors must somehow convince students that airexists just as liquids and solids exist even though it can't be detected by thesenses. Intellectually, students know this, but they often behave as if air weresimply the absence of matter. This concept which seems simple, almostautomatic, to an expert can be a stumbling block to understanding a wholerange of phenomena for a novice.

Prior knowledge affects how a student organizes new information.Remember that a goal of learning is to incorporate new information into theexisting organization of memory. A student uses that existing structure toassimilate new information. For example, in the absence of any strongsignals to the contrary, a student in a history class is going to organize newhistorical information chronologically because that is the way history hadbeen organized in earlier classes. History instructors trying to organizearound a different conceptual structure must fight against the students'tendency to see everything as happening in a straight timeline.

Instructors can use this prior knowledge of structure to their advantage whenthey use analogies or examples. The analogy represents a knownorganizational structure of information. That organizational structure is whatis transferred to the new information. For example, in trying to explain how agland works, an instructor might say that the gland is like a thermostat. Moststudents already know that a thermostat controls the temperature bymonitoring the presence of heat. They transfer this understanding to thefunctioning of a gland. It monitors and controls the level of a hormone in thebody in the same fashion. If the analogy is a good one, the student can take itfrom there to intuit all sorts of properties of the gland which parallel thethermostat.

Prior knowledge affects how easily students make connections for newinformation. One of the keys to learning and memory is the richness of theconnections a bit of information has. The more connections, the easier it is toremember. When new information gets hooked up with a particularly richand well-organized portion of memory, it inherits all the connections thatalready exist. This is why it is much easier to learn information that is inone's existing field of expertise than to learn information from a brand newfield. There are many more ways to access the system. When a student hasnothing to hook new information to, he or she is thrown back on the mostbasic characteristics of the information such as sound, or form, or straightrote memorization.

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Using prior knowledge in instruction

To begin, it is helpful to know what prior knowledge students bring to thelearning setting. Have they had certain common courses? It pays to knowwhat those courses contained. What are their other common experiences?Are they all from similar backgrounds, similar environments? How will thataffect the way they interpret the content? Do they have common aspirationsand goals? Are they all going in the same direction? What does thisinformation tell you about the prior knowledge they will bring to your class?The use of a pretest of critical concepts and terms can alert both theinstructor and the students to gaps or misconceptions that could proveinconvenient later.

Prior knowledge need not be only knowledge of the content, although that isthe most critical type of knowledge to monitor. Knowledge of popularculture or current events can be used to great advantage as well in the sameways, especially in the context of analogies. Some would say that knowledgeof popular culture is simply another form of cultural literacy.

Use prior knowledge deliberately in the presentation of new information.Beginning a class with a review of what has gone before helps activate priorknowledge. Presenting new information in its relationship to old not onlyhelps students learn the new information but strengthens the old. Introducingnew concepts by contrasting them with some that have already been learnedmakes use of prior knowledge to aid in the learning of new. Better yet,having the students make those comparisons teaches them something aboutthe way to approach the learning of new material and about the structure ofthe discipline.

It is also desirable to get the students to monitor their own prior experiencesand consciously use them in learning new information. Asking students torecall past courses that are related to the present course is an interesting wayto encourage this. In a graduate course I ask students to produce a personalbibliography from the readings of their previous courses that relate to thepresent course. They find this an interesting experience which has never beenasked of them before, but it makes the point that what they know is related towhat they are learning.

Finally it is always a good idea to check for faulty prior knowledge regularlyso that it is not allowed to continue to detract from learning. There is awonderfully apocalyptic story about an astronomy class in which theinstructor drew many beautiful orbital diagrams and still the students hadtrouble understanding celestial motions. Finally, by accident, the instructordiscovered that several of the students were interpreting the ovals he drew asbeing in reality ovals rather than the circles shown in perspective. Until youask the students what they understand about what is being taught, you willnever really know what is being learned. Structure the learning to bring thosemisconceptions to the attention of the students. Often they will not realizetheir confusion until it is too late.

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Final thoughts

The lesson we take from the research on prior knowledge is simply this:students are not blank slates on which our words are inscribed. The studentsbring more to the interpretation of the situation than we realize. What theylearn is conditioned by what they already know. What they know can be asdamaging as what they don't know.

“There can be no knowledge without emotion. We may be aware of atruth, yet until we have felt its force, it is not ours. To the cognition of thebrain must be added the experience of the soul.”

- Arnold Bennet

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Strategies for Inclusive TeachingCenter for Instructional Development and Research

University of Washingtonhttp://depts.washington.edu/cidrweb/inclusive/foster.html

Participation is a class dynamic that is often expected but infrequentlydiscussed. The Center for Instructional Development and Research explicitlyoutlines how to plan for and cultivate equitable class participation. Theresource was designed for college-level faculty and students, but moststrategies are appropriate and effective for a high school setting.

Foster Equitable Class Participation

There are many ways to participate in class. Equitable class participationdoes not necessarily mean that all students are expected to participate in thesame way, or even the same amount. Rather, the goal is to make sure thatstudents are able to participate in class in ways that will help them achievethe learning goals for the course, and that no one is kept from participating asa result of the way the course is taught.

Before You Start Teaching

1. Plan ahead. Consider the kind of participation that you hope to foster.Here is a set of planning questions to help you think about the role ofstudent participation in your course:

ß What are your goals for class participation?

ß What do you hope students will learn as a result of taking part indiscussions, responding to questions, or raising questions of theirown?

ß What do you hope to learn about the students from theirparticipation?

ß What range of options are there for participation? Here are a fewpossibilities:

a) Question and answer sessionsb) Large group discussionsc) Small group activitiesd) Projects and presentationse) On-line activities outside of class time

ß How do you help students prepare for participation? Here are a fewpossibilities:

a) Reading prior to class

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b) Writing prior to classc) Discussion questions based on readings, lectures, or prior

discussionsd) Small group discussions prior to large group discussionse) In-class responses to on-line activities outside of class time

ß How do you plan to assess participation?

a) Observing students' oral participationb) Collecting written answers to discussion questionsc) Collecting products or outcomes of group workd) Observing students' on-line participatione) Student self-assessment

2. Use the first day of class to set expectations. Add a statement to yoursyllabus and talk with the students on the first day of class about yourexpectations for class participation.

3. Review strategies for encouraging class participation.

While You Are Teaching

1. At the beginning of the class, make expectations for participation clear,and explain the importance of participation in terms of the learning goalsfor the course.

2. Provide feedback on the nature and quality of participation you observein the course. Let students know what their participation is adding to thecourse.

3. Provide specific suggestions for improving participation. Here are a fewexamples of ways to invite student participation:

ß Require students to conference with you once every two weeks.

ß Use group activities or pair work. Students who are hesitant tospeak in front of the full class are often willing to contribute tosmaller groups of classmates.

ß Give specific tasks and instructions so each person has a role inthe group.

ß Look for opportunities for you to interact with individualstudents in addition to the interactions that are possible in frontof all the other students; for example, before and after class, inthe transition to group work, or while groups are working.

ß Select a few people a day to summarize key points from theprevious day, bring up a question from the chapter, or commenton other work that they can prepare outside of class time.

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ß Acknowledge other forms of participation; for example,contributions to the class discussion list, comments made injournals, or ideas that you overhear mentioned in small groups,which don't get reported to the larger group.

ß Call on students by name, but keep in mind that being called oncan be both motivating and intimidating. Be sure students havehad a chance to prepare for answering the question, and that theyare given a reasonable amount of time to formulate a response.

ß Provide feedback on students' participation. In questions of fact,point out what’s partially right in a wrong answer, as well aswhere it goes off-track.

4. For classes in which potentially heated issues are going to be discussed,work with the students to establish ground rules for class discussion.Remind students of these ground rules when you anticipate they may beneeded, and refer to them during discussions to remind students of yourexpectations for one another.

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Tips for Teachers:Encouraging Students in a Racially Diverse ClassroomDerek Bok Center for Teaching and LearningHarvard Universityhttp://bokcenter.fas.harvard.edu/docs/TFTrace.html

This tool promotes deliberate and ongoing reflection on equitable teachingby using questions to examine personal bias, followed by suggestions tominimize bias in the classroom. The list of questions could be used as ananonymous whole-staff evaluation tool, or a personal assessment tool, or aCritical Friends Group (see section on Adapting Classroom Practice)discussion-starter. For example, choosing a trusted colleague and asking thequestions of one another in a non-judgmental way forces the questioner tointernalize the question and forces the respondent to verbalize suppressed, orunrecognized feelings. This metacognitive exercise can be a step to changingattitudes in the classroom.

THE CARDINAL RULE:

Learn as much about and become as sensitive as you can to racial, ethnic,and cultural groups other than your own.

At the same time:

NEVER make assumptions about an individual based on the racial, ethnic, orcultural groups he or she belongs to. Treat each student first and foremost asan individual. Get to know students individually.

Questions a teacher might ask to examine his or her own racial orcultural biases in preparation for teaching:

ß Am I comfortable around minority students?

ß Am I afraid of students whose background differs markedly from myown?

ß Am I afraid of the emotional level when there are students of other racesand cultures in my classroom?

ß Am I afraid minority students might not be fully competitive with theother students? What is my definition of "fully competitive"?

ß Do I expect minority students to need extra help?

ß Do I call on minority students as often as others?

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ß When minority students do answer, am I afraid their answers will not becorrect, or that their method of answering will be inappropriate?

ß Do I think that there is one correct or appropriate mode of argument ordiscussion in class? How open am I to multiple modes of discourse?

ß Do the minority students seem to participate less than others?

ß Do I rationalize or tolerate lack of participation from minority studentsmore than I would for other students? Do I think their silence meansignorance? Do I believe it is culturally based?

ß Do I tend to shelve or "make time later" for minority points of view?

ß If an issue involving race does come up, do I assume the minority studentwill know most about it? Will I not mind acting as the class expertconcerning it?

ß How do I behave with minority students who are under-prepared?

ß Does the logic of my classroom hypotheticals or test answers dependupon stereotypical views of minorities?

ß What assumptions do I make about different student groups:

ß Do I imagine that Latinos or African Americans will expresstheir opinions in non-academic language?

ß Do I expect that Asian students will do better than most others?

ß Do I respond to a white student's voice as if it had moreintellectual weight?

ß Do I assume that white students will be insensitive, arrogant, andcondescending towards persons of color?

ß Do I assume that African Americans or Latinos or other studentsof color are all alike?

ß Do I assume that when an African American man disagrees he isangry?

ß Do I assume that Asian women are likely to be quiet?

What a teacher can do in preparation for class:

ß Develop a syllabus that explores multiple perspectives on the topic.

ß Develop paper topics that encourage students to explore different racialand cultural perspectives.

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ß Consider how all students would experience the syllabus.

ß Consider whether students of all cultures are likely to have a backgroundin the material.

ß Consider whether different approaches to learning are accounted for.

ß Anticipate sensitive areas in the subject matter being taught.

ß Think in advance about how one might handle sensitive topics orexplosive moments.

ß Incorporate multicultural examples, materials, and visual aids as much aspossible in class.

ß Structure project groups, panels, laboratory teams, and the like so thatmembership and leadership roles are balanced across ethnic and gendergroups.

What a teacher can do to be sure the classroom itself is open to allstudents:

ß Get to know each student individually. Learn their names and how topronounce them correctly.

ß Divide the class into smaller groups, each with the responsiblity ofreporting on the material from the viewpoint of a particular minoritygroup.

ß Ask students to locate cultural or even discriminatory content intextbooks or other materials.

ß Ask for each student's thoughts about the subject, acknowledging thestatement of each as it is made. This lets students know from the verybeginning that their thoughts have a place in the classroom, that there aredifferences, and that the differences will be tolerated.

ß Make it safe for everyone to voice their views by accepting all views asworthy of consideration. Don't permit scapegoating of any student or anyview. Team up with a student who is alone out on a limb.

ß Present all sides of an issue. Play the devil's advocate for the leastpopular view.

ß Ask students to research the position they are least comfortable with andcome prepared to articulate a defense of that posture.

ß Acknowledge racial and cultural differences in the room. Ask students todiscuss racial tensions or cultural outlooks when they come up in class orin the materials.

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ß Make the classroom norms explicit.

ß Keep expectations high and provide the support required to meet theseexpectations.

ß Be careful about the language you use, avoiding terms or expressions,like "black sheep," that might be offensive. If you use fictitious names orexamples in discussions or on exams, use names from a variety ofcultures.

ß Avoid discussing particular racial groups or race-related issues with afocus that is derogatory or stereotypical to the race. e.g., talking aboutblacks only in the context of ghettos, welfare, or gangs.

ß Use eye contact with all students; be open and friendly outside of class.

What a teacher can do to handle hot moments:

ß Ask students, when there is a particularly heated exchange, to step backand see how they might make something positive of this exchange, whatthey can learn from it. This can move the discussion to a broader, moregeneral level that helps everyone to see what issues have been at stakeand what the clash itself might mean.

ß Ask students to think about how their reactions mirror the subject athand, and what they might learn about the subject from their ownbehavior. Often groups act out or replicate in their own discussion thetopic under discussion. Thus a discussion of a case in which race is afactor which has been denied may mirror the case by avoiding the issueof race. Seeing this can enhance people's understanding of the issues.

ß If a student makes a blatantly racist assertion or there is a particularlycharged discussion, stop the class and give all the students an assignmentfor the next class meeting to research this statement and write a shortessay about their findings. Alternatively, ask students to write about theissue for five minutes in class. This enables students to think about andcome to some kind of terms with the issue and can enable furtherdiscussion of it.

ß Go around the room and ask each student who has spoken (and others ifthey wish) to state his or her view and explain the reasoning behind it.Every student is heard and the class can be enriched by the range ofperceptions.

ß Use the passion as a vehicle to talk about differences in kinds and levelsof discourse: who is comfortable with emotion and who is not, whofavors personalizing material and who prefers to keep it abstract, whetheror not there are cultural differences that underlie these differences.

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ß Use the passion and arguments to look at how group dynamics work --who speaks and who does not, who allies him or herself with whom, whoplays what role -- and to think about how the group wants to work.

ß In short, the teacher will have to decide whether to stop the emotionalcharge and go on, or whether to use it to explore the topic at hand. Oftenwhen things get most hot, people are most capable of learning at a verydeep level, if the exchange among students is properly handled. To makethis possible, however, requires comfort with feelings and with conflictand enormous skill on the part of the teacher.

Some helpful definitions:

We have been helped by the following definitions, which distinguishbetween racism and other realities often associated with discussions of race.

Prejudice: prejudgment on insufficient grounds; can be positive or negative.

Bigotry: more intensive form of prejudice and carries the negative side ofprejudgment.

Stereotyping: attributing characteristics to a group simplistically anduncritically.

Discrimination: the act or practice of according differential treatment topersons on the basis of group categories such as race, religion, sex, class.

Scapegoating: assigning blame or failure to persons or groups in place ofother persons or groups to whom blame or failure actually belongs.

Racism: a set of attitudes, behaviors, and social structures that differentiateson the basis of race. It involves four essential elements:

1. Power: the capacity to make and enforce decisions isdisporportionately or unfairly distributed.

2. Resources: access to such resources as money, education,information, etc. is unequal.

3. Standards: standards for appropriate behavior are ethnocentric,reflecting the norms and values of the dominant society.

4. Problem-Defining: reality is defined by naming the problemincorrectly and thus misplacing it.

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Confronting the Challenge of Diversity in EducationPedro A. Noguera, Ph.D.

In Motion Magazine, April 10, 1999http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/pndivers.html

Dr. Noguera’s article points out the unique opportunity educators have toexplore the diversity present in American education today. Instead of takingthe assimilationist approach of the past, we can use the diversity in ourclassrooms to enhance learning for all students. This article is especiallypoignant for schools that have recently seen a change in the demographic oftheir student body due to migration/immigration.

How we respond to the increase in diversity in America will be achallenge for many schools and communities, but it need not be aproblem.

More often than not, the increase in racial and cultural diversity that isoccurring in schools across the United States is thought of as a problem, oreven a threat.

I was reminded of this a few weeks ago when I received a call from ajournalist who asked me to comment on some of the problems beingexperienced by a school district in a suburban area of northern California.She informed me that this had been a fairly homogenous, middle classbedroom community, that had very recently seen an increase in diversityamong students. She said that with this increase there had been a rise in thekinds of problems typically associated with urban schools.

When I asked her to be more specific, she said, “You know, gangs, fightingand some complaints from minority parents about school curriculum.”Apparently, some minority parents were protesting the district’s use of TheAdventures of Huckleberry Finn in 8th grade English classes. “Schoolofficials are at a total loss,” she continued. “They have no idea of how theyshould be responding to these issues.”

A Common Refrain

This journalist’s description of the community’s troubles in responding to anincrease in student diversity is quite common. I hear similar stories, typicallyphrased as complaints, when I visit public schools throughout California.Diversity is no longer an urban issue.

As the home to more new immigrants than any other state in the nation,communities across California are convulsing from the demographic andpolitical changes that accompany the change in population. And perhapsmore than any other social institution, public schools are at the epicenter ofthis change, and educators are on the frontline in figuring out how torespond.

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But, why is the rise in diversity seen as a problem? This is an importantquestion, for I believe that in framing the growth in racial and culturaldiversity as a problem, educators, policy makers and journalists, have set thestage for how communities will react to this change.

This is not to say that a change in the racial and ethnic composition of aschool or community does not pose new challenges or require a change inapproaches on the part of educators. New immigrants often speak languagesother than English, and in many California school districts for example, it isnot uncommon for 30, 40 and even 50 foreign languages to be present amongthe student population.

The arrival of new groups, especially racial minorities, often leads to racialconflict and the venting of various kinds of prejudice and intolerance. Toooften, those receiving the new arrivals feel threatened and insecure and reactwith hostility and resentment.

Finally, and most importantly, diversity tends to be perceived as problematicbecause American schools have historically seen cultural assimilation ofimmigrants and non-whites as central to their mission. During the nineteenthcentury, one of the major concerns of educators and politicians was how newimmigrants would be absorbed into the American population. For many,public schools were the most logical place at which the task of convertingforeigners into Americans could be carried out.

But Americanization was not limited to foreigners. In the southwest it wascommon for Native American children to be taken from their families andsent to boarding schools so that they could be saved by Christianity. ForAfrican American and many Mexican American children, segregatedschooling spared them from being subjected to forced acculturation.However, de-segregation has changed that also, and with it, the spokenlanguage of children - whether it be Spanish or Ebonics - has often beensubject to eradication. Furthermore, far too often, the cultural differences ofthese children are equated with cultural inferiority, and not surprisingly,children from these groups are more likely to do poorly in school, get intotrouble, or drop out.

Return to Yesteryear

Given our history, and given the real challenges that accompany an increasein diversity, it is not surprising that many educators and communities wouldtreat the issue as a problem. However, like it or not, even in small towns andisolated rural areas, diversity is our future, and all projections point tocontinued growth in diversity in the years ahead.

Conservative activists in California have responded to this trend with futileefforts aimed at preserving the status quo. The approval of ballot measuressuch as 187 - which denies undocumented aliens access to public servicessuch as education, 209 - which eliminates affirmative action, and 227 - whichprohibits bilingual education in public schools, is likely to make life more

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difficult for immigrants and many people of color, but unlikely to stem thetide of diversity.

Evidence that wedge issue politics has the effect of adding to racial tensionsand conflict between groups, a prospect which the LA uprising of 1991clearly showed could have disastrous consequences if left unchecked.

Pluralistic Advantages

However, there is another alternative. Instead of responding to risingdiversity with fear and insecurity, we can treat our diversity as an asset anddevise ways of responding to it, which enable our society to reap benefitsfrom our pluralism.

For this to happen there must be a significant shift in the perspective taken onthe growth in diversity, and educators must play leading roles in bringing thisshift about. Schools will undoubtedly continue to serve as the initial meetingplace for different cultures, and it will be very important that educators findways to make those encounters positive experiences for children, parents andteachers.

Shifting the perspective involves getting the public to understand the benefitsour society derives from a growth in diversity. For example, there issubstantial evidence that rather than draining economic resources, newimmigrants often help to revive local economies. It is ironic that in some ofthe communities where opposition to immigration has been greatest, thatthere is a complete dependence on immigrant labor in most service jobs (e.g.nannies, gardeners, waiters, etc.).

Furthermore, with larger numbers of people expected to live longer lives,retirees have a vested interest in seeing that our diverse student population iswell educated so that they can be gainfully employed and make steadycontributions to social security funds.

The Need for A Willingness to Adapt

Finally, schools can move away from their preoccupation with assimilatingthose who are culturally different and promoting a version of Americanhistory that has rendered many groups - racial minorities, women, workers,etc. - largely invisible. In its place we can teach students to respectdifferences and develop curricula aimed at helping them to understand moreabout themselves and others.

We can also teach our students to think critically about America’s past andhelp them to recognize that they can play a role in creating a fairer and moreequitable society in the future.

How we respond to the increase in diversity in America will be a challengefor many schools and communities, but it need not be a problem. Once werecognize that, like changes that are brought about as a result of innovations

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in technology, diversity is our future, and not a passing fad, then we canbegin to make the adjustments that will make change possible.

As educators we will be on the frontline of this change, and we have aresponsibility to show that change can happen without acrimony andresentment, if there is an openness to adapt and to continue to learn.

Dr. Pedro Noguera is a Judith K. Dimon Professor in Communities andSchools at the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

“Poverty, race, ethnicity and immigration status are not in themselvesdeterminative of student achievement. Demography is not destiny. Theamount of melanin in a student's skin, the home country of herantecedents, the amount of money in the family bank account, are not theinexorable determinants of academic success.”

- Justice Leland DeGrasse,Supreme Court of the State of New York

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Ebonics and Culturally Responsive Instruction:What Should Teachers Do?

By Lisa DelpitExcerpted from Rethinking Schools

http://www.rethinkingschools.org/archive/12_01/ebdelpit.shtml

Conversation and debate are a necessary part of any change process. Thisarticle, by Lisa Delpit, addresses the issue of Ebonics in the classroom, andraises some salient questions for educators working with youth from amultitude of ethnic backgrounds, as Ebonics is branching out from its originin the African American community to youth of many cultures. The articlecan also be the basis for a broader discussion around equitable teaching ofEnglish language learners.

The "Ebonics Debate" has created much more heat than light for most of thecountry. For teachers trying to determine what implications there might befor classroom practice, enlightenment has been a completely non-existentcommodity. I have been asked often enough recently, "What do you thinkabout Ebonics? Are you for it or against it?" My answer must be neither. Ican be neither for Ebonics or against Ebonics any more than I can be for oragainst air. It exists. It is the language spoken by many of our African-American children. It is the language they heard as their mothers nursed themand changed their diapers and played peek-a-boo with them. It is thelanguage through which they first encountered love, nurturance and joy.

On the other hand, most teachers of those African-American children whohave been least well-served by educational systems believe that theirstudents' life chances will be further hampered if they do not learn StandardEnglish. In the stratified society in which we live, they are absolutely correct.While having access to the politically mandated language form will not, byany means, guarantee economic success (witness the growing numbers ofunemployed African Americans holding doctorates), not having access willalmost certainly guarantee failure.

So what must teachers do? Should they spend their time relentlessly"correcting" their Ebonics-speaking children's language so that it mightconform to what we have learned to refer to as Standard English? Despitegood intentions, constant correction seldom has the desired effect. Suchcorrection increases cognitive monitoring of speech, thereby making talkingdifficult. To illustrate, I have frequently taught a relatively simple new"dialect" to classes of pre-service teachers. In this dialect, the phoneticelement "iz" is added after the first consonant or consonant cluster in eachsyllable of a word. (Maybe becomes miz-ay-biz-ee and apple, iz-ap-piz-le.)After a bit of drill and practice, the students are asked to tell a partner in "iz"language why they decided to become teachers. Most only haltingly attempta few words before lapsing into either silence or into Standard English.During a follow-up discussion, all students invariably speak of theimpossibility of attempting to apply rules while trying to formulate and

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express a thought. Forcing speakers to monitor their language typicallyproduces silence.

Correction may also affect students' attitudes toward their teachers. In arecent research project, middle-school, inner-city students were interviewedabout their attitudes toward their teachers and school. One young womancomplained bitterly, "Mrs. ___ always be interrupting to make you 'talkcorrect' and stuff. She be butting into your conversations when you not eventalking to her! She need to mind her own business." Clearly this student willbe unlikely to either follow the teacher's directives or to want to imitate herspeech style.

Group Identity

Issues of group identity may also affect students' oral production of adifferent dialect. Researcher Sharon Nelson-Barber, in a study of phonologicaspects of Pima Indian language, found that, in grades 1-3, the children'sEnglish most approximated the standard dialect of their teachers. Butsurprisingly, by fourth grade, when one might assume growing competencein standard forms, their language moved significantly toward the localdialect. These fourth graders had the competence to express themselves in amore standard form, but chose, consciously or unconsciously, to use thelanguage of those in their local environments. The researcher believes that,by ages 8-9, these children became aware of their group membership and itsimportance to their well-being, and this realization was reflected in theirlanguage.1 They may also have become increasingly aware of the schools'snegative attitude toward their community and found it necessary -- throughchoice of linguistic form -- to decide with which camp to identify.

What should teachers do about helping students acquire an additional oralform? First, they should recognize that the linguistic form a student brings toschool is intimately connected with loved ones, community, and personalidentity. To suggest that this form is "wrong" or, even worse, ignorant, is tosuggest that something is wrong with the student and his or her family. Todenigrate your language is, then, in African-American terms, to "talk aboutyour mama." Anyone who knows anything about African-American cultureknows the consequences of that speech act!

On the other hand, it is equally important to understand that students who donot have access to the politically popular dialect form in this country, are lesslikely to succeed economically than their peers who do. How can bothrealities be embraced in classroom instruction?

It is possible and desirable to make the actual study of language diversity apart of the curriculum for all students. For younger children, discussionsabout the differences in the ways television characters from different culturalgroups speak can provide a starting point. A collection of the many children'sbooks written in the dialects of various cultural groups can also provide awonderful basis for learning about linguistic diversity,2 as can audio tapedstories narrated by individuals from different cultures, including taping booksread by members of the children's home communities. Mrs. Pat, a teacher

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chronicled by Stanford University researcher Shirley Brice Heath, had herstudents become language "detectives," interviewing a variety of individualsand listening to the radio and television to discover the differences andsimilarities in the ways people talked.3 Children can learn that there are manyways of saying the same thing, and that certain contexts suggest particularkinds of linguistic performances.

Some teachers have groups of students create bilingual dictionaries of theirown language form and Standard English. Both the students and the teacherbecome engaged in identifying terms and deciding upon the best translations.This can be done as generational dictionaries, too, given the proliferation of"youth culture" terms growing out of the Ebonics-influenced tendency for thecontinual regeneration of vocabulary. Contrastive grammatical structures canbe studied similarly, but, of course, as the Oakland policy suggests, teachersmust be aware of the grammatical structure of Ebonics before they canlaunch into this complex study.

Other teachers have had students become involved with standard formsthrough various kinds of role-play. For example, memorizing parts for dramaproductions will allow students to practice and "get the feel" of speakingstandard English while not under the threat of correction. A master teacher ofAfrican-American children in Oakland, Carrie Secret, uses this technique andextends it so that students video their practice performances and self-critiquethem as to the appropriate use of standard English (see the article"Embracing Ebonics and Teaching Standard English"). (But I must add thatCarrie's use of drama and oration goes much beyond acquiring StandardEnglish. She inspires pride and community connections which are trulywondrous to behold.) The use of self-critique of recorded forms may proveeven more useful than I initially realized. California State University-Hayward professor Etta Hollins has reported that just by leaving a taperecorder on during an informal class period and playing it back with nocomment, students began to code-switch -- moving between StandardEnglish and Ebonics -- more effectively. It appears that they may have notrealized which language form they were using until they heard themselvesspeak on tape.

Young students can create puppet shows or role-play cartoon characters --many "superheroes" speak almost hypercorrect standard English! Playing arole eliminates the possibility of implying that the child's language isinadequate and suggests, instead, that different language forms areappropriate in different contexts. Some other teachers in New York City havehad their students produce a news show every day for the rest of the school.The students take on the personae of famous newscasters, keeping incharacter as they develop and read their news reports. Discussions ensueabout whether Tom Brokaw would have said it that way, again taking thefocus off the child's speech.

Although most educators think of Black Language as primarily differing ingrammar and syntax, there are other differences in oral language of whichteachers should be aware in a multicultural context, particularly in discoursestyle and language use. Harvard University researcher Sarah Michaels and

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other researchers identified differences in children's narratives at "sharingtime."4 They found that there was a tendency among young white children totell "topic-centered" narratives--stories focused on one event--and a tendencyamong Black youngsters, especially girls, to tell "episodic" narratives--storiesthat include shifting scenes and are typically longer. While these differencesare interesting in themselves, what is of greater significance is adults'responses to the differences. C.B. Cazden reports on a subsequent project inwhich a white adult was taped reading the oral narratives of black and whitefirst graders, with all syntax dialectal markers removed.5 Adults were askedto listen to the stories and comment about the children's likelihood of successin school. The researchers were surprised by the differential responses givenby Black and white adults.

Varying reactions

In responding to the retelling of a Black child's story, the white adults wereuniformly negative, making such comments as "terrible story, incoherent"and "[n]ot a story at all in the sense of describing something that happened."Asked to judge this child's academic competence, all of the white adults ratedher below the children who told "topic-centered" stories. Most of these adultsalso predicted difficulties for this child's future school career, such as, "Thischild might have trouble reading," that she exhibited "language problems thataffect school achievement," and that "family problems" or "emotionalproblems" might hamper her academic progress.

The black adults had very different reactions. They found this child's story"well formed, easy to understand, and interesting, with lots of detail anddescription." Even though all five of these adults mentioned the "shifts" and"associations" or "nonlinear" quality of the story, they did not find thesefeatures distracting. Three of the black adults selected the story as the best ofthe five they had heard, and all but one judged the child as exceptionallybright, highly verbal, and successful in school.6

This is not a story about racism, but one about cultural familiarity. However,when differences in narrative style produce differences in interpretation ofcompetence, the pedagogical implications are evident. If children whoproduce stories based in differing discourse styles are expected to havetrouble reading, and viewed as having language, family, or emotionalproblems, as was the case with the informants quoted by Cazden, they areunlikely to be viewed as ready for the same challenging instruction awardedstudents whose language patterns more closely parallel the teacher's.

Most teachers are particularly concerned about how speaking Ebonics mightaffect learning to read. There is little evidence that speaking another mutuallyintelligible language form, per se, negatively affects one's ability to learn toread.7 For commonsensical proof, one need only reflect on nonstandardEnglish-speaking Africans who, though enslaved, not only taught themselvesto read English, but did so under threat of severe punishment or death. Butchildren who speak Ebonics do have a more difficult time becomingproficient readers. Why? In part, appropriate instructional methodologies arefrequently not adopted. There is ample evidence that children who do not

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come to school with knowledge about letters, sounds, and symbols need toexperience some explicit instruction in these areas in order to becomeindependent readers (See Mary Rhodes Hoover's article in this issue ofRethinking Schools, page 17). Another explanation is that, where teachers'assessments of competence are influenced by the language children speak,teachers may develop low expectations for certain students and subsequentlyteach them less.8 A third explanation rests in teachers' confusing the teachingof reading with the teaching of a new language form.

Reading researcher Patricia Cunningham found that teachers across theUnited States were more likely to correct reading miscues that were "dialect"related ("Here go a table" for "Here is a table") than those that were"nondialect" related ("Here is a dog" for "There is a dog").9 Seventy-eightpercent of the former types of miscues were corrected, compared with only27% of the latter. He concludes that the teachers were acting out ofignorance, not realizing that "here go" and "here is" represent the samemeaning in some Black children's language.

In my observations of many classrooms, however, I have come to concludethat even when teachers recognize the similarity of meaning, they are likelyto correct Ebonics-related miscues. Consider a typical example:

Text: Yesterday I washed my brother's clothes.Student's Rendition: Yesterday I wash my bruvver close.

The subsequent exchange between student and teacher sounds something likethis:

T: Wait, let's go back. What's that word again? {Points at "washed."}S: Wash.T: No. Look at it again. What letters do you see at the end? You see "e-d."Do you remember what we say when we see those letters on the end of theword?S: "ed"T: OK, but in this case we say washed. Can you say that?S: Washed.T: Good. Now read it again.S: Yesterday I washed my bruvver...T: Wait a minute, what's that word again? {Points to "brother."}S: Bruvver.T: No. Look at these letters in the middle. {Points to "brother."} Rememberto read what you see. Do you remember how we say that sound? Put yourtongue between your teeth and say "th"...

The lesson continues in such a fashion, the teacher proceeding to correct thestudent's Ebonics-influenced pronunciations and grammar while ignoring thatfact that the student had to have comprehended the sentence in order totranslate it into her own language. Such instruction occurs daily and blocksreading development in a number of ways. First, because children becomebetter readers by having the opportunity to read, the overcorrection exhibitedin this lesson means that this child will be less likely to become a fluent

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reader than other children that are not interrupted so consistently. Second, acomplete focus on code and pronunciation blocks children's understandingthat reading is essentially a meaning-making process. This child, whounderstands the text, is led to believe that she is doing something wrong. Sheis encouraged to think of reading not as something you do to get a message,but something you pronounce. Third, constant corrections by the teacher arelikely to cause this student and others like her to resist reading and to resentthe teacher.

Language researcher Robert Berdan reports that, after observing the kind ofteaching routine described above in a number of settings, he incorporated theteacher behaviors into a reading instruction exercise that he used withstudents in a college class.10 He put together sundry rules from a number ofAmerican social and regional dialects to create what he called the "languageof Atlantis." Students were then called upon to read aloud in this dialect theydid not know. When they made errors he interrupted them, using some of thesame statements/comments he had heard elementary school teachersroutinely make to their students. He concludes:

The results were rather shocking. By the time these Ph.D Candidates inEnglish or linguistics had read 10-20 words, I could make them sound totallyilliterate . ... The first thing that goes is sentence intonation: they sound likethey are reading a list from the telephone book. Comment on theirpronunciation a bit more, and they begin to subvocalize, rehearsingpronunciations for themselves before they dare to say them out loud. Theybegin to guess at pronunciations . ... They switch letters around for no reason.They stumble; they repeat. In short, when I attack them for their failure toconform to my demands for Atlantis English pronunciations, they sound verymuch like the worst of the second graders in any of the classrooms I haveobserved.

They also begin to fidget. They wad up their papers, bite their fingernails,whisper, and some finally refuse to continue. They do all the things thatchildren do while they are busily failing to learn to read.

The moral of this story is not to confuse learning a new language form withreading comprehension. To do so will only confuse the child, leading heraway from those intuitive understandings about language that will promotereading development, and toward a school career of resistance and a lifetimeof avoiding reading.

Unlike unplanned oral language or public reading, writing lends itself toediting. While conversational talk is spontaneous and must be responsive toan immediate context, writing is a mediated process which may be writtenand rewritten any number of times before being introduced to publicscrutiny. Consequently, writing is more amenable to rule application -- onemay first write freely to get one's thoughts down, and then edit to hone themessage and apply specific spelling, syntactical, or punctuation rules. Mycollege students who had such difficulty talking in the "iz" dialect, foundwriting it, with the rules displayed before them, a relatively easy task.

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To conclude, the teacher's job is to provide access to the national "standard"as well as to understand the language the children speak sufficiently tocelebrate its beauty. The verbal adroitness, the cogent and quick wit, thebrilliant use of metaphor, the facility in rhythm and rhyme, evident in thelanguage of Jesse Jackson, Whoopi Goldberg, Toni Morrison, Henry LouisGates, Tupac Shakur, and Maya Angelou, as well as in that of many inner-city Black students, may all be drawn upon to facilitate school learning. Theteacher must know how to effectively teach reading and writing to studentswhose culture and language differ from that of the school, and mustunderstand how and why students decide to add another language form totheir repertoire. All we can do is provide students with access to additionallanguage forms. Inevitably, each speaker will make his or her own decisionabout what to say in any context.

But I must end with a caveat that we keep in mind a simple truth: Despite ournecessary efforts to provide access to standard English, such access will notmake any of our students more intelligent. It will not teach them math orscience or geography -- or, for that matter, compassion, courage, orresponsibility. Let us not become so overly concerned with the languageform that we ignore academic and moral content. Access to the standardlanguage may be necessary, but it is definitely not sufficient to produceintelligent, competent caretakers of the future.

©1997 Lisa Delpit

Lisa Delpit is holder of the Benjamin E. Mays Chair of Urban EducationalExcellence at Georgia State University in Atlanta. A former MacArthurfellow, her most recent book is "Other People's Children" (New Press: 1995).

Endnotes

1. S. Nelson-Barber, "Phonologic Variations of Pima English," in R. St. Clairand W. Leap, (Eds.), Language Renewal Among American Indian Tribes:Issues, Problems and Prospects (Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse forBilingual Education, 1982).

2. Some of these books include Lucille Clifton, All Us Come 'Cross theWater (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973); Paul Green (aided byAbbe Abbott), I Am Eskimo -- Aknik My Name (Juneau, AK: AlaskaNorthwest Publishing, 1959); Howard Jacobs and Jim Rice, Once upon aBayou (New Orleans, LA.: Phideaux Publications, 1983); Tim Elder, Santa'sCajun Christmas Adventure (Baton Rouge, LA: Little Cajun Books, 1981);and a series of biographies produced by Yukon-Koyukkuk School District ofAlaska and published by Hancock House Publishers in North Vancouver,British Columbia, Canada.

3. Shirley Brice Heath, Ways with Words (Cambridge, Eng.: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1983).

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4. S. Michaels and C.B. Cazden, "Teacher-Child Collaboration on OralPreparation for Literacy," in B. Schieffer (Ed.), Acquisition of Literacy:Ethnographic Perspectives (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986).

5. C.B. Cazden, Classroom Discourse (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1988).

6. Ibid.

7. R. Sims, "Dialect and Reading: Toward Redefining the Issues," in J.Langer and M.T. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader Meets Author/Bridging theGap (Newark, DE: International Reading Asssociation, 1982).

8. Ibid.

9. Patricia M. Cunningham, "Teachers' Correction Responses to Black-Dialect Miscues Which Are Nonmeaning-Changing," Reading ResearchQuarterly 12 (1976-77).

10. Robert Berdan, "Knowledge into Practice: Delivering Research toTeachers," in M.F. Whiteman (Ed.), Reactions to Ann Arbor: VernacularBlack English and Education (Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics,1980).

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Teaching Diverse LearnersThe Education Alliance at Brown University

http://www.lab.brown.edu/

As with many of the resources in this section, the following nineprinciples could benefit all students in any school, but they arehighlighted here because of the deliberate planning that goes into makingone’s practice responsive to each student, particularly those that havebeen historically marginalized. The nine principles have been convertedinto an observation guide to reflect on equitable classroom practice.

Some possible uses for the observation guide would be:

ß to reflect on one’s own teaching practiceß to assist in developing an equitable curriculumß to evaluate and discuss pedagogy with peersß to create a team/school-wide plan to address the nine principlesß to become comfortable with the elements involved in teaching for

equityß to periodically revisit the effectiveness of one’s own teaching

practice

ONE: ACTIVE TEACHING METHODS

"In our multicultural society, culturally responsive teaching reflects democracy at its highestlevel. [It] means doing whatever it takes to ensure that every child is achieving and ever movingtoward realizing her or his potential."

- Joyce Taylor-Gibson

In Principle: In Practice: What I Observed:

Learning is inquiry-based &discovery-oriented

Focus on themes of personalinterest to students

Content is socially andculturally relevant

Relate questions to real lifeissues

Dynamic partnership betweenteacher & student

Share responsibility forinstructional practice

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TWO: CULTURAL SENSITIVITY

"The increasing diversity in our schools, the ongoing demographic changes across the nation andthe movement towards globalization dictate that we develop a more in-depth understanding ofculture if we want to bring about true understanding among diverse populations."

- Maria Wilson-Portuondo


The "strange" becomes"familiar" throughunderstanding of socio-cultural& linguistic norms

Conduct research, solicitstudent input, pose directedquestions, identify culturalinformants, attend localevents

Cultural differences arebridged through effectivecommunication

Coach students to becomeactive participants in theirown learning

Knowledge is translated intoinstructional practice

Employ practices that draw onstudents' prior knowledge &communication skills

THREE: CULTURALLY MEDIATED INSTRUCTION

"Ongoing multicultural activities within the classroom setting engender a natural awareness ofcultural history, values and contributions."

- Kathleen Serverian-Wilmeth


Multicultural viewpoints &histories are integrated into thecurriculum

Research students' experiencewith learning & teachingstyles

Learning occurs in appropriatesocio-cultural & linguisticsituations

Allow students to speak inprimary language; initiate fieldtrips for language learning

Developmentally equivalentpatterns of behavior arerecognized as such

Encourage diverse ways ofachieving developmentalmilestones

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FOUR: POSITIVE PERSPECTIVES ON PARENTS & FAMILIES

"Whether it’s an informal chat as the parent brings the child to school, or in phone conversationsor home visits, or through newsletters sent home, teachers can begin a dialogue with familymembers that can result in learning about each of the families through genuine communication."

- Sonia Nieto


Parents are active participantsin the education process

Seek to understand parents'hopes, concerns &suggestions

A forum exists for mutuallearning & support

Apprise parents of theservices offered by the school;initiate a parent trainingcomponent

Effective home-schoolpartnerships are maintained

Gain cross-cultural skillsnecessary for successfulexchange & collaboration

FIVE: RESHAPING THE CURRICULUM

"[Schools must] take a serious look at their curriculum, pedagogy, retention and trackingpolicies, testing, hiring practices, and all the other policies and practices that create a schoolclimate that is either empowering or disempowering for those who work and learn there."

- Sonia Nieto


Curriculum is integrated,interdisciplinary, meaningful& child-centered

Develop a coordinated,building-wide strategy

Equity in the areas of race,class, national origin &language is sought &promoted

Present a variety of learningstrategies, responsiveness tothe needs of all students

Higher-order knowledge andskills are developed

Establish high expectations forall students

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SIX: SMALL GROUP INSTRUCTION

"Instructional methods that are student centered, collaborative, and process oriented develop asupportive environment for members of all cultures."



Instruction is cooperative,collaborative, & community-oriented

Provide non-threateningenvironment

Performance, persistence &attitudes improve

Develop higher-order thinkingskills and cognitivedevelopment

Speaking and self-advocacyskills are strengthened

Create bridge between oral &academic language

SEVEN: STUDENT—CONTROLLED CLASSROOM DISCOURSE

"Students . . . need to be at the center of teaching and learning. Successful educatorsacknowledge, respect, and build on the knowledge, beliefs and experiences that children bringwith them to class, affirming the value of students' cultures."


In Principle, students: In Practice, students aregiven opportunities to:

What I Observed:

Discover their own thinkingand learning processes

Make decisions and solveproblems on their own

Become self-confident, self-directed & proactive

Expand their discourserepertoire through frequentexpression

Demonstrate culturalnegotiation skills

Develop their understanding ofcourse material using priorknowledge

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EIGHT: TEACHER AS FACILITATOR

"A caring adult can make a big difference in the educational outcome of any child that is at risk ofexperiencing educational failure."

- Maria Wilson-Portuondo

In Principle, teachers shouldbe:

In Practice, teachers shoulddevelop:

What I Observed:

Guides, mediators, consultants,instructors, advocates

A repertoire of culturallyappropriate teachingapproaches

Empathetic, available,equitable, open, flexible, caring

Knowledge about language &culture of students

Understanding of role playedby language & culture inidentity formation

Awareness of personalethnocentric attitudes

NINE: COMMUNICATION OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS

"When a teacher expresses sympathy over failure, lavishes praise for completing a simple task, oroffers unsolicited help, the teacher may send unintended messages of low expectations."



Instruction is effective,equitable, inclusive & highquality

"Make the familiar strange":question beliefs

All students are respected aseager learners

Provide extensive feedback

Students develop self-esteem,autonomy, self-reliance &motivation

Propose challengingcurriculum

Adapted from its original format.

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Virtual Museum Projects in Native AmericaMark Christal, Paul Resta, and Loriene RoyThe University of Texas at Austinhttp://www.ericit.org/newsletter/Volume23-2/articles.shtml

The Four Directions project is an example of how an educationalorganization took a deliberate approach to culturally responsive, equitableteaching and made it the focal point of their work in Native Americancommunities. Noteworthy is the intentional symbiotic nature of the threecomponents that the project is built around; culturally responsive teaching,cultural revitalization, and cultural collaboration. The virtual museum toursare part of the project’s product and can be viewed by going to the links inthe box below.

The Four Directions project (www.4directions.org), funded by a federalChallenge Grant, worked with 19 American Indian schools in 10 states topromote the use of technology for the purpose of creating and deliveringculturally responsive curriculum. The Four Directions helped these schoolsto develop technology-supported curricula and learning activities that werethematic and interdisciplinary, connecting the values and traditions of thesediverse cultures with core academic standards. One of initiatives of theproject was the production of virtual museums of native culture, which usesWeb page authoring, multimedia production, and new media such aQuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR).

Because of historical circumstances, much of what remains of AmericanIndian material culture resides in museums across the nation and in privatecollections. The virtual museum projects in the Four Directions schools useddigital photography and QuickTime Virtual Reality to “digitally repatriate”Native artifacts for use in the schools’ culturally responsive curricula and toshare with the world on the World Wide Web.

Four Directions Virtual Museum Links

The Virtual Tour of the National Museum of the American Indianhttp://www.conexus.si.edu/VRTour

The Hannahville Indian Community School Virtual Museumhttp://www.hvl.bia.edu/

The Four Directions Projecthttp://www.4directions.org

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QTVR is a photography-based “immersive imaging technology” that enablesa user to explore panoramic spaces and examine objects by rotating them toany viewpoint using a computer mouse. Special regions on the QTVRmovies called “hot spots” trigger various actions when clicked on, such aspicking up a virtual object out of a virtual panoramic space, bringing updetailed views of parts of an object, or displaying a Web page of informationabout the object or panorama.

The Four Directions project also trained students and teachers in oral historytechniques, audio recording skills, and digital audio technology that enabledstudents to make valuable records of the wisdom and memories of tribalelders.

With the assistance of the Four Directions project, several schools developedvirtual museums. The Smithsonian Institute’s National Museum of theAmerican Indian (NMAI) in New York City and the Heard Museum inPhoenix, Arizona were partners in the Four Directions project, and havecollaborated in the production of Native American virtual museums. ThreeFour Directions schools sent teams of students, teachers, and communitymembers to produce a virtual tour of the NMAI exhibitions from theperspective of Native American children. This virtual tour is accessible onthe World Wide Web at http://www.conexus.si.edu/VRTour.

The Heard Museum collaborated with three Four Directions schools toproduce cultural content for school learning projects. Teachers at SebaDalkai and Dilcon, sister Navajo schools in Arizona, used the media studentscreated at the Heard Museum, along with digital audio and video ofcommunity members, to create HyperStudio stacks that illustrated the historyof the schools.

With help from the Four Directions project, other schools have embarked onvirtual museum projects in partnerships with museums in their regions thathave substantial collections of culturally relevant items.

Throughout these various virtual museum projects a model has beenemerging that combines authentic learning projects, culturally responsivepedagogy, and collaboration between museums and schools. This “FourDirections Model of Virtual Museum Projects” consists of three interactingand over-lapping components.

1. Cultural Responsive Teaching: Virtual museum projects are culturallyresponsive, because they teach to and through the culture of the child andbring community concerns and values to the center of the teaching-learning process. Students are motivated to excel because they are doingimportant, authentic work to recover and preserve their heritage. Theygain from the knowledge of museum professionals and the wisdom ofcommunity elders. They develop skills in research, writing, socialstudies, science, mathematics, information literacy, and twenty-firstcentury information technology.

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2. Cultural Revitalization: A common concern among Native Americanpeoples is the recovery and preservation of cultures and languages. Muchof what remains of traditional material cultures resides in museumcollections far from Native American communities. Virtual museumprojects provide a way for communities to “digitally repatriate” preciousitems of cultural heritage. In the Four Directions Model, virtual museumactivities also take place in the Native American communities, wherestudents research and record local materials that supplement themuseum's resources for the virtual museum. Local resources such as oralhistories, cherished heirlooms, traditional stories, dances, and songs,native language and contemporary arts get combined with museummaterials to present the vision of a vital, living culture.

3. Cultural Collaboration: Museums exist to preserve heritage and educatethe public, but Native Americans sometimes object to the way museumexhibitions appropriate cultural property. Native Americans want thepublic to have access to authentic knowledge of their histories andcultures, but they believe that some aspects of their cultures should notbe shared with outsiders. Virtual museum collaborations provide a venuewhere thorny issues of cultural property rights may be addressed andprotocols for cultural collaboration may be designed and levels ofaccessibility decided.

Figure 1: The Four Directions Model of Virtual Museum Projects

The National Museum of the American Indian has also been actively seekingout American Indian schools and colleges for virtual museum partnerships.Two such projects have been conducted at the museum’s Cultural ResourceCenter near Washington D. C. in the past two years. The Four Directions andNMAI virtual museum projects are furthering the concept of virtual museumprojects with American Indian students. The next logical step for thisculturally responsive teaching strategy would be to adapt the practice to otherstudent populations.

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The following books were recommended by school practitioners. Thereviews are drawn from book jackets, publishers, and websites.

Diversity and Motivation: Culturally Responsive TeachingRaymond J. Wlodkowski, Margery B. Ginsberg

Jossey-Basshttp://www.josseybass.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-

0787967424.html

Wlodkowski and Ginsberg have written the foundational book on definingculturally responsive teaching and creating a culturally responsive pedagogy.Their work offers realistic, tested methods for turning learners’ experiencesinto rich teaching and learning opportunities.

“Every day college and university faculty askthemselves the question, 'How can we become moreeffective teachers of a culturally diverse student body?'This book provides the most comprehensive and usefulanswer that I have ever read. Drawing upon years ofexperience and research with students from variouscultural backgrounds, Wlodkowski and Ginsberg offerfaculty a remarkable integration of theory andpractice—full of the kinds of insights and strategies theycan use today.”

- Michael Nettles, professor, Center for the Study of Higher andPostsecondary Education, University of Michigan

Wlodkowski and Ginsberg's Diversity and Motivation addresses the role thatcultural factors play in motivating students. According to the authors,providing a culturally responsive teaching environment involves fourprimary components:

Establish inclusionWhen inclusion is established within the classroom, all learners will feelrespected and connected to one another.

Develop attitudeCreate a favorable disposition among learners toward the learningexperience.

Enhance meaningExpand, refine, and/or increase the complexity of what is being learned in amanner that matters to students. In order to do this, you must consider thevalues and purposes of your students.

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Engender competenceCreate an understanding for learners of how they can be effective in learningsomething of personal value in the classroom.Throughout Diversity and Motivation, you are given theories and specificstrategies for accomplishing each of the four objectives. Hypotheticalsituations provide examples of how you can appropriately deal with culturaltensions and disagreements that arise in the classroom.

Among other things, the authors emphasize ways to reach students whoseprimary language is not English, and they give suggestions on how toeffectively meet each student's individual academic needs. You areencouraged to try out viable alternatives to the typical means of goal setting,research methods and assessment. These options allow students' perspectivesand intrinsic values to be taken into consideration, motivating them to workto the best of their ability. (Excerpted from the Center for InstructionalDevelopment & Distance Education at the University of Pittsburgh)

Raymond J. Wlodkowski and Margery B. Ginsberg combine theirrespective expertise in motivation and multiculturalism to go beyond theusual rhetoric on promoting diversity, offering real-world guidance andsuggestions for successful teaching in today's changing classroomenvironment.

“We can, whenever and wherever we choose, successfully teach allchildren whose schooling is of interest to us. We already know more thanwe need in order to do this. Whether we do it must finally depend onhow we feel about the fact that we haven’t so far.”

- Dr. Ron Edmonds (1982)

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Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and PracticeGeneva Gay (2000)

Teachers College Presshttp://store.tcpress.com/0807739545.shtml

"From her careful analysis of the educational researchand best practices literature, and her wealth ofexperiences from working with P/K-18 students andteachers, Gay clearly explains how culturallyresponsive teaching can be used to dramaticallyinfluence the academic achievement of students ofcolor and other marginalized students."–Carl A. Grant, University of Wisconsin at Madison

"Geneva Gay has written a passionate and inspiringbook that provides a comprehensive explanation of

culturally responsive teaching and how it can make a difference in the livesof students of color. She argues that all teachers, regardless of their ethnicgroup membership, must have the ‘courage, competence, and confidence’ toteach in a culturally relevant manner."–Christine Bennett, Indiana University

"Written by one of the leading interpreters of diversity in the schools, thisbook challenges all teachers to reconsider their pedagogical and personalapproaches to young people in our nation's increasingly multiculturalclassrooms."–Carlos E. Cortés, University of California, Riverside

In this wonderful new volume, Geneva Gay makes a convincing case forusing culturally responsive teaching to improve the school performance ofunderachieving students of color. She combines insights from multiculturaleducation theory, research, and classroom practice to demonstrate thatAfrican, Asian, Latino, and Native American students will perform better, onmultiple measures of achievement, when teaching is filtered through theirown cultural experiences and frames of reference. Key components ofculturally responsive teaching discussed include teacher caring, teacherattitudes and expectations, formal and informal multicultural curriculum,culturally informed classroom discourse, and cultural congruity in teachingand learning strategies. The personal stories woven throughout enliven thedeeply textured scholarly analysis. This is an excellent resource for anyonewho cares about improving and recognizing the factors that shape culturallyresponsive teaching and learning.

Geneva Gay is Professor of Education and Associate of the Center forMulticultural Education at the University of Washington, Seattle.

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Educating Teachers for Diversity: Seeing with a Cultural EyeJacqueline Jordan Irvine (2003)Teachers College Presshttp://store.tcpress.com/0807743577.shtml

Educating Teachers for Diversity addresses thecomplex issues of how culture, race and ethnicity, andsocial class influence the teaching and learningprocesses. The author provides not only an analysis ofcurrent conditions and reforms in education, but alsooffers suggestions and practices for improvingeducational outcomes for all children.

Tackling hard truths and controversial issues head on,the author:

ß Offers advice for closing the achievement gap of low-incomeAfrican American students in urban schools.

ß Focuses on issues of assessment and measurement for K-12 studentsand teachers of color.

ß Explores the declining number of teachers of color in the UnitedStates and its relation to school failure in African American andLatino students.

ß Outlines a curriculum for teacher education programs to help themproduce culturally aware and effective teachers.

ß Examines how colleges of education can reverse the cycle of failurefor students of color by producing teachers who are culturallyresponsive.

ß Concludes with a summary of the work and recommendations ofsuch scholars as James A. Banks and Sonia Nieto.

"In this insightful and wise book, Jacqueline Jordan Irvine reflects on topicsranging from the preparation of future teachers for urban schools to the roleof colleges of education in current reform efforts. Debunking both taken-for-granted assumptions and facile answers to complex problems, she insistsinstead on focusing on what really matters: caring for and about the mostvulnerable and forgotten children in our schools. Anyone interested in thefuture of public education today would do well to read this book."

—Sonia Nieto, author of The Light in Their Eyes: Creating MulticulturalLearning Communities

"This is a book to be read by education school faculty and administrators. Itoffers a design for the revitalization of teacher education that needs to becarefully considered…it is an agenda that must be pursued."

—David G. Imig, President and CEO, American Association of Colleges forTeacher Educators

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Renegotiating Cultural Diversity in American SchoolsPatricia Phelan and Ann Locke Davidson, Editors (1993)

http://www.teacherscollegepress.com/multicultural_studies.html

"This book should be read not just by scholars, but by all who want to knowabout the perspectives of our youngsters."—Kenji Hakuta, Stanford University

"This landmark volume moves beyond stereotypes and ‘the blame game’ tounify us as stakeholders so all students succeed in school."—Catherine Cooper, University of California, Santa Cruz

An intimate look at the lives of young people as they negotiate the world ofthe family with the world of their peers and the demands of school. Providesa clear understanding of features in school and classroom environments thataid or impede students in making transitions among their worlds and theworld of school—both social and academic.

Unique to Adolescents’ Worlds:

Youth’s perspectives are central—here, the students tell theresearchers/educators what is important to them.

Unique conceptual model—the authors have developed a model and typologythat emerged from data gathered directly from interviews and observations.

Transcends categories—this work moves beyond a narrow focus ofindividual ethnic groups to present a model that is applicable tounderstanding diverse adolescents.

Focus on contextual factors that inhibit youth from connecting withschool—rather than viewing individual characteristics as creating risk, theauthors see risk as contained in the borders that students face.

Case study approach—provides an intimacy and authenticity that will engageteachers and students in discussions and analysis about their own classroomsand schools.

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Walking the Color Line:The Art and Practice of Anti-Racist TeachingMark Perry (2000)Teachers College Presshttp://store.tcpress.com/0807739642.shtml

"Perry's meticulous journaling over a period of years asteacher and principal in an inner-city alternative highschool has been transformed into a book that enablesreaders to get a profound sense of daily life in thisschool. It is a rare and special gift for teachers andteacher educators."–Susan Huddleston Edgerton, Western MichiganUniversity

"Perry reveals to us the gestalt of a school climate whereteachers and students, teaching and learning, are

interconnected as part of a whole."–Rosalie Romano, Ohio University

"What is valuable about this book is Mark's willingness to talk with equalcandor about the successes, half successes, near failures, and failures heexperienced; as well as how and what he learned in the process. Reading this,teachers and administrators will both recognize themselves and learn how to,and how not to, proceed."–Barbara Osborne, Alternative High School Teacher, Seattle, Washington

At the heart of this volume and central to current efforts to improve publiceducation is the attempt to create anti-racist, democratic, student-centeredschools. Mark Perry shows how racially mixed teaching faculties can modeldemocratic ideals and how white teachers and administrators of color caneffectively deal with their differences. As a former principal and teacher, heis committed to developing and implementing a culturally relevantcurriculum that offers realistic alternatives to inaction. An honest, readable,and succinct account of real-life teaching, this book provides a framework aswell as valuable insight for all educators, parents, and community activistswho work toward social justice, particularly at the grassroots level.

Mark Perry is a teacher educator, an alternative high school teacher, and aformer principal. He works primarily with marginalized, dropout, andadjudicated students. He holds master’s and doctorate degrees in Educationfrom the University of Illinois at Chicago.

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We Can't Teach What We Don't Know:White Teachers, Multiracial Schools

Gary R. Howard (1999)Teachers College Press

http://store.tcpress.com/080773800X.shtml

"Gary Howard describes in moving and powerful waysthe changes and growth that must take place withinWhite educators in order for them to help create caringand humane schools for the new century."–James A. Banks, Series Editor

"Like Paulo Freire, Gary Howard speaks of his owntransformation as a rebirth. . . . The theoretical work hehas developed on White identity orientations isgroundbreaking."

–From the Foreword by Sonia Nieto

With lively stories and compelling analysis, Gary Howard engages hisreaders on a journey of personal and professional transformation. From his25 years of experience as a multicultural educator, he looks deeply into themirror of his own racial identity to discover what it means to be a culturallycompetent White teacher in racially diverse schools. Inspired by hisextensive travel and collaboration with students and colleagues from manydifferent cultures, We Can’t Teach What We Don’t Know offers a healingvision for the future of education in pluralistic nations.

Gary R. Howard is president and founder of the REACH Center forMulticultural Education in Seattle, Washington.

“Don't limit a child to your own learning, for he was born in anothertime.”

- Rabbinic saying

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Making Assessment Work for Everyone:How to Build on Student StrengthsKusimo, P., Ritter, M.G., Busick, K., Ferguson, C., Trumbull, E., &Solano-Flores, G. (2000)Southwest Educational Development Laboratories (SEDL)http://www.sedl.org/

Making Assessment Work for Everyone: How toBuild on Student Strengths is intended to provideteachers with research information and practicalideas for modifying assessments to make them moreeffective. Throughout the document, examplesdemonstrate how to make the process equitable andbeneficial for students and teachers alike.

Making Assessment Work for Everyone is intended tohelp educators:

ß Understand the essential characteristics of good assessmentß Uncover the strengths and cultural perspectives of diverse learnersß Create or select classroom assessments that meet high standards as

well as support and reveal the learning of every childß Increase awareness of potential sources of bias and inequity in

assessmentsß Use strategies to improve inequitable assessments

Making Assessment Work for Everyone contains eight sections; each providesinformation, suggestions, and opportunities to try out key ideas. In addition,there are activities to use with students and reflective exercises. Briefvignettes bring to life the challenges of equitable assessment and enablereaders to look over the shoulders of educators who have developedstrategies and tips for success. This book is intended to be helpful both toindividual readers and for use as part of a professional development program.Activities for this latter purpose are included with facilitator notes in SectionVII.

Our Guiding Principles

As we encounter more students whose culture and language differ from ourown, we will need to expand the ways we assess their knowledge and skills.The information and guidance offered in this publication for doing so isgrounded in the following research-based realities and in our understandingof what these realities imply for school and, more specifically, for classroompractice:

1. Culture is inherent in every aspect of schooling; therefore, we needto be aware of the cultural values underlying our schooling practicesand how they may result in confusion or conflict for some students.

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2. Diversity should be seen as a benefit and as additive; therefore, thestrengths in all cultures should be acknowledged and built on in theclassroom.

3. Language, the primary vehicle for thought and learning, is inherentin virtually all assessment; therefore, it is important to understandhow the forms and uses of language in assessment coincide orconflict with the forms and uses students have learned in their ownhomes and communities.

4. All learners are born curious and can acquire new knowledge, skills,and patterns of behavior; therefore, when students are not achieving,our educational practices need to change.

5. No single method of assessment is capable of showing achievementon a full range of learning objectives; therefore, multiple assessmentsmust be used to provide adequate opportunities for learners todemonstrate achievement.

6. Assessment experiences should be part of a positive learningprocess; therefore, assessment tasks should not erode students' senseof self-worth.

7. All learners deserve opportunities for authentic assessment of theirlearning and honest feedback; therefore, assessments should makesense to students, and their performance should be reported andinterpreted in terms they can understand.

8. Assessment is a high stakes activity. Assessment outcomes oftendetermine who is allowed to enroll in courses or receive job, college,or scholarship opportunities; therefore, we are ethically bound toensure that it is fair and valid.

9. The most important purpose of assessment is to improve teachingand learning; therefore, assessments that do not contribute to theseprocesses should be questioned.

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Diversity in the Classroom:A Casebook for Teachers and Teacher EducatorsEditor: Judith H. Shulman, Amalia Mesa-Bains (1993)Research for Better Schools & Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.http://www.wested.org/cs/wew/view/rs/54

As schools are grappling with how to translate knowledge around diversityand equity issues into classroom practice, it is important to glimpse theeveryday struggles and successes of educators committed to creatingequitable teaching and learning communities. The case studies in this bookare straightforward, thought provoking, and speak to the teacher/studentrelationships that are at the heart of all learning. This book would be avaluable tool for classroom planning.

This casebook includes 13 compelling first-person accounts of inner-city teachingdilemmas, focusing on the teacher-studentrelationship in multilingual, multicultural,and multi-ethnic classrooms. Each case isfollowed by commentaries by scholars andpractitioners, which add multipleperspectives to each account. Thenarratives provide stimulation for group

discussion by both teachers and professional developers. A companionfacilitator's guide is available.

Read alone or used as the basis for group discussion, these cases have proveda valuable tool for addressing such questions. Written by teachers whoseethnic backgrounds include Japanese-American, Chinese-American, Latino,Filipino, African-American, and Caucasian, the cases help teachers reflectnot just on the barriers of language and customs, but also on deeper, moretroubling aspects of the classroom exchange: how unrecognizedpsychological undercurrents of race, culture, and class can obstruct teachingand learning. Following each case and providing a range of perspectives forinterpreting it are commentaries written by administrators, scholars, andother teachers.

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Savage InequalitiesJonathan Kozol (1991)

Perennial Presshttp://www.cincinnati.com/samepage/book_kozol.html

Savage Inequalities is the eye-opening result ofJonathan Kozol's visits to a number of urban publicschools across America. He effectively explores thelong-term effect of school systems that haveexperienced the hardships of inadequate funding and

inadequate staffing in impoverished neighborhoods. The lives of children aresensitively portrayed, and are described by Kozol as "defenseless emblems ofhope and promise." Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools,published in 1991, won the New England Book Award, and was a NationalBook Critics Circle award finalist in 1992.

"He [Kozol] courageously crosses the unwritten line that makes charges ofracial discrimination taboo in this day and age... a superbly written,thoroughly researched documentary of a world hidden to most." -- ChicagoSun-Times

"... a haunting reminder of Malcolm X's ever urgent question, 'If democracyis equality, why don't we have equality?"' –Mirabella

Recommended readings on multicultural education and culturallyresponsive teaching:

The Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers of African AmericanChildrenGloria Ladson-Billings (1994)

Quote: “ . . .culturally responsive teaching uses student culture in order tomaintain it and to transcend the negative effects of the dominant culture.The negative effects are brought about, for example by not seeing one’shistory, culture, or background represented in the textbook or curriculum orby seeing that history, culture, or background distorted. Or they may resultfrom the staffing pattern in the school (when all teachers and the principal arewhite and only the janitors and cafeteria workers are African American, forexample) and from the tracking of African American students into thelowest-level classes. The primary aim of culturally relevant teaching is toassist in the development of a “relevant black personality” that allowsAfrican American students to choose academic excellence yet still identifywith African and African American culture (p. 17).”

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Radical Equations: Civil Rights from Mississippi to the AlgebraProjectRobert P. Moses, & Charles E. Cobb, Jr. (2001)

Quote: “Math literacy and economic access are how we are going to givehope to the young generation. . . And why focus, as we do, on algebra, of allthings? . .The Algebra Project is founded on the idea that the ongoingstruggle for citizenship and equality for minority people is now linked to anissue of math and science literacy. This idea determines strategies andchoices made about the organization, dissemination, and the content of thecurriculum (p.14).”

Portraits of Teachers in Multicultural Settings: A Critical LiteracyApproachLettie Ramirez, & Olivia M. Gallardo (2001)

Quote: “Critical educators recognize that they cannot change a students’circumstances or environments; however, they find that they can act asagents of change through critically examining how traditional educationpromotes or hinders the student’s success or failure. Teacher and studentalike work together to become part of the problem-solving process. Thisteaching goes beyond celebration of ethnic holidays and into the heart ofwhat is known as “humanizing pedagogy . . .The teacher/student relationshipis at the heart of schooling (p.3).”

Reaching All Students with MathematicsNational Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) (1993)

Quote: “The contributors to this book recognize that strategies andapproaches for enhancing mathematics instruction must be comprehensiveand flexible so that no student is left out (p.3).”“The quality of student-teacher interpersonal communications depends, inpart, on issues of cultural diversity and a healthy respect for differences(Chapters 2, 3, 8, and 13 address a different aspect of this issue) (p.5).”

How People Learn: Bridging Research and PracticeNational Research Council (1999)

Quote: Key Finding #1--“Students come to the classroom withpreconceptions about how the world works. If their initial understanding isnot engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information thatare taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to theirpreconceptions outside the classroom (p.11).”

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Wachale!: Poetry and prose about Growing Up Latino in AmericaI. Stavans (2001)

This work could easily be integrated into a poetry unit and honor the multiplelife experiences of Latino authors.

Recommended Websites:

Online Resources for culturally responsive teaching through KnowledgeLoomhttp://knowledgeloom.org/resources.jsp?location=6&bpinterid=1110&spotlightid=1110

Teaching Diverse Learners: Northeast and Islands Regional EducationalLaboratoryhttp://www.alliance.brown.edu/tdl/

New Horizons for Learning, Teaching and Learning, Multicultural Educationhttp://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/multicultural/front_multicultural.htm

Culturally Engaged Pedagogy, a concept by Renee Moore, CarnegieFoundationhttp://kml2.carnegiefoundation.org/html/poster.php?id=84

Pi Lambda Theta publication, Ed Horizons, on African American students inpublic schools in the September 2002 issuehttp://www.pilambda.org/horizons/v80-4/v80index.htm

Center for Multicultural Education, University of Washington, SeattleResearch on Successful K-12 Programs, including the Algebra Project,AVID, and othershttp://depts.washington.edu/centerme/k-12.htm

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NOTES:

INTEGRATING CURRICULUM

An Introduction

Integrated or interdisciplinary curriculum—the terms are used interchangeably in this collection,though there are various distinctions made by others within the field—has enjoyed renewedattention in recent years. Many fine small schools have worked hard to develop an integratedcurriculum that is contextualized for their students, their community, and their school, district, orstate standards. Small school staff are drawn to integrated curriculum because they believe it bothreflects real-world experience more accurately and better fits newer understandings about howpeople learn best.

Integration is around us everywhere in society and in nature. Most contemporary jobs require theintegration of a range of skills. In today’s workforce, we are given a problem and asked to solveit, often with guidance but infrequently with direct instruction. The “test” is whether or not theproblem gets solved. In traditional schools students are given a set of facts, asked to memorizethem, but then are not given the opportunity to apply them in a way that is applicable to lifeoutside of the school. Disconnection breeds apathy while integration thrives on connections.Integrated learning more accurately approximates the lives of human beings when they are not inschools.

What sometimes comes to mind when teachers think of integrated curriculum is two teacherscombining their classes and teaching their subject-specific material in the same room at the sametime. Although team teaching is an effective way to familiarize oneself with the work of acolleague and to begin helping students make connections between subjects, it is only a beginningto the integration process. A fully integrated curriculum combines disciplines in a synergisticmanner that makes the knowledge of one subject inseparable from that of another subject, withdivision occurring only in the teaching of sophisticated content or vocabulary.

Disciplines—the “subjects” we teach—are artificial constructs that serve effectively as organizersand reservoirs of human knowledge. Most people, however, learn in quite different ways. Threekey understandings seem critical here:

• We learn by connecting new information to familiar information, which is almost alwaysorganized idiosyncratically by individuals, not neatly in a discipline.

• For almost everyone, learning is social—it requires watching and interacting withothers—before it is individual.

• Relevance is critical for most learners—that is, we need to see something useful in newinformation before we expend the energy to integrate new information with existingknowledge.

Integrated curriculum—because it is frequently presented in the form of thematic approaches,often requires project-based learning and flexible student groupings, and usually highlightsrelationships between and among important concepts that cross disciplinary lines—can serve as apowerful aspect of a school’s approach to learning.

Schools that have had little exposure to integrated curriculum have much to gain. By mapping outthe current curriculum and sharing with one another, revelations are likely to occur. Overlap ofmaterials will be found, gaps in content will become clear, and opportunities for cross-disciplinary work will become apparent. Once teachers are aware of one another’s work, and thescience curriculum is no longer a mystery to the English teacher, the space for integrated teachingand learning is created.


This section is divided into three parts: Why Integrate, How to Integrate, and What IntegrationLooks Like. Why Integrate focuses on the history of integration, different models of integration,and what practitioners in the field have to say about integration. How to Integrate takes the readerstep-by-step through the planning of an integrated curriculum, from four of the leading voices incurriculum integration. What Integration Looks Like is a sampling of integrated projects fromschools across the country that have effectively utilized integrated teaching.


WHY INTEGRATE CURRICULUM

Ten Methodologies for Integration

Integrated Curriculum: A Research Study

21st Century Mathematics Education

The Science Curriculum Sequence

A District that Puts Physics First

HOW TO INTEGRATE CURRICULUM

Planning for Curriculum Integration

Integrated Units: A Planning Guide from High Tech High

Planning Integrated Curriculum: The Call to Adventure

Developing Curriculum Across the Disciplines

Criteria for Promising Practice

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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WHAT INTEGRATION LOOKS LIKE

Experiencing Math Through Nature

Dream House Project

The Boat Project

The Ultra 5000 Project

READINGS

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INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: Why Integrate

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Integration of the Disciplines: Ten Methodologies for IntegrationDr. Mark L. Merickel

Oregon State Universityhttp://oregonstate.edu/instruction/ed555/zone3/tenways.htm

Adapted from Integrating Curricula with Multiple Intelligences: Teams,Themes, and Threads,

By Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr (1995)

This resource is based on the work of Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr fromtheir book, Integrating Curricula with Multiple Intelligences: Teams,Themes, and Threads. Dr. Merickel’s expansion on their work gives detaileddescriptions of the ten models and helps the reader visualize the differencebetween the methodologies.

Fogarty and Stoehr’s ten views for integrating curriculum are the mostfrequently used planning models in the field. The ten views define differenttypes of integration examples and various configurations for designingintegrated curriculum. As a teacher, a teaching team, or a whole staff, themodels are a means of assessing current practice, mapping out a course ofaction for future integration, and evaluating a new integrated class or unit.

Form One: Within a Single Discipline

Fragmented

The fragmented methodology is a traditionalcurriculum design which separates topics and coursesinto distinct disciplines. In this model courses areseparated into traditional areas of study:mathematics, science, humanities, social studies, art,technical arts, etc. Each area is defined as an

independent course of study. At the middle, secondary and post-secondarylevels these courses are generally taught by different teachers, in differentlocations or rooms, and students commonly move from classroom toclassroom.

Despite the fragmentation of this methodology, integration can begin bylisting and ranking topics, concepts, and skills to systematically organizecurricular priorities within each subject.

Connected

A connected methodology focuses on the details,subtleties, and interconnections within an individualdiscipline. It is this focus on making connections


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(i.e., one topic to another, one skill to another, or one concept to another)which makes this methodology a simple form of integration. To make this aneffective integration methodology, it is recommended that the instructorassist students with connecting one day's work, or a semester's work andideas, to the next.

It is important to the concept of integration that this methodology directlyrelates ideas within a discipline. Teachers help students make connections byexplicitly making linkages between subject topics, skills, and concepts.

Nested

Nested integration takes advantage of naturalcombinations. Integration is performed by overtlymaking connections or creating combinations. Thiscould be accomplished in a lesson on the circulatorysystem by having the lesson focus on both thecirculatory system and the concept of systems.

Form Two: Across the Disciplines

Sequenced Model

Topics and units are taught independently, but theyare arranged and sequenced to provide a frameworkfor related concepts.

Teachers arrange topics so that similar unitsarticulate. For example, a graphing unit can coincide

with data collection in a weather unit. In higher education, the teacher couldplan units so that students can study the stock market in a math class at thesame time that these same students are studying the Depression in theirhistory class.

In order for this type of integration to take place, it is often necessary that theteachers in both classes plan the sequence of their units so that they will besynchronized. This may mean that the teachers will need to change thesequence of topics contained in the courses textbooks.

"The textbook is not a moral contract that teachers are obliged toteach...teachers are obliged to teach [students]."

- John Adams


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Shared

The shared model brings two distinct disciplinestogether into a single focus. The shared methodologyoverlaps concepts as the organizer.

In this shared approach to integration it is necessarythat the teachers of the two disciplines plan their

teaching, which will take place in the individual classes together.

The two members of this "partnership" (possibly cross-departmental) planthe unit of study by focusing on common topics, concepts and skills. As the"team" identifies these commonalities, they identify overlaps in content.

The partners should examine what concepts and skills the topics and unit(s)have in common.

Webbed

Webbed curricula commonly use a thematic approachto integrate subject matter. Broad themes such aschange, cultures, discovery, environments,interaction, inventions, power, systems, time andwork provide a greater opportunity for teachers ofvarious disciplines to find common topics, conceptsand skills.

Themes may be created which address different concentrations. Three ofthese are concepts, topics and categories. A few examples include:

Concentrations for Integration

Concepts Topics CategoriesChange Community AdventureCulture Partnerships BiographiesDiscovery Relationships Medieval TimesFreedom Society Science Fiction

Webbing:

Webbing is a systematic process for recording brainstorming. The processinvolves all the members of the integrated team, and is used to determine thetopics, concepts and skills to be addressed in the curriculum.


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The illustration shown below is a simple example of a web for the theme:

CHANGE

Brainstorming:

There are many procedures for brainstorming and recording the process. Nomatter which process is used, there are a few guidelines which makebrainstorming more effective.

ß Generate as many ideas as possible.ß Accept all ideas.ß Seek clarification, if necessary, but do not edit at this stage.ß Encourage people to brainstorm on their own before contributing to a

common pool of ideas.ß Remember that brainstorming is an open-ended exercise. At any

time, new ideas or directions may be introduced.ß Do not close down the process too soon. Provide ample thinking

time.

Threaded

The threaded approach to integration is ametacurricular approach where big ideas are enlarged.This methodology threads thinking skills, socialskills, study skills, graphic organizers, technology,and multiple intelligences (see Howard Gardner)approach to thinking throughout all disciplines.

The threaded approach supersedes all subject matter content. Using thisapproach, interdepartmental teams can focus on thinking skills to integratewith content information.

The threaded approach takes learning to a synthesis level. That is, teachersincorporate into their teaching strategies such techniques as inquiry and self-


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reflection. For example, a teacher may ask the student: what do you thinkabout that? Or, what thinking skills did you use and find most helpful insolving the problem?

Integrated

In an integrated methodology interdisciplinary topicsare arranged around overlapping concepts andemergent patterns. This process blends the disciplinesby finding overlapping skills, concepts, and attitudesfound across the disciplines.

Much like the shared methodology, integration is a result of shifting relatedideas out of the subject matter content. An important process of theintegrated methodology is that teachers work together on the topics or themesas commonalities emerge.

Form Three: Within and Across Learners

Immersed

The immersed methodology focuses all curricularcontent on interest and expertise. With thismethodology, integration takes place within thelearners, with little or no outside intervention.

For example, students such as doctoral candidates aregenerally immersed in a field of study. These students integrate allinformation and data to answer a question or interest or solve a problem. Thisimmersed study is often undertaken in a field of intense interest or passion.

Similarly, a young child will immerse themselves in drawing pictures orwriting stories about subjects which they are extremely interested. This isnormal behavior which is often viewed by teachers as obsessive andtherefore diverted.

Just as most artists and writers have a passion for their field, immersedlearners continually make connections between their chosen topic of interestand subjects. Immersion takes advantage of this intense interest and allowsstudents to make these connections and self-direct their learning based onthose interests.

Networked

A networked methodology creates multipledimensions and directions of focus. Likebrainstorming, it provides various ideas and ways ofdiscovering.


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The networked methodology is totally student centered. It professes that onlythe learner can direct the integration process. The methodology proposes thatthe learner knows their topic and can self-direct their focus on the necessaryresources both within and across subject areas.

Networks are created between the learner and various information systems,subject matter experts, and others who have an interest, experience orknowledge of the topic or theme.

“Only in education, never in the life of the farmer, sailor, merchant,physician, or laboratory experimenter, does knowledge mean primarily astore of information aloof from doing.”

- John Dewey


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Integrated CurriculumKathy Lake

Northwest Regional Education Laboratory’sSchool Improvement Research Series

http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html

For those educators who want to analyze the research done on integratingcurriculum, this report by Kathy Lake explicates the theory, history, andevidence behind the argument for integrated curriculum. The references thatfollow the article are also helpful to review.

“The integrated curriculum is a great gift to experienced teachers. It's likegetting a new pair of lenses that make teaching a lot more exciting and helpus look forward into the next century. It is helping students take control oftheir own learning.”

- M. Markus, media specialist, quoted in Shoemaker, September 1991, p. 797

“I'm learning more in this course, and I'm doing better than I used to do whensocial studies and English were taught separately.”

- Student, quoted in Oster 1993, p. 28

This teacher and student express an increasingly widespread enthusiasm forcurriculum integration. While not necessarily a new way of looking atteaching, curriculum integration has received a great deal of attention ineducational settings. Based both in research and teachers' own anecdotalrecords of success, educational journals are reporting many examples ofteachers who link subject areas and provide meaningful learning experiencesthat develop skills and knowledge, while leading to an understanding ofconceptual relationships.

Definitions

Integrated curriculum, interdisciplinary teaching, thematic teaching,synergistic teaching.... When attempting to define integrated curriculum, it isalso necessary to look at related terms. Several definitions are offered here.As this paper is narrowed to K-12 integrated curriculum, definitions fromvocational and higher education are not included, although there is a growinginterest in both of those areas in the interdisciplinary, integrated curriculum.The reader interested in specifics about interdisciplinary work in those fieldsis invited to consult the General References at the end of this report.

A basic definition is offered by Humphreys (Humphreys, Post, and Ellis1981) when he states, "An integrated study is one in which children broadlyexplore knowledge in various subjects related to certain aspects of theirenvironment" (p. 11). He sees links among the humanities, communicationarts, natural sciences, mathematics, social studies, music, and art. Skills and


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knowledge are developed and applied in more than one area of study. Inkeeping with this thematic definition, Shoemaker defines an integratedcurriculum as

...education that is organized in such a way that it cuts across subject-matterlines, bringing together various aspects of the curriculum into meaningfulassociation to focus upon broad areas of study. It views learning and teachingin a holistic way and reflects the real world, which is interactive. (1989, p. 5)

Within this framework there are varied levels of integration, as illustrated byPalmer (1991, p. 59), who describes the following practices:

ß Developing cross-curriculum sub-objectives within a givencurriculum guide

ß Developing model lessons that include cross-curricular activities andassessments

ß Developing enrichment or enhancement activities with a cross-curricular focus including suggestions for cross-curricular "contacts"following each objective

ß Developing assessment activities that are cross-curricular in natureß Including sample planning wheels in all curriculum guides.

Dressel's definition goes beyond the linking of subject areas to the creation ofnew models for understanding the world:

In the integrative curriculum, the planned learning experiences not onlyprovide the learners with a unified view of commonly held knowledge (bylearning the models, systems, and structures of the culture) but also motivateand develop learners' power to perceive new relationships and thus to createnew models, systems, and structures. (1958, pp. 3-25)

Another term that is often used synonymously with integrated curriculum isinterdisciplinary curriculum. Interdisciplinary curriculum is defined in theDictionary of Education as "a curriculum organization which cuts acrosssubject-matter lines to focus upon comprehensive life problems or broadbased areas of study that brings together the various segments of thecurriculum into meaningful association" (Good 1973). The similaritybetween this definition and those of integrated curriculum is clear. Jacobsdefines interdisciplinary as "a knowledge view and curricular approach thatconsciously applies methodology and language from more than onediscipline to examine a central theme, issue, problem, topic, or experience"(1989, p. 8). This view is supported by Everett, who defines interdisciplinarycurriculum as one that "combines several school subjects into one activeproject since that is how children encounter subjects in the real world-combined in one activity."

These definitions support the view that integrated curriculum is aneducational approach that prepares children for lifelong learning. There is astrong belief among those who support curriculum integration that schoolsmust look at education as a process for developing abilities required by life in


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the twenty-first century, rather than discrete, departmentalized subject matter.In general, all of the definitions of integrated curriculum or interdisciplinarycurriculum include:

ß A combination of subjectsß An emphasis on projectsß Sources that go beyond textbooksß Relationships among conceptsß Thematic units as organizing principlesß Flexible schedulesß Flexible student groupings.

Several authors have gone beyond a single definition of curriculumintegration to a continuum of integration. Fogarty has described ten levels ofcurricula integration (1991). The following chart summarizes some of herwork. The reader who is interested in a more complete explanation is referredto Fogarty's book, The Mindful School.


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This work has been supported by others involved with the implementation ofcurriculum integration (Jacobs 1989; Shoemaker 1989). Thesedifferentiations may move from two teachers teaching the same topic but intheir own separate classes (e.g., both English and history teachers teachingabout the same period of history), to team design of thematic units, tointerdisciplinary courses or thematic units, to a fully integrated curriculum,which is also referred to as synergistic teaching. Bonds, Cox, and Gantt-Bonds (1993) write:

Synergistic teaching goes beyond the blurring of subject area lines to aprocess of teaching whereby all the school subjects are related and taught insuch a manner that they are almost inseparable. What is learned and appliedin one area of the curriculum is related and used to reinforce, providerepetition, and expand the knowledge and skills learned in other curriculumareas. This process of synergistic teaching allows the student to quicklyperceive the relationships between learning in all curriculum areas and itsapplication throughout each of the school subjects.... Synergistic teachingdoes more than integrate; it presents content and skills in such a manner thatnearly all learning takes on new dimensions, meaning, and relevance becausea connection is discerned between skills and content that transcendscurriculum lines. In a synergistic classroom, simultaneous teaching ofconcepts and skills without regard to curriculum areas would have a greatereffect that the sum of learning skills and concepts in individual subject areas.

Background

It is taken for granted, apparently, that in time students will see forthemselves how things fit together. Unfortunately, the reality of the situationis that they tend to learn what we teach. If we teach connectedness andintegration, they learn that. If we teach separation and discontinuity, that iswhat they learn. To suppose otherwise would be incongruous. (Humphreys1981, p. xi).

The subject of curriculum integration has been under discussion off and onfor the last half-century, with a resurgence occurring over the past decade.The "explosion" of knowledge, the increase of state mandates related tomyriad issues, fragmented teaching schedules, concerns about curriculumrelevancy, and a lack of connections and relationships among disciplineshave all been cited as reasons for a move towards an integrated curriculum(Jacobs 1989). Almost every teacher has experienced the feeling that "therejust isn't enough time to get it all in" or "the school day just isn't long enoughfor all that I'm supposed to do; it seems that every year there are more thingsadded to the curriculum." This feeling of frustration is one of the motivationsbehind development of an integrated curriculum. Teachers see this as part ofthe solution to the requirements that pull teachers in different ways.

These forces in contemporary schools are reinforced by Benjamin (1989, pp.8-16), when he cites the trends towards global interdependence and theinterconnectedness of complex systems, the increase in pace and complexityof the twenty-first century, the expanding body of knowledge, and the need


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for workers to have the ability to draw from many fields and solve problemsthat involve interrelated factors.

Each of these trends is relevant to the discussion of integrated curriculum, asschools move away from teaching isolated facts toward a more constructivistview of learning, which values in-depth knowledge of subjects. This viewfinds its basis in the work of Piaget, Dewey, Bruner, and others who hold aholistic view of learning. Each of these theorists is concerned with childrenhaving an understanding of concepts and underlying structures. Proponentsof the progressive education movement of the 1930s advocated an integratedcurriculum, sometimes identified as the "core curriculum" (Vars 1987). Themovement towards integrated curriculum is a move away from memorizationand recitation of isolated facts and figures to more meaningful concepts andthe connections between concepts. The twenty-first century requirement for aflexible use of knowledge goes beyond a superficial understanding ofmultiple isolated events to insights developed by learning that is connected-or integrated. Perkins advocates teaching for transfer and thoughtful learningwhen he states:

A concern with connecting things up, with integrating ideas, within andacross subject matters, and with elements of out-of-school life, inherently is aconcern with understanding in a broader and a deeper sense. Accordinglythere is a natural alliance between those making a special effort to teach forunderstanding and those making a special effort toward integrative education(1991, p.7).

This view supports the notion of curriculum integration as a way of makingeducation more meaningful. Concerns about national achievement levels andhigh dropout rates have put the spotlight on any educational change that canlead to increased student success. In addition to the realization thatcurriculum integration may be an effective element in making education bothmanageable and relevant, there is a body of research related to how childrenlearn that supports curriculum integration. Cromwell (1989) looks at how thebrain processes and organizes information. The brain organizes newknowledge on the basis of previous experiences and the meaning that hasdeveloped from those experiences. The brain processes many things at thesame time, and holistic experiences are recalled quickly and easily. "Thehuman brain," writes Shoemaker, "actively seeks patterns and searches formeaning through these patterns" (p. 13).

This research is supported by Caine and Caine (1991) when they connectneuro-psychology and educational methodologies and state that the searchfor meaning and patterns is a basic process in the human brain. In fact, thebrain may resist learning fragmented facts that are presented in isolation.Learning is believed to occur faster and more thoroughly when it is presentedin meaningful contexts, with an experiential component. Of course, everybrain-every student-is unique. While the search for patterns and context maybe universal, every learner will have his/her own learning style. To meetthese diverse needs means providing choices for students.


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Put to use in the classroom, the brain research points toward interdisciplinarylearning, thematic teaching, experiential education, and teaching that isresponsive to student learning styles. These finding are summarized byShoemaker (1991, pp. 793-797).

The current movement toward an integrated curriculum, then, has its basis inlearning theorists who advocate a constructivist view of learning. There is abody of brain research that supports the notion that learning is bestaccomplished when information is presented in meaningful, connectedpatterns. This includes interdisciplinary studies that link multiple curricularareas. There are many examples in the literature of such efforts by K-12teachers, as well as those teachers involved in vocational education andhigher education.

Another rationale for curriculum integration finds its basis in thecommonsense wisdom of teachers, who are coping with an increased body ofknowledge, large classes, and many mandates related to everything fromdrug awareness to AIDS to bus safety. When all of these requirements areadded to the traditional body of knowledge for which teachers feelresponsible, integration is seen as one way to meet both the needs of thestudents and the requirements of the state. The integration of curricular areasand concepts allows teachers to assist students as they prepare for the nextcentury.

Finally, the movement toward a global economy and internationalconnections, as well as the rapid changes in technology, are pushingeducation toward integration. The ability to make connections, to solveproblems by looking at multiple perspectives, and to incorporate informationfrom different fields, will be an essential ingredient for success in the future.

An enduring argument for integration is that it represents a way to avoid thefragmented and irrelevant acquisition of isolated facts, transformingknowledge into personally useful tools for learning new information (Lipson,et al. 1993, p. 252).

Key References

Aschbacher, P. "Humanitas: A Thematic Curriculum." EducationalLeadership 49/2 (1991): 16-19.

Benjamin, S. "An Ideascope for Education: What Futurists Recommend."Educational Leadership 47/1 (1989): 8-16.

Bonds, C.; Cox, C., III; and Gantt-Bonds, L. "Curriculum Wholeness throughSynergistic Teaching." The Clearing House 66/4 (1993): 252-254.

Brandt, R. "On Interdisciplinary Curriculum: A Conversation with HeidiHayes Jacobs." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 24-26.

Brophy, J., and Alleman, J. "A Caveat: Curriculum Integration Isn't Always aGood Idea." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 66.


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Caine, R., and Caine, G. Making Connections: Teaching and the HumanBrain. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment, 1991.

Cromwell, S. "A New Way of Thinking: The Challenge of the Future."Educational Leadership 49/1 (1989): 60-64.

Dressel, P. "The Meaning and Significance of Integration." In TheIntegration of Educational Experiences, 57th Yearbook of the NationalSociety for the Study of Education, edited by Nelson B. Henry. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, 1958, 3-25.

Edgerton, R. Survey Feedback from Secondary School Teachers that areFinishing their First Year Teaching from an Integrated MathematicsCurriculum. Washington, DC, 1990. (ED 328 419)

Fogarty, R. The Mindful School: How to Integrate the Curricula. Palatine,IL: Skylight Publishing, Inc., 1991.

Friend, H. The Effect of Science and Mathematics Integration on SelectedSeventh Grade Students: Attitudes Toward and Achievement in Science. NewYork: New York City Board of Education, 1984.

Gehrke, N. "Explorations of Teachers' Development of IntegrativeCurriculums." Journal of Curriculum Supervision 6/2 (1991): 107-112.

Good, C. (Ed.). Dictionary of Education, Third Edition. New York: McGrawHill, 1973.

Greene, L. "Science-Centered Curriculum in Elementary School."Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991): 48-51.

Humphreys, A.; Post, T.; and Ellis, A. Interdisciplinary Methods: AThematic Approach. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing Company,1981.

Jacobs, H. H. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation.Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development,1989.

Levitan, C. "The Effects of Enriching Science by Changing Language Artsfrom a Literature Base to a Science Literature Base on Below Average 6thGrade Readers." Journal of High School Science Research 2/2 (1991): 20-25.

Lipson, M.; Valencia, S.; Wixson, K.; and Peters, C. "Integration andThematic Teaching: Integration to Improve Teaching and Learning."Language Arts 70/4 (1993): 252-264.


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MacIver, D. "Meeting the Need of Young Adolescents: Advisory Groups,Interdisciplinary Teaching Teams, and School Transition Programs." PhiDelta Kappan 71/6 (1990): 458-465.

Markus, M., media specialist. Quoted in Shoemaker, B. "Education 2000Integrated Curriculum." Phi Delta Kappan 72/10 (1991): 797.Meckler, T. Reading Improvement Using the Health Curriculum. Paperpresented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational ResearchAssociation, San Francisco, CA, April 1992. (ED 254 836)

Oster, L. "Sub-Saharan Africa: An Interdisciplinary Curriculum Unit."English Journal 82/4 (1993): 24-28.

Palmer, J. "Planning Wheels Turn Curriculum Around." EducationalLeadership 49/2 (1991): 57-60.

Pappas, C. "Focus on Research: Collaborating with Teachers DevelopingIntegrated Language Arts Programs in Urban Schools." Language Arts 70/4(1993): 297-303.

Perkins, D. N. "Educating for Insight." Educational Leadership 49/2 (1991):4-8.

Schmidt, W. Curriculum Integration: Its Use in Language Arts Instruction.Research Series Number 140. East Lansing, MI: Institute for Research onTeaching, 1983. (ED 241 942)

Shoemaker, B. "Integrative Education: A Curriculum for the Twenty-FirstCentury." Oregon School Study Council 33/2 (1989).

Vars, G. A Bibliography of Research on the Effectiveness of Block-TimePrograms. Ithica, NY: Junior High School Project, Cornell University, 1965.

Vars, G. Interdisciplinary Teaching in the Middle Grades: Why and How.Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, 1987.

Vye, N. The Effects of Anchored Instruction for Teaching Social Studies:Enhancing Comprehension of Setting Information. Paper presented at theAnnual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston,MA, April 1990. (ED 317 984)

Willett, L. The Efficacy of Using the Visual Arts to Teach Math and ReadingConcepts. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, April 1992. (ED 348171)

Williams, D. A Naturalistic Study of Unified Studies: A Holistic High SchoolProgram. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AmericanEducational Research Association, Chicago, IL, April 1991. (ED 333 552)


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Ten Reasons to Teach an Integrated Curriculum

10. Unless you have 50 hours a day to teach, you'll never get it all in.

9. An integrated curriculum allows science and social studies toframe your reading, writing, and math.

8. The brain thrives on connections.

7. Life is not divided into neat little blocks of time called science,math, reading, writing, social studies, and recess.

6. Problem solving skills soar when all of our knowledge and higherlevel thinking from all curriculum areas are tapped.

5. Real literature in real books provides an authentic diving boardinto learning all subjects. Award-winning literature providesmodels for problem solving, peer relationships, characterdevelopment, and skill building as students are captivated byexciting adventures with realistic characters who go throughproblems very much like their own or problems (like war) fromwhich they will learn historical truths.

4. School's got it backwards! In real life you are tested with aproblem and then must scramble for answers, but in traditionalschool you are given the answers and asked to... regurgitate them.

3. Group interaction and team building inherent in an integratedcurriculum depend on using various strengths and skills to createbridges to understanding.

2. Your standardized test scores will hit the top! By inspiringstudents to think, to love learning, and to put their learning towork in authentic ways, your kids will be equipped for whatevercurves they might be thrown...on standardized tests and in life!

1. Students LOVE an integrated curriculum and thrive on itschallenges!

- The Little Red Schoolhouse, 2002


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Integrated Curriculum:A Driving Force in 21st-Century Mathematics EducationJudy Spicerhttp://www.enc.org/

Judy Spicer has written a succinct study on integrated mathematics thatcovers the history of integrated mathematics, the controversy surrounding it,the testimony to its effectiveness, its challenges, and the outcome on studentlearning and teacher satisfaction. Often, the lines dividing the segments ofthe high school mathematics curriculum (algebra, geometry, calculus, etc.)are just as static as those between history and science, or English and art. Thework of Judy Spicer, and others, is about blurring those lines to create aholistic model for mathematics education.

An integrated high school mathematics curriculum offers an approach toteaching and learning that is vastly different from the compartmentalizedmathematics curriculum (arithmetic, algebra, geometry, more algebra, andpre-calculus/calculus) commonly found in U.S. classrooms. The idea is notnew. Major national education groups have issued reports--from the 1893Committee of Ten Report to NCTM's April 2000 Principles and Standardsfor School Mathematics (PSSM)--that have encouraged greater integration ofthese subjects. Textbooks that integrate mathematics have been around sincethe 1920s (NCTM Yearbook, 2000, p. 2). Support for an integratedcurriculum is strong among leaders in mathematics education.

The controversy comes not from theory but from practice. The argumentsbegan in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the National ScienceFoundation (NSF) funded several major projects to provide models forintegrated mathematics curricula. Implementation of these integratedcurricula raised objections from those to whom the traditional curriculumwas sacrosanct. Disagreement about the integrated curriculum becameinterwoven with other controversial issues such as cooperative learning, theuse of technology, alternative assessments, and the teacher-as-a-guide modelof teaching. Thus, the integrated curricula became a focus point of whatcame to be known as the math wars.

Many critics of integrated mathematics point out that few teachers areprepared to handle that kind of curriculum. Teachers who lack a deepknowledge of the mathematics content may struggle and as a result areaccused of teaching fuzzy mathematics. Lack of teacher preparation is theprincipal reason many school districts hesitate to adopt an integratedmathematics program (Dialogues, 2001).

Nevertheless, calls to the publishers of five NSF-funded integrated curriculalisted on the COMPASS (Curricular Options in Mathematics for AllSecondary Students) web site (www.ithaca.edu/compass/frames.htm)revealed that these programs were used in more than 1,200 schools in at least39 states during the 2000-2001 school year. Clearly, teachers all over the


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United States have responded positively to the challenge of teaching anintegrated high school mathematics curriculum. They firmly believe in thebenefits of showing students that mathematics is an integrated whole andhow mathematics relates to the world beyond the classroom.In researching this article, I corresponded with eight teachers who are findingsuccess with NSF-funded and publisher-developed integrated mathematicscurricula. Their enthusiasm contradicts today's embattled math-warsenvironment.

Re-energized Teachers

A veteran of 35 years of teaching, Rosalie Griffin reports that during the last10 years she has been re-energized and inspired by a dynamic integratedcurriculum that provides challenges for all students. Griffin notes, "Thechanges that occurred from using this curriculum were beyond ourexpectations. Not only did student grades improve, but we also receivedfeedback from students that they finally understood math and could see howit was used in real life."

The curriculum Griffin uses begins each unit with a real-world word problemthat "really engages students and makes math relevant to daily life. The useof the graphing calculator made math come alive and provided the power ofvisualization of what had previously been presented as a system of symbolsthat were abstract and meaningless to students."

She continues, "The thematic threads that weave through the curriculum pushstudents to look for patterns, make conjectures, and validate findings. Thisprocess enables students to develop higher-level reasoning skills and tobecome critical thinkers."

Barbara MacDonald, mathematics department chair with 27 years ofexperience, enjoys the student engagement: "Use of real life data allows forinteresting discussions. An integrated curriculum also causes our students tothink more. The hands-on activities make it more difficult for students to justsit."

In only the second year using the integrated program, Jim Kearns,department head for math, science, and technology at his high school, isenthusiastic, "Students who didn't have an understanding of what slope wasin the old curriculum are now describing angle measure by the slope. Theyare making connections that I thought were beyond them."

The Challenges

Change is difficult for everyone involved--students, parents, and teachers.Yet, even as the teachers recognize the challenges, their focus is on thebenefits.

For students, sometimes those who are most successful with traditionalmathematics programs face the greatest challenges with the new. SandieGilliam, National Board Certified Teacher and winner of the Presidential


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Award for Excellence in Mathematics Teaching, explains: "What I find isthat for the students who have previously learned (or so they think) to followthe teacher's directions, do 20 practice problems, and memorize for the test,doing the integrated program actually is harder for them. Instead of thinkingdeeply into the mathematics to conceptually understand what mathematicallyis happening, they feel that the mimicking approach is actually easier. Anintegrated program is the best for all students, just like eating vegetables isvery healthy for humans. Many humans hate vegetables and neglect eatingthem. In the end, it is their body's health that suffers."

Jim Kearns admits, "The students have had a difficult time transitioning tothe new curriculum series since they were used to memorizing simpleprocedures, doing multiple practice problems, and taking tests and quizzes ona small selection of topics."

Sometimes parents resist the change, notes Helen Crowley. "This curriculumdoesn't look like 'real math' (i.e., the algebra we used to memorize when wewere in school) to parents. It is difficult for many parents to help theirchildren because they can't find problems in the book that show them how todo the problems we assign. Also, some tutors find it difficult to tutor studentsbecause they have not been exposed to this type of curriculum before."

Gaby McMillian, a teacher with 10 years experience, describes thechallenges faced by teachers, "Pretty much everything had to change. We hadto change our role in the classroom from in-front lecturer to classroomfacilitator. We had to learn to incorporate technology, specifically thegraphing calculator. We had to manage groups, lead whole-class discussions,change our questioning techniques, change our ideas about assessment,change our ideas about how students learn, change our expectations of theircapabilities--and work harder!"

Helen Crowley says, "The real challenge to teaching this way is that youmust be very familiar with the material and willing to risk having studentstake you in a direction other than the one you had planned for the lesson.This is also the most exciting part of using the curriculum because we arereally doing math more often, as opposed to pushing around numbers andvariables."

"Our teachers needed to learn more mathematics," says Barbara MacDonald."We needed to work together to explore different topics. The integratedcurriculum forced teachers who taught predominately algebra or geometry tocombine skills. Yes, it takes more work to make the transition, and yes, I amsure some teachers would like to return to a traditional program. However, inworking through the challenges, our teachers have become a more cohesivestaff with common goals."

The Payoff

Despite the challenges of making the change, the teachers feel that theintegrated curricula are making it possible for them to meet two tightly


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intertwined goals--helping all students achieve mathematics success anddemonstrating that success on high-stakes assessments.

Sandie Gilliam comments, "For the gifted students, who by nature may wantto know why things are happening and how formulas or equations develop,this program enables them to get deeper into the mathematics than theywould in a traditional program. For the lower-level students who need ahands-on approach and real-life problems in mathematics to work with, thisprogram best serves their needs."

Mathematics department chair at the University of Illinois Laboratory HighSchool, Craig Russell reports, "I see an important benefit to those strongmath students who are committed to lots of non-math activities (music,sports, hobbies) and who tend to race through homework assignments. Theintegrated curriculum makes those students slow down and think about theproblem setting and actually problem solve (the way adults solve problems)by trying to decide which tools to use."

Gaby McMillian says, "Right now we are seeing a huge increase in thenumber of students who opt for the pre-AP course and in the numberenrolling in upper-level classes. We have gone from only seven students inAP Calculus to 32, and from 19 students in AP Statistics to 99 for the 2001-02 school year."

McMillian goes on, "All our test scores have gone up. We are seeing muchbetter understanding of math concepts, as well as retention. Reading is better.'Word problems' are so much a part of what students do daily that there is nostruggle against them."

Pat McCarthy, a teacher with 12 years experience, observes, "Because scoresfor our general math population were low, we were looking to provide acurriculum to help boost scores at that level. These students are now takingfour years of math. We had a couple of these students take the SAT this year--that never happened when we had just general math."

"As we analyzed the 1998 and 1999 results of our state tests, we noticed thatwe had a population of students who failed," says Jim Kearns. "These werethe students who entered high school without completing algebra in gradeeight. For both of these exams, 100 percent of these students failed. We feltthat the traditional approach was not working. After we instituted ourintegrated curriculum, these same students found the state test reasonable.Just to have that feeling of confidence in their math ability is a change fromthe notion that they cannot do mathematics."

Rosalie Griffin describes the situation in her inner-city high school: "When Iwas named math department chair in 1990, one of my major concerns was toaddress the high failure rate of 'lower-level' students enrolled in our two-yearAlgebra I course. If a change in curriculum could make a difference, thisgroup would surely be the test. My inner-city school has struggled with thechallenge of raising test scores especially on the Connecticut AcademicPerformance Test (CAPT) given to all sophomores. With the second group of


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students using integrated curriculum, the top two scores in math on theCAPT were from our students. Quite an achievement!"

According to Craig Russell, the benefit of an integrated curriculum for state-mandated testing depends on the testing program: "High-stakes tests in somestates gear mathematics portions toward problem solving, with rubricssupporting thought process as well as skill development. To the extent thatthat kind of testing becomes prevalent, integrated curricula are well suited topreparing students for the tests without having to teach to the test. Theopposite would be true for high-stakes tests focusing on low-level factualknowledge and rote skill demonstration."

Gaby McMillian concludes, "I used our results on our state test to argue forintegrated mathematics. The test is becoming increasingly challenging. It isalso being written to defy short-term test-taking strategies. A student musthave a deeper understanding of the math and a larger toolbox of skills andproblem-solving strategies."

References

National Commission on Mathematics and Science Teaching. (2000). BeforeIt's Too Late. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.

NCTM. (1992). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for SchoolMathematics, Addenda Series, Grades 9-12. Reston, VA: Author.

NCTM. (1989). Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for SchoolMathematics. Reston, VA: Author.

NCTM. (January/February 2001). Mathematics Education Dialogues.Reston, VA: Author.

NCTM. (2000). NCTM Yearbook: Learning Mathematics for a New Century.Reston, VA: Author.

NCTM. (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston,VA: Author.

Stigler, James W. & Heibert, James. (1999). The Teaching Gap. New York:Free Press.

The following teachers contributed to this article by responding to emailfrom the author. Our thanks to:

ß Helen Crowley, Southington High School, Southington, Connecticutß Sandie Gilliam, San Lorenzo Valley High School, Felton, Californiaß Rosalie Griffin, Crosby High School, Waterbury, Connecticutß Jim Kearns, Lynnfield High School, Lynnfield, Massachusettsß Pat McCarthy, Portsmouth High School, Portsmouth, Rhode Island


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ß Barbara MacDonald, North Allegheny Intermediate High School,Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

ß Gaby McMillian, Harlandale High School, San Antonio, Texasß Craig Russell, University of Illinois Laboratory High School,

Urbana, Illinois

Former high school mathematics teacher Judy Spicer is senior mathematicsabstractor for ENC.

On aligning curriculum across disciplines:

“We’re growing eucalyptus to see if eucalyptus extract stops thegermination of different seeds like oat, rye, and diachondria. In math classwe’re doing statistics for that experiment, and learning to use Excel so wecan make a graph of our results. Through that I learned about statistics,which I can use in other things I do. In humanities we’re writing a paperabout our project; and the writing is easier because I actually did it, I’mnot just reporting what someone else did. You could do the experiment,but if you don’t have your statistics or results, or you can’t read them,then the project is worthless. Or if you can prove something but notexplain it in writing, then what’s the point of doing it?”

- Monica, student at High Tech High.Excerpted from the High Tech High Summer Institute handbook (2003)


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The Science Curriculum Sequence: Leon Lederman's ViewLeon Ledermanhttp://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/horizons/document.shtm?input=FOC-002312-lederman,00.shtm

High school science curriculum reform has been building momentum forquite some time, and lively discussions have ensued. Leon Lederman writespassionately about his view for the future of high school science, and heposes salient points that are worthy of discussion within and acrossdisciplines. The article is followed by an example of a school district thatadopted the ARISE Physics First curriculum, highlighted below, and hasseen positive results.

Suppose you were teaching math and you said, "We are going to start mathwith calculus, and then after calculus, we will get down to adding andsubtracting and multiplying and dividing." Anybody who proposed such asequence would be arrested, locked up, or otherwise hustled off the scene.

Starting the high school science curriculum with biology is about like startingthe study of mathematics with calculus. Biology is the most complex of allthe basic sciences. An understanding of modern biology depends on anunderstanding of the structure of large, complex molecules.

The sciences have a hierarchy based on atoms. That was not known in 1893when the present sequence--biology, chemistry, and physics--was installed inour high schools on the recommendation of the Committee of Ten. It is acomment on how slowly schools change that we are still teaching this 1893sequence even though the sciences have rushed ahead.

Currently, students forget ninth-grade biology when the exam is over. Forone thing, the course requires them to memorize and regurgitate thousands ofnew Latin words, and for another, they don't build on the concepts thefollowing year. With Physics First (http://www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html),students use physics in the following year's chemistry class because almostevery process in chemistry has a physics explanation for it.

There is a tremendous misconception about physics requiring advancedcalculus. In reality, the Physics First sequence allows students to use learningfrom Monday's mathematics class in Tuesday's science class. The conceptualphysics courses use ninth-grade algebra to explain, for example, that theparabolic path of Michael Jordan's basketball shot is the resolution betweenthrowing the ball and having gravity pull on it. Students can appreciate thatthe math that they are learning is useful in their physics class.

In an ideal situation, every Monday, the science, math, and humanitiesteachers sit down together for several hours and discuss their coordinatedstrategy for the week. The collaboration of these teachers of different


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disciplines is necessary because science is connected knowledge, andknowledge without wisdom is dry as dust.

In addition, the math, physics, chemistry, and biology teachers would sitdown and make a solemn pledge to give up some fraction of the content ofeach of their courses. What you want to teach in addition to the content is theprocess of science; some of its history; why it works. What we want ouryoung people to remember is the "science way" of thinking because they willforget many of the details.

Let me finally add that a slowly growing number of schools areexperimenting with reordering the sequence. They overwhelmingly reportgreatly enhanced enrollment in science electives.

Leon Lederman, winner of the 1988 Nobel Prize for Physics, is directoremeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois. In thefield of education, he founded and chairs a professional developmentprogram for primary school teachers in the Chicago Public Schools. Thisinitiative is now being replicated in inner-city schools in East St. Louis andJoliet, Illinois. Lederman has been instrumental in creating the IllinoisMathematics and Science Academy, a residential public high school forgifted children. For more information about the Physics First curriculum,visit the web site (www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html).

References

The Essential Ted Sizer. (1996, December 4). Education Week, RetrievedJuly 2, 2001:www.edweek.org/ew/ewstory.cfm?slug=14sizer2.h16&keywords=%22committee%20of%20ten%22

United States Bureau of Education. (1893). Report of the Committee onSecondary School Studies. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.


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A District That Puts Physics FirstKenneth Royhttp://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/horizons/document.shtm?input=FOC-002313-index,00.shtm

Kenneth Roy, K-12 Director of Science and Safety for Glastonbury,Connecticut Public Schools, talks about how his district implemented thePhysics First program (http://www-ed.fnal.gov/arise/arise.html). They startedout with an initial pilot program in 1997 and have since expanded it toinclude the entire high school science program. Although Physics First is nota model that integrates across disciplines (it would be in the Nested orSequenced stage of Robin Fogarty and Judy Stoehr’s Integration Models), itdoes align the 4-year high school science curriculum in a cohesive mannerthat would be a logical first step toward integration with other disciplines(particularly mathematics).

A Call to Change

Beginning with A Nation at Risk (1983), direction for change in scienceeducation has been provided by national educational reform movements andreports such as the American Association for the Advancement of Science(AAAS) Project 2061 (1989), National Science Teachers Association(NSTA) Scope, Sequence, and Coordination project (1996), and the NationalScience Education Standards (1996). One reform movement that directlyaddresses high school curriculum sequencing is the American Renaissance inScience Education (ARISE).

Based in part on the tenets of other national reform movements, ARISEasserts that knowledge of physics fosters learning in chemistry. In turn,knowledge in chemistry fosters learning in biology. In effect, ARISEproposes to reverse the traditional model of the secondary science curriculumsequence.

In 1996, my school district, the Glastonbury, Connecticut, Public Schools,explored the ARISE approach to secondary science education. Although thisapproach is controversial, we were convinced that it had merit. We felt itwould expose students to major concepts in all the sciences in addition tofostering better understanding of the relationship between the sciences.

The science department began by designing a five-year pilot program forhigh-achieving students (see Table 1) compares the traditional program ingrades 8 to 12 with the pilot program modeled after the ARISE approach. Ifthe pilot proved to be successful, we planned to change to the scienceprogram for the entire school population.


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Results of the Pilot Program

Since the initiation of the program, the first group of pilot program studentshas successfully taken Conceptual Physics in grade 8, level I Chemistry ingrade 9, Advanced Placement (AP) Biology in grade 10, and AP Chemistryin grade 11. As of this writing, grade 12 students are enrolled in the new,two-credit AP Physics course.

The first three years of the pilot have produced positive results by increasingstudents' exposure to the physical sciences. For example, the number ofstudents taking AP Chemistry jumped from 22 in 1997-98 to 48 in 2000-01.The program also allows students to take more science courses. They nowhave the opportunity to take three years of AP coursework in science or otherscience electives (see Table 2).

Another benefit of the program is the increasing involvement of girls in ourschool's science program. Since we instituted Physics First, enrollment in the10th-grade AP Biology class increased from 26 percent female to 54 percentfemale. AP Chemistry class enrollment for grade 11 increased from 33percent female to 48 percent female students. I believe part of the reason forthis change is that all students in grade 8 are now introduced to ConceptualPhysics. This introduction allows girls to gain more confidence--they knowthey can do the work.

Various assessments have indicated that students in the pilot program haveachieved well beyond anyone's expectations. For example, in 1999-2000,Glastonbury Public Schools was the sole recipient of the AP Regional Awardfor New England. This award was based on the facts that Glastonburystudents had the highest increase in numbers taking the test and the highestincreases in individual scores.

Plans are now being made to expand the Physics First program to includestudents at all achievement levels. Over the next three years, the total scienceprogram will take on the curriculum profile outlined in Table 2, providing allpilots are successful and approval is secured from the board of education.There is much optimism in our district about the new science curriculummodel and its potential to improve science education for all students.

Table 1. Original Proposal: Science Sequence for High-AchievementStudents

Grade Program Before 1997 Pilot Program (1997-2001)Grade 8 General Science Conceptual PhysicsGrade 9 Biology level I Chemistry level IGrade 10 Chemistry level I AP BiologyGrade 11 Physics or elective AP ChemistryGrade 12 Physics or AP elective AP Physics


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Table 2. Second Phase: Physics-First Sequence for All Students

Grade 8 Conceptual PhysicsGrade 9 Conceptual Chemistry or College

Preparatory ChemistryGrade 10 Conceptual Biology or College

Preparatory Biology or AP BiologyGrade 11 College Preparatory Chemistry or AP

Chemistry or Science ElectivesGrade 12 College Preparatory Physics or AP

Physics or Science Electives Electives include Anatomy & Physiology, Botany, Genetics, Geology,Meteorology, Oceanology, and more.

Resources

American Association for the Advancement of Science: Project 2061. (1989).Science for All Americans. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bardeen, Marjorie & Lederman, Leon. (1998). Coherence in ScienceEducation. Science, 281, 178-179.

Lederman, Leon. (1999). A Science Way of Thinking. Education Week,18(40), 1-3.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Departmentof Education. Retrieved May 22, 2001:www.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/title.html

National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards.Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

National Science Teachers Association. (1996). Scope, Sequence, andCoordination: A Framework for High School Science Education. Arlington,VA: Author.

Kenneth R. Roy is K-12 director of Science and Safety for Glastonbury,Connecticut Public Schools. He also is an author/columnist for numerousprofessional publications; he and co-author Malcolm Cheney contributed thearticle "Teaching in an Equitable--and Safe--Science Laboratory" to aprevious issue of ENC Focus.


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Why try interdisciplinary teaching?

ß To Promote Collaboration: Many teachers are seeking theopportunity to collaborate with others. Many teachers also valuethe chance to collaborate with their students and to get to knowthem better through a joint endeavor. Teachers are also searchingfor easy ways to get kids working with each other in healthy,cooperative learning in order to build social skills and classmorale.

ß To Reflect the Real World: Because an interdisciplinary studyis a reflection of the real world, students become more interestedand motivated in their learning. This kind of learning involvesand engages students positively. They understand the need tolearn a skill and to apply it. Thus students can readily develop alife-long love of learning.

ß To Try an Exciting Approach: Many teachers responded thatteaching in a new and different way is exciting. Teaching aninterdisciplinary course is not only very interesting for them, butalso engaging for their students.

ß To Connect School Subjects: Making connections between aschools’ often artificial categories or disciplines makes sense toteachers and students. This “whole” topic approach can actuallycover more in greater depth as well as fill in the gaps betweensubjects. The flow of study also provides meaningful continuitythrough an unlimited number of ongoing activities.

ß To Have Fun: Some teachers noted that a good motivator for aninterdisciplinary study is simply to have fun. This kind of coursecan regenerate enthusiasm for learning. Teachers and studentscan enjoy their unity activities, and celebrate learning.

ß To Motivate Self: Just teaching an interdisciplinary study can beits own motivation. The challenge of developing something newcan be an intensely rewarding experience. Improving oneself as ateacher is the goal.

ß To Involve the Community: The opportunity to garnercommunity support also encourages some teachers to pursue aninterdisciplinary study. By involving community resources withthe school in a special project, positive public relations can resultfor both.

ß To Respond to Collegial and Administrative Support: A veryfew respondents indicated that their teaching situations alreadyoffered collegial support for teaching an interdisciplinary unit. Totake advantage of that encouragement was a worthy reason topursue this approach.

- Ken Bergstrom, Goddard College, Plainfield, VT

INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: How to Integrate

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Planning for Curriculum IntegrationHeidi Hayes JacobsExcerpted from the Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment’s Educational Leadership, October 1991http://www.ascd.org/cms/index.cfm?TheViewID=353

Heidi Hayes Jacobs is a leading voice in curriculum integration, and thisarticle emphasizes the necessity to take things slowly so that curriculumintegration becomes a lasting, strong, staple part of the school culture. Herfour-phased integration plan outlines the time frame, tasks, and goals of theprocess in an uncomplicated, informed manner. Although Jacobs discussesintegration at the district level, small schools have the opportunity tocondense the 4-year timeline because of their ability to devote more time toplanning and less time to developing proposals for district approval, resultingin quicker implementation.

To develop an interdisciplinary curriculum, a district needs an action plan.Here is such a plan, based on extensive field work. The plan’s four phases –conducting internal and external action research, developing a proposal,implementing and monitoring a pilot unit, and adopting the program – can beaccomplished over a three-year period.

Phase I: Conducting Action Research

The time frame for carrying out research is six months to a year. During thisphase, staff members concentrate on learning more about their currentcurriculum as well as about best practices from the field.

Internal research. Research is conducted internally by small groups ofteachers assembled by grade levels, departments, or interdisciplinary teams.Using the school calendar, they plot month-by-month the units of study theyteach. If each teacher comes prepared with his or her individual monthlyoutline, compiling the information takes only a few hours.

With information for an entire year at their fingertips, teachers can: (1)discover when students are studying various units in their subjects; (2) alignsubjects that would mutually benefit from concurrent teaching (Jacobs 1989);(3) eliminate repetition from year to year; (4) identify possibilities formultidisciplinary or interdisciplinary units of study (Jacobs 1989); and (5)target units that lend themselves to performance-based assessment of specificskills and concepts.

External research. External research extends staff members’ awareness ofrelevant work in the larger education community. Through conferences,readings, site visits, in-service courses, and voluntary study groups, theystudy best practices and options for curriculum reform. Regional service


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centers, state education departments, national education organizations, anduniversities are excellent sources for learning about desirable practices.

Topics that teachers often choose for further research include team building,curriculum design, scheduling alternatives, evaluation approaches, andwriting across the content areas.

Investigation of these areas can be helpful to teachers as they developinterdisciplinary programs.

Phase II: Developing a Proposal

Phase two, proposal development, usually take from two to four monthsduring the first year of planning. One of the first tasks is to assess potentialareas for multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary units.

For their first effort, most schools decide to upgrade an existing unit of studythrough collaboration between disciplines. The length of the pilot is usuallyfrom two to six weeks. If the proposal is to be effective, the most motivatedand capable staff members should be involved in this design. Further, theproposal should specify evaluation procedures, budget, timelines, andteachers’ responsibilities.

Two dangers inherent in a pilot are its experimental cast and its peripheralnature (Jacobs 1989). A strong long-term agenda can allay these problems.Creating an interdisciplinary proposal should not be seen as an enrichmentevent; ultimately, the goal is for the pilot to become part of the program, nota passing experience. As a middle school teacher put it, “We’re going to trythis science and English unit on the ethics of experimentation because webelieve it’s better than what we’re doing now separately.”

After the proposal has been written and reviewed at the building and districtlevels, it’s time to try the unit in the classroom.

Phase III: Implementing and Monitoring the Pilot

The third phase, implementing and monitoring the pilot unit, take placeduring the second year of the plan. Most units run from two to six weeks.

During the pilot, teachers evaluate decision-making procedures, relationshipsbetween team members, time allotted for implementation, adequacy ofresource materials, and political considerations. A frequent outcome of theirefforts, according to teachers, is the satisfaction of collegial collaboration.As Leiberman and Miller suggest, “it is the personal interaction rather thaninstructional interaction that is most valued” (1990, p. 159).

The group members also meet regularly to assess the impact of the pilot uniton students. If they have devised outcome-based assessments for the pilot,they now have critical feedback about student growth.


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The key to the pilot’s success is the data collected through the monitoringprocedures. From this wealth of information, the staff then plans revisions tothe unit’s design or to conditions that influence its effectiveness.

Phase IV: Adopting the Program

During the third year of the plan, staff members are prepared to makerevisions to the program, based on the data collected in the pilot phase, andthen adopt it as a permanent part of the curriculum. There is not time in aschool year to add more curriculum. So, in order to adopt the pilot, theymust replace whatever was offered previously. For example, the high schoolcourse guide will now state that there is a 9th grade Humanities course ratherthan separate English, social studies, and arts courses. A pilot can easilydissipate unless it is elevated to program status.

Looking Ahead

Eventually, staff members will want to examine the new unit for ways toexpand it throughout the system. Over two to three years, schools can makesteady and meaningful curriculum reform. A successful interdisciplinarypilot can spearhead systematic examination of scheduling, teaming, andevaluation procedures.

By following as action plan based on solid research, a powerful pilot, andthoughtful monitoring, district planners can guide a unit through tosuccessful program adoption.

References

Jacobs, H. H. (1989). “Design Options for an Integrated Curriculum.” InInterdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation, edited by H. H.Jacobs, pp. 13-24. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision andCurriculum Development.

Leiberman A., and L. Miller. (1990). “The Social Realities of Teaching.” InSchools as Collaborative Cultures: Creating the Future Now, edited by ALeiberman. Bristol, Pa.: Falmer Press.


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Dr. Heidi Hayes Jacobs, president of Curriculum Designers, Inc., has servedas an educational consultant to thousands of schools nationally andinternationally. She works with schools and districts, K-12, on issues andpractices pertaining to: curriculum reform, instructional strategies toencourage critical thinking, and strategic planning. Her book,Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation, published byASCD, has been a best seller. In spring of 1997, her book, Mapping the BigPicture: Integrating Curriculum and Assessment K-12, was released byASCD.

Example of Calendar Curriculum Mapping

February March April May JuneEnglish/Language Arts

Sarah, Plain andTall

Wilson’s Letterand Diaries ofImmigrants

Diary of AnneFrank

Social Studies The WestwardMovement

The IndustrialRevolution;World War I

World War II

Mathematics FractionsRoman Numerals

MetricsCompare Bases

PercentsGeometricShapesScale Area

Science Matter andEnergy

ElectricityWeather

MagnetismWeather

Art Color;WesternLandscapes

Shape;Cubists, Picasso,Gris

Photography;DocumentaryPurposes

A 6th grade team begins interdisciplinary planning by plotting the topicsteachers teach month-by-month


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Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for TeachersHigh Tech HighSan Diego, Californiahttp://www.hightechhigh.org/

High Tech High’s Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for Teachers is a step-by-step guide to defining, planning, and carrying out an integrated unit. Withplenty of examples, such as the project The Environment: Love it or lose it,the process of integrating is demystified and can be seen as a doable,enjoyable teaching and learning opportunity.

San Diego’s Gary and Jerri-Ann Jacobs High Tech High (HTH) is foundedon three design principles: personalization, adult-world connection, and acommon intellectual mission. To actualize those principals in the classroom,HTH has made discipline integration a high priority because HTH believesintegration fosters adult-world connections and a more realistic reflection ofsociety and nature.

High Tech High’s Integrated Units: A Planning Guide for Teachers placesan emphasis on the specific teacher preparation involved in integratingcurriculum. Step One helps teachers define the learning goals to be metthrough the integrated curriculum. Step Two assists teachers in generating atheme, or themes, that align with the learning goals. Step Three includes aweb diagram to assist in mapping out the components of multiple disciplineswhile keeping the generative themes developed in Step two at the forefront.While the guide is practical, it leaves space for staff to modify and cater thetools to their specific setting.

The Environment: Love it or lose it project example puts the planning stepsinto action and addresses six disciplines, but to varying degrees of challenge.The degree to which an integrated project covers discipline-specific contentshould be kept in mind so that if key concepts are not covered in one unit,they can be incorporated into another.

The guide concludes with teacher and student evaluations of the integratedunit to assess what went well and what can be improved on in future units.


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Planning Integrated Curriculum: The Call to AdventureSusan M. Drake

http://www.ascd.org/readingroom/books/drake93book.html

Susan Drake has aided in demystifying the integrating process in her book,Planning Integrated Curriculum (1993). The following is a sampling of hermaterial that focuses on the development and planning of an integratedschool system. She has also written Creating Integrated Curriculum: ProvenWays to Increase Student Learning (1998), available through Corwin Press(http://www.corwinpress.com/).

Chapter 1. Exploring the Process

For the past three years I have been deeply involved in the process ofcreating integrated curriculum as a developer, implementor, workshop leader,and researcher. Talking to people involved in similar endeavors, I invariablymet rolled eyes, groans, and epithets such as "a nightmare," "impossible," or"a battle." The consensus seemed clear: developing integrated curriculumcollaboratively was a challenge in the best sense of the word. But as Ifollowed different teams at different points in the process, I was fascinated todiscover that the "impossible nightmares" faded and were replaced by muchmore positive interpretations once a writing team actually began toimplement integrated curriculum. The team could then go on to plan the nextunits with some degree of ease, and everyone could begin to talk about howrewarding the experience had been.

These teams seemed to have forgotten most of their initial struggles. Theirstories matched my own experiences so well, I began to wonder whetherthere were universal aspects that most people might expect to experiencewhen undertaking such an endeavor. By listening to others, could I identifycommonalities that would lead to a clearer understanding of the problemsinvolved in planning integrated curriculum? These questions intrigued meand led me to further explore the process of developing integratedcurriculum.

Making Sense of Curriculum Integration

Is there really a need to develop integrated curriculum, or is it just anotherpassing fad? This question deserves to be examined carefully. We live in aglobal world characterized by ever-accelerating change, technologicaladvances, a knowledge explosion, changing economic and social realities,and, perhaps, impending environmental disaster. The educational systemseems to be constantly under attack. Critics claim that students are droppingout at an alarming rate. Those who stay in school are not doing well enoughto be able to compete in a global economy and maintain a high standard ofliving.


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In many districts there has been a demand for a restructuring in education toshift it to decentralization and site-based management. Teachers have beenempowered as decision makers; this includes curriculum development. Thisshift has often led teachers to integrate the traditional subject areas because itmade sense to those educators at the grassroots level.

It is important to understand the context of integration as an idea with anintellectual history. Disciplines were artificially created by humans toorganize their world, and were often defined by political needs (Beane 1991).Eisner (1992) points out that as early as the 1920s the progressive movementin education advocated curricular integration through themes becauseproponents believed the disciplines prevented students from seeing therelationships between subjects and therefore decreased the content'srelevance. In the '60s, based on Jerome Bruner's (1960) concept ofcurriculum development, there was a shift to discipline-oriented curriculumswhere the structure of the discipline was considered to be the facilitator forthe storage and retrieval of knowledge. Still, many students today move fromscience to history to math classes and are taught in a fragmented,disconnected way that has little resemblance to real life.

Today, some people criticize educators for not adequately teaching basicskills; others argue that the basic skills students will need for the 21st centuryare not the same skills that we are now teaching. The knowledge componentof virtually every subject area is proliferating at an ever-increasing rate.Paradoxically, as distinct subject areas become overloaded, a surprisingamount of duplication is occurring across classrooms. Educators are caughtin a dilemma. Integration, by reducing duplication of both skills and content,begins to allow us to teach more. It also gives us a new perspective on whatconstitutes basic skills.

The concept of integrated curriculum makes sense for other reasons. Studentswho drop out perceive little relevance in school life. Integration connectssubject areas in ways that reflect the real world. When we set curriculum inthe context of human experience, it begins to assume a new relevance.Higher-order thinking skills become a necessity as students begin to grapplewith real issues and problems that transcend the boundaries of disciplines.Current newspapers offer an abundance of real-life issues that could beexplored from a problem-based perspective. Conscious of age-appropriateness and student interest, the teacher may design problemscenarios based on reality; for example, issues that pit jobs versus theenvironment, the influence of media in shaping reality, violence in oursociety, schools and sports, the ethics of genetic engineering, or social issuessuch as AIDS, poverty, or the war on drugs. Current problems in these areascan be explored from a content perspective, but in searching for practicalsolutions they also require higher-order thinking skills that transcend both thecontent and the procedures of disciplines.

Another important consideration is how people learn. Recent brain researchindicates that the brain searches for patterns and interconnections as its wayof making meaning (Caine and Caine 1991). If humans do learn byconnection-making, it only makes sense to teach through connections.


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First Efforts

A rationale for curriculum integration seems clear; however, there are fewmodels available to guide us in developing such curriculum. Those beginningthe process often feel as if they are in uncharted territory. The purpose of thisbooklet is to explore some of the territory ahead.

This exploration involves a synthesis of the experiences of several differentschool districts in Ontario. However, through dialogue and working withothers throughout North America, I have come to believe that the process ofdeveloping integrated curriculum is universal in many respects. The commonexperiences identified here will hopefully extend beyond Ontario to offer ahelpful guide for others.

In response to some of the criticisms of today's educational system, Ontariochose to focus on increasing relevance in the "transition years" (grades 7 to9) as explored in such documents as Hargreaves and Earl's (1990) Rights ofPassage. Uncertain of how to go about this task, the government set up aconsultation process. This process involved a committee headed by GerryConnelly that traveled across the province to consult with communityteachers, principals, students, and parents in an effort to rethink traditionalmodels and values. The government funded 66 grass roots projects. Thecommittee followed the progress of these projects during the consultationprocess.

As a part of this initiative, the government announced an intent to provide acommon curriculum for all learners. This involved eliminating the timeallocations in terms of being defined by subjects and the designation ofprograms such as basic, general, and advanced in grade 9. In response to thechallenge to eliminate streaming (tracking) difficulties in grade 9 and in aneffort to increase meaning and relevance, many schools focused onintegrating the curriculum. They did this in a wide variety of ways limitedonly by the imaginations of the curriculum developers and the support oftheir schools and districts. At the same time, many schools that did notreceive funding for transition years projects were inspired to exploreinnovative ways to answer some of their educational dilemmas.

Given the freedom to innovate, many schools came up with creativesolutions. The results of these explorations during the transition yearsinitiative are guiding the educational policy currently being developed atgrades 1 to 9. The major thrust of this policy is to educate the citizens of the21st century. The emphasis is on clear expectations (knowledge, skill, andvalues) for students to attain by the end of their primary, junior, andtransition years. These expectations reflect an integrated, holistic approach tocurriculum. This policy is expected to be extended until graduation.

Integration was a conscious effort to connect curriculum areas that had notpreviously been connected. I was astonished by the vast differences ininterpretation of what integration might be and how it might work. Thesedifferences become clear in the following list of some Ontario explorations


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that range from grades 6 to 12 and involve gifted, learning disabled, andmixed ability groupings:

ß Subdisciplines such as auto mechanics, graphics, welding, electricity,and woodworking were integrated into a broad-based technologyapproach at the provincial level.

ß Integrated curriculum was written at central office for the earlychildhood years.

ß A theme or issue was being infused into existing curriculums. Forexample, the International Joint Commission of the Great Lakesworked on infusing environmental issues into existing science andsocial studies courses.

ß One teacher working on an existing course of study adapted it in away that connects to other subjects.

ß A group of teachers from one school developed curriculum together,but each teaches independently in a separate classroom.

ß Another group of teachers developed, team taught, and evaluatedcurriculum together.

ß Use of "curriculum merges" or "curriculum links" integrated varioussubject areas. This has been done in a variety of ways. In one highschool, grade 9 classes met during the first period of the day. Atother schools, teachers who see subject connections chose to worktogether.

ß Some newly built schools have had the luxury of a principal whobegan with a new vision and new staffs to match that vision. In theseinstances, the schools have been able to move more quickly thanothers toward integration across the curriculum. There are severalexamples of this phenomenon, ranging from K-8 schools to a schoolthat initially included only grades 9 and 10 but eventually moved toinclude 11 and 12.

ß One high school has organized all curriculums around theenvironment. Another high school is organizing around technologyas an integrating focus.

Gathering the data for this exploration involved various strategies. On someoccasions, I interviewed several key players on an integration team. At othertimes, I was involved in inservicing with a district. I also attended planningmeetings and presentations on curriculum integration whenever possible. Iled a provincial curriculum team that developed a K-12 transdisciplinarycurriculum based on story as the organizing principle (Drake et al. 1992).During this experience I kept a journal that I shared with my colleagues; thisfacilitated a mutual understanding of the process.

During this exploration I interacted with many people who were involved inintegrated projects from several different districts. I am deeply grateful tothose who so generously gave their time to share their experiences with me. Ihave chosen to name only a handful of these people in this account; however,the experiences of the many others are reflected in the stories that areoffered.


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I found that the process does get easier. One Ontario district, deeply involvedin integrating at a systemwide level, reports that new teams beginning thejourney are "light years ahead" of the groups that originally embarked intothe uncharted territory. These newer groups have the advantage of readingmaterials such as Jacobs' (1989) Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design andImplementation, Tchudi's (1991) Travels Across The Curriculum: Models forInterdisciplinary Learning, and the Educational Leadership (October 1991)issue on integration. They are also able to talk to those who are currentlyimplementing their integration ideas. Collectively they are beginning toidentify the process that leads to success.

Nevertheless, the process outlined here may sound pessimistic. Thedescriptions are not intended to be frightening, but realistic. In asking severalof the people represented on these pages if I should soften the experience, theresponse was uniform. For them, undergoing the process was the mostimportant aspect of developing integrated curriculum; they believed it isessential to know that there is indeed a struggle ahead. It is just as importantto know that the journey is worth taking and that the process gets easier onceyou have been through it.

This interpretation is not offered as a "truth," for much of the process is stilltaking place in uncharted territory. It is offered in the hopes that it mayincrease understanding for others who are undertaking ventures like ours.

The Journey Metaphor

When I began the project with my own curriculum team, I offered themetaphor of a journey as a guide for the process ahead. This journey wasbased on my interpretation of the "Journey of the Hero" developed for anearlier integrated studies project (Miller et al. 1990); later, I applied thismetaphor to organizational change (Drake 1990) and to individuals involvedin significant new learning (Drake 1991). Since this venture involved bothexperiencing organizational change and significant new learnings, the modelseemed to fit.

This journey metaphor worked well for us, a team of six strangers who werewell aware of the obstacles ahead. We could have spent all the allotted timedwelling on our perception that there was not a school system in Ontario thatoffered a realistic structure in which to teach such a curriculum. (In two yearsthis has shifted dramatically.) The metaphor allowed my team to move pastthe impossibility of the project into navigating new territory with a positiverisk-taking attitude.

Listening to others, I was struck at how often I heard the metaphor of"journey." For one district the process was a journey of continually extendingtheir boundaries and learning more. For a high school it was a "voyage ofdiscovery" that primarily involved process rather than product. KarenErskine, a principal of a K-8 school, comforted her integrated team duringtimes of stress with the metaphor of a ship sailing through choppy waters toget to a safe shore. Fullan and Miles (1992) also use the metaphor of journey


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for educational change, acknowledging that it is a process of moving throughlargely uncharted territory.

The "Journey of The Hero" is the basis for most of our stories throughouttime and across cultures. According to noted mythologist Joseph Campbell(1988), this quest can be interpreted metaphorically as a blueprint forsuccessful transition. The hero is called to adventure; he or she leaves thekingdom in search of this adventure. Ahead are the demons to be confronted,the dragons to slay. Often the hero is aided by a magic helper such as a magicsword. Finally, the hero slays the dragon, receives a reward, and returns tothe kingdom where he or she must share the lessons of the journey.

For educators, the journey could be interpreted as five stages in developingintegrated curriculum (Figure 1.1). The heroes as curriculum writers hear acall to adventure and enter the world of integrated curriculum. They leavebehind traditional methods of curriculum development and experienceendings accompanied by loss. This is followed by a struggle as theyencounter anxiety, conflict, and the excitement of stepping into the unknown.Finally they reach the reward and personal satisfaction of trulyunderstanding how to integrate curriculum. The last stage is service wherethe heroes, feeling fulfilled, share what they have learned with otherinterested educators.

Chapter 2. The Call to Adventure

Educators are being called to adventure. The catalyst may be either theircritics or a sense that there are more relevant ways of educating students.Integration offers an exciting challenge. There are several things to considerat this stage concerning the phenomenon of resistance and the exigencies ofplanning.

Resistance

A natural human reaction to impending change is resistance. More than oneteam leader reported that a typical beginning has been to say, "It can't bedone." Fullan and Miles (1992) caution that we shouldn't even use the wordresistance. This initial reaction would be better understood as coming topersonal meaning. Rather than bemoaning resistance, we need to supportpeople through this first reaction.

Teachers will offer some solid reasons for resistance such as:

ß "This is just a fad; ignore it long enough and it will go away."ß "I'm not interested in change for change's sake."ß "I'm not fixing what already works."ß "I am already integrating in my subject area."

As we move into a world in which knowledge is proliferating at a fantasticrate, it is hard to conceive of integration as a fad. We simply can't keep


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adding to the curriculum. As I heard over and over "we need to add bysubtracting."

Most teachers are already doing a good job. I found that educators resistedthe need to integrate when they felt that a personal attack was being made ontheir current teaching. Claire Ross, principal of Holy Family EducationCenter, offers a helpful perspective: "It's not that we haven't been doing agood job—we have, but the world is changing and we must change with it."

True, many teachers are currently integrating in their own areas. Yet, from aglobal perspective a more inclusive view of integration may be moreappropriate.

Planning

Setting out on the journey, it is best to plan for the knowns with acollaborative vision of the destination. The vision is often very hazy and"when you get there, it's never how you thought it would be." However, toborrow K-8 principal Karen Erskine's metaphor, "without some descriptionof the safe haven the ship is sailing toward, it will no doubt be destined toforever cruise the choppy waters or return to the familiar shores it leftbehind."

Some aspects that need to be explored are philosophical: What is worthknowing? What is the image of the learner? How do students learn? andWhat values are important? With a vision in place, it is possible to addresssome of the more obvious questions. The following is a synthesis of answersrecommended by a variety of groups.

Who Should Be Involved?

Many teams start with numbers as large as 13; this may include all teachersin one school or include others such as central office consultants. This isclearly an attempt to involve everyone, but most conclude it is too many;they tend to break into smaller groups anyway. My team worked well withsix individuals from different subject areas; others report good success withfour people. One experienced team leader found an even number seemed towork better than an odd number. Given group dynamics, it seems that anynumber over seven is too many for constructive work to emerge.

Initial efforts in a district often include representatives from different schoolswriting together; the expectation is that each representative will act as amessenger and take the process back to others in their own school. Inpractice, this hasn't worked as well as expected; the writers also need to beable to implement collaboratively. This creates a greater sense of ownershipand a greater understanding of the process itself. As teams work togetherthey get good at the process and curriculum planning becomes infinitelyeasier.

Only those who volunteer should be involved. Usually there are a fewenthusiastic participants, some who are there "in case something good might


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happen," and those who are "brick walls." Reflecting on sometimes painfulexperiences, many team leaders recommended letting the "brick walls" go. Itmay seem like this person's subject area is necessary and there will be animportant gap in the curriculum design. However, a brick wall, regardless ofsubject area, can sabotage the whole project. Accept the limitations and beginwith people who are willing to innovate and take risks.

According to the experiences of many, the members of an ideal writing team:

ß Are volunteersß Will implement the productß Love teaching and studentsß Are willing to learnß Are risk-takersß Demonstrate interpersonal skillsß Perceive the teacher as a facilitatorß Are generalists who "love" a specialized area orß Are specialists interested in a generalized approachß Are innovative and creativeß Have taught several subjectsß Are technologically literate

What Form Should Integration Take?

Integration can occur in many different forms and combinations. Perceptionsof top-down mandates of how to integrate have often been met with almostreflex-like resistance. Allowing groups to come to their own sense ofmeaning of "what," guided by a collaborative vision is important. Others,seeing the energy and enthusiasm of those actively involved, are ofteninspired to join. "Show them that their jobs will be easier" or "better" hasconvinced many who are hesitant to make a true commitment.

How Much Time Do We Need and Where Should We Work?

The amount of time people spent planning varied from five days, to a month,to a year. Planning seemed to work best when teachers were allowed blocksof time. One or two full days of orientation sets integration in a positive andsupportive context. Orientation sessions in which outside "experts" offered avision of integrated curriculum and some practical strategies were helpful.Subsequent sessions seemed to be most effective when teams were allocatedhalf a day.

Planning time seemed to be most successful when it occurred outside of aschool setting. This was particularly true for the initial sessions. My team,funded by the Ontario Curriculum Superintendents' Cooperative, had theluxury of meeting at a hotel in a central location. Other projects have met at adistrict retreat setting; one team did its best writing over two weeks in thesummer at one member's house. Talking over food and drink in the relaxedforum of an outside setting increased feelings of collegiality.


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How Do We Do It?

In the final analysis, integration takes "jumping in and doing it." The jumpingin can take many forms. Some teams spend a year in preparation. Others areless cautious. One participant commented: "Everyone else has dipped theirtoes in the water. We jumped in head first. That's how my father taught me toswim."

Successful teams evolved "comfort zones of integration." One integrationteam consisting of Peter Marshall, Sally Friedenberg, Raquel Ahearn, andJerry DuQuetteville collaborated for two years through grades 6 and 7. Theydescribed this comfort zone as a "balance between working together andrespecting that each member will interpret things differently in the classroom. . . and that's okay." The process seems best as an ongoing process of bothplanning and implementation. Together, through collaboration and personalexperience, the team members come to develop this "comfort zone,"however, not without having to navigate the path of the journey ahead.

Reprinted with permission from Association for Supervision and CurriculumDevelopment. All rights reserved.

Susan M. Drake is Assistant Professor in the Graduate Studies Department,Faculty of Education, Brock University, St. Catharine’s, Ontario, L2S 3A1.She has over twenty years of teaching experience in elementary, secondary,and adult education.

Criteria for reflecting on the quality of the unit one isplanning to teach:

Higher-Order Thinking: Do students use higher-order thinking as theywork with ideas and concepts in the classroom?

Depth of Knowledge: Do students explore complex relationships andimportant concepts in the subject matter?

Connectedness to the World: Does the class have value or meaning inlife beyond the classroom?

Substantive Conversion: Does the process of teaching build on studentideas, revealing connections between ideas, processes, and facts in acoherent process of exploration?

Social Support of Achievement: Does the class encourage highexpectations, respect, and inclusion of all students?

Author unknown.


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Developing Curriculum Across the DisciplinesStaff of the Eisenhower Southwest Consortium for the Improvement of

Mathematics and Science Teachinghttp://www.sedl.org/scimath/compass/v04n01/1.html

A condensation of an article from the Eisenhower Southwest Consortium'snewsletter, Classroom Compass (Winter 1998)

When taking the first steps toward developing an integrated curriculum it canbe a challenge to visualize not only what the curriculum might look like forstudents, but also what the planning process might look like for teachers. Thestory of Evelyn Madison and Diane Rainey takes us step-by-step through theplanning stages to illustrate how teachers can take a curriculum idea andshape it into a rich learning experience.

Choices about what to teach are some of the most important decisions thateducators make. While national and state standards and district curriculumframeworks can give general guidance, teachers make the final decisions forday-to-day instruction. The following hypothetical story presents one wayteachers might work together to develop curriculum.

Evelyn Madison, a life science teacher at Elmore Middle School, and DianeRainey, a mathematics teacher, had often worked together, sharing ideas andtrying to be sure their instruction was complementary. They benefited fromtheir school's commitment to professional time for teachers--one afternoon aweek was set aside for planning, meetings, and conversations that helped thefaculty explore ways to improve their teaching.

The two teachers had often collaborated on student activities that usuallylasted a week or two and focused on an issue in science with extensions inmathematics. If they extended this effort over time, perhaps a six-week unit,they thought they would be able to introduce and pursue themes. Theywanted to design a unit that enabled students to explore ideas, pose problems,and work toward their own solutions.

Integrating Design Technology

Their discussion interested Will Hooks, Elmore's technology educationteacher. Hooks was not the computer teacher, although he includedcomputers in much of his instruction. He taught about systems-theory design,development, and influence. He was particularly interested in the connectionsbetween classroom instruction and the world of work.

Listening to Madison and Rainey discuss their ideas, Hooks realized thatstudents involved in this work could build their understanding of systemsdevelopment. He suggested combining the efforts of the three classes--mathematics, life science, and technology--in a way that would emphasizethe connections among disciplines. The school's scheduling would


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accommodate a shared group of students--the school called it a student"family"--who would attend all three classes.

The teachers' thoughts coalesced into the idea of designing and building amodel hydroponics farm. Madison had seen a similar project at the previousyear's state science teachers' conference and liked the way it demandedunderstanding of both mathematics and science.

The three teachers searched an online database offered by the EisenhowerNational Clearinghouse and found a helpful notebook, the TechnologyScience Mathematics Connection Activities Binder (available fromGlencoe/McGraw Hill). With its purchase, the teachers had detailedinstructions for six long-term projects, including a hydroponics farm thatintegrated science, mathematics, and technology.

Building on the Curriculum Framework

The teachers knew that they needed to ground their plans in the district'scurriculum framework, and that some topics outlined for each discipline fitquite nicely. An understanding of biological and physical properties were keycomponents for producing the farm's products. In mathematics, concepts ofdetermining volume, interpreting ratios, and analyzing data were essential tothe model's development and the interpretation of its results. Hooks knewthat basic design elements--understanding environmental requirements,analyzing materials and equipment, sketching and refining designs--werefundamental to developing the model.

Remembering the Big Ideas

With such a complex undertaking, the big ideas in each lesson can beoverlooked, so the teaching team set regular meetings and continuallyreminded themselves of the areas they wanted to cover. For Madison, theseincluded understanding pH balance, exploring plant structures, anddetermining the role of nutrients in plant growth. Rainey's class wouldconcentrate on determining volumes of various containers, interpretingratios, drawing conclusions, and making predictions from data. Hook's focuswould be on the basics of systems design, the role of materials andequipment, and responding to the model's environmental needs includinglight and temperature controls.

In their first meetings, the team established their learning goals, based oncurriculum requirements. Their choices for specific learning activitiesemerged from their students' interests and the requirements of the model.While goals were set in these first meetings, the three came back to themmany times over the semester, not only to see if the goals were being met butalso to revise them.

Early in their planning, the teachers outlined ways they might assess students'understanding. While the students' completion of the model would betangible proof of some forms of mastery, the specific goals of contentunderstanding also needed to be addressed along the way.


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The teachers agreed that each class period would provide time for thestudents to keep journals that would include a short log of that day's activityand learning. Rainey asked her students to include their calculations fordetermining container volumes and ratio interpretations in these journals. Sheread the journals weekly.

Madison scheduled discussion times throughout the unit for teams to respondto specific questions, such as "What do we mean by pH level?" and "Whathappens if a plant receives a nutrient solution with a pH level that is tooacidic? Too basic?" Following each of these discussions, students wrote shortessays to respond to questions that stretched their understanding.

Every two weeks, Hooks asked each student team to prepare a summary oftheir learning, responding to questions, such as "What changes did you maketo your original design, and why?" and "How would you describe thehydroponics farm model in terms of these four characteristics: input, process,output, and feedback?"

Through these assessment approaches, the team hoped to keep track ofstudent progress and understanding.

Linking with the Community

At the beginning of the unit, the teachers had set the goal of establishinglinks with the world outside their school. They believed that students neededto understand how the experience of designing, building, and observing theirmodel could be useful beyond the immediate classroom experience.

One afternoon Hooks invited several guests to the class, including a localfarmer, an instructor from a nearby agricultural college, and a friend whowas a systems engineer. Before the visit, the guests had talked with the threeteachers about the project and what the students should accomplish.

The teachers posed several specific requests to the guests, asking them tocomment on changes they had seen in their work in the past 10 years, theeffect of the use of technology in their work, and how science andmathematics affected what they did. The students were also ready withquestions of their own.

To get a look at the world outside their town, students spent some time on theInternet and found an international study of fast-growing plants in spacecalled the Collaborative Ukrainian Experimenthttp://fastplants.cals.wisc.edu/cue/cue.html. This study was collecting datasimilar to the information the students would be gathering from their model.

Keeping the Focus

As the project progressed, the teachers tried to maintain a classroomatmosphere that encouraged inquiry and exploration. Bringing in communityguests and surfing the Internet further broadened the students' horizons and


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increased their queries beyond the unit's original plan. They posed newquestions, such as

ß Does growing in space affect plants in a different way from growingon the surface of the earth?

ß What is the economic impact of farming on our town?ß Is there a computer game that simulates plant growth and

environmental impact?

The students' explorations were suggesting so many avenues to pursue thatthe teachers began to fear that the learning would become scattered. If less ismore is a guiding principle for in-depth understanding, the breadth of contentmust be limited to allow continued, thoughtful exploration of specificcontent.

Steven Levy in his book Starting from Scratch (1996) describes his methodof classroom curriculum development. He concentrates on finding the geniusof the topic--determining the essence of what makes the content unique andletting that essence steer the development of the lesson. This helps himdecide which questions will lead the students to a closer understanding of thetopic and which will lead them away. So, while communicatingelectronically with the Collaborative Ukrainian Experiment about growingplants in space might be fascinating, the teaching team or students mustdetermine first if it contributes to their learning goals and, if it does, how toguide the exploration so it is productive.

Looking Back

By the conclusion of the project, the three teachers and their students hadfaced many practical and theoretical issues. The strengths of their workbecame apparent as they reflected on their experience. The benefits of theirteamwork and sharing across disciplines were paramount. They were alsoconvinced that student learning was enhanced through practical experience.

The teachers liked the notion that, while they had designed a firm structurefor student work, much of the learning was directed by student inquiry andexploration that emerged naturally. Their effort in setting up and workingthrough a logical sequence of activities had resulted in a rewardingexperience for the students.

The teachers decided to use some of the summer after their first year to learnabout embedded assessment and developing rubrics for measuring studentwork. They were already convinced that these assessment techniques mightbe more useful than traditional methods had been. They were lookingforward to improving and extending their collaboration in the coming year.


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Criteria for Promising PracticeAdapted from New Visions for Public Schools,

Center for School Successhttp://www.newvisions.org/schoolsuccess/

Integrating curriculum involves much more than just developing curriculumin new ways. It requires deliberate planning of whole-school practice thataligns with the design, mission, and culture of the school. The followingassessment rubric is one way a staff can begin to look at the “whole picture”of curriculum integration and envision a future for integrated curriculum thatmeets their needs, while fulfilling “Promising Practice” requirements. TheNew Visions web site also offers several excellent examples of integratedunits.

A school's instructional model should aspire to meet the following criteria inorder to be considered a "Promising Practice": “Promising Practice” Criteria Existing Emerging Non-existent

Curriculum integration isconsistent with the school'smission. There are clear andspecific goals for the integrativecurriculum and they are describedin the school's official plan (e.g.,Comprehensive Education Plan).

Action Plan:

A broad-based concept, theme, oressential question that goes acrosstwo or more discipline areas is thedriving force of the curriculum.The curriculum engages studentsin the "big ideas" of a discipline ordisciplines, encompasses criticalskills, and fosters habits of mindthat will produce lifelong learners.

Action Plan:


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“Promising Practice” Criteria Existing Emerging Non-existent

The curriculum has carefullyconceived design features: a scopeand sequence, a cognitivetaxonomy to encourage thinkingskills, behavioral indicators ofattitudinal change, and a solidevaluation scheme.

Action Plan:

Staff are sufficiently supported toimplement curriculum throughcommon scheduling of prep time,professional development, andcontrol over resources. Three tofour weekly meetings of at least 30minutes each is recommended.

Action Plan:

Student scheduling is consistentwith goals for integratingcurriculum (e.g., there is blockprogramming, or teachers teachthe same set of students).

Action Plan:


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The curriculum is aligned to thestandards in each of the disciplinesinvolved. There is a process inplace for teachers to examine thestandards within their disciplineand share them with their peers inother disciplines. Together theydetermine the overlap ofknowledge, skills, and habits ofmind that cross-cut theirdisciplines.

Action Plan:

Sufficient time has been providedto pilot, evaluate, and modifycurriculum units.

Action Plan:

Teachers have sufficient autonomyto design, shape, and modify thecurriculum according to theirstudents' needs.

Action Plan:

There are sufficiently richresources to support thecurriculum.

Action Plan:


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Students are engaged in thecurriculum. Students have inputinto identifying topics, developingquestions of study, planning theinquiry, assigning tasks, selectingand gathering resources andinformation, and developing theassessments.

Action Plan:

Parents are informed andunderstand the curriculum. Theyknow what their children will beexpected to know and do, and howthey will be assessed.

Action Plan:

A variety of assessments (formaland informal) are incorporated intothe curriculum to determine whatstudents know and can do.

Action Plan:

INTEGRATING CURRICULUM: What it Looks Like

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Experiencing Math Through NatureColleen Niemi, Jeffers High School, Painesdale, Michigan

Eisenhower National Clearinghousehttp://www.enc.org/features/focus/archive/across/document.shtm?input=FOC

-002785-index

This lesson from Colleen Niemi is an example of an engaging,interdisciplinary unit where one teacher was able to combine the study ofmath and science in a real-world context.

High school students learn how mathematicshelps us understand the natural world

To help create a more positive attitude toward studying mathematics amonghigh school juniors and seniors and to address their questions about itsrelevance, I developed lessons connecting mathematics and nature. The ideascame from a course in the Educators' Science and Mathematics InstituteSeries (ESMIS) at Michigan Technological University. The lesson describedhere is based on the capture/recapture technique, which naturalists use inestimating the number of a certain species in a given geographic area.

The lesson is successful with students because they are actively engaged inthe collection of data outdoors rather than using textbook-generated samplesof data. Students also develop their cooperative learning skills as they collect,analyze, and present their data.

The mathematical topics covered include ratios and proportions, percents,measurement, calculation of perimeter, circumference, area and volume, andrandom sampling. Throughout the activity, the students refine anddemonstrate their knowledge of these mathematical concepts, as well asacquire new information and skills.

Capturing Candy

In Michigan, this activity must be implemented early in the fall because it isdependent on the presence of soldier beetles and goldenrod plants. Becauseusing the capture/recapture method with the beetles is quite challenging, webegin with a brief activity in which individually wrapped caramel candies areused to represent the beetles.

Before class, I outline an area in an overgrown field and scatter caramelsthroughout the area. The goal for the students is to estimate the total numberof caramels I distributed even though they cannot find all of the candies.

To begin, half of the students are designated naturalists. They have twominutes to search for and "capture" caramels. When they run out of time,they record the total number of captured caramels, mark each caramel withan X, and redistribute the marked caramels in the designated area.


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The remaining students then become naturalists for two minutes. This time,some of the caramels they find will be marked and some will be unmarked.The students record the number of each. When that task is complete, thestudents search for the remaining caramels, knowing that all the candy willbe eaten as we discuss our data.

For a large class, this activity could be expanded to several trials. Anotheroption would be to have several different search sites.

Once we are back in the classroom, the students estimate the total number ofcaramels originally distributed using the following ratio:

Inputting the numbers from their searches and solving the proportion givesan estimate of the total number of caramels. This number is then compared tothe actual value that I first distributed. The discrepancy between the twonumbers gives students some idea of the difficulties faced by naturalistswhen they are searching for animals rather than candy. It also prepares themfor the next activity.

Capturing Beetles

In their first experience with real collection of data from nature, students usethe capture/recapture activity to determine the size of the population ofsoldier beetles on the property surrounding the school. The insect to becollected will depend on the species found near your school. I selectedsoldier beetles because goldenrod is abundant on the school property, and thebeetles are attracted to the pollen of the goldenrod.

Before our actual data collection, the students determine the area of theschool property (in square meters), and select several different sites to search.Each site must have the same area, measured in square meters. Students areassigned to groups and each group is responsible for a site. Data are collectedfor four days before making a prediction.

While marking caramels is easy, marking soldier beetles is a little trickier.We have tried using different colors of fingernail polish. Each group ofstudents goes out on day one with a bottle of red fingernail polish. When theyfind a soldier beetle, they mark its back with a tiny dot of fingernail polish. Itis important not to get any polish on the wings, which would harm thebeetles. The total number of beetles marked on day one is recorded.

For the next two days, the students go to their designated sites with differentcolors of fingernail polish. They record the number of marked and unmarkedbeetles they find and mark the unmarked ones with the color of the day.

Number of marked caramels collected in 2nd search Number marked in 1st search =

Total number collected in 2nd search Total number initially distributed


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On the fourth day, students go out again to gather data, but do not mark anybeetles. They calculate the predicted population size each day using the sameformula they used with the caramels, and make observations about how thesize changes, if in fact it does. See Figures 1 and 2 for examples of theindividual data sheet/class data sheet and prediction calculation sheet weused.

The activity concludes with discussion about the use of this type of samplingand population determination. This activity is even more meaningful if youcan arrange to have a naturalist or a representative of the Department ofNatural Resources visit the class to discuss how scientists use thecapture/recapture method.

My students benefited from the cross-curriculum approach of this lesson andenjoyed learning about a method used in forestry and wildlife managementand how it relates to mathematics.

Resource:

Michigan Department of Education. (1998). Michigan CurriculumFramework. The mathematical content of this unit addresses topics coveredin the Data Analysis and Statistics Strand of the Michigan CurriculumFramework Project Mathematics Standards.

Figure 1. Data Collection Sheet for Capturing/Recapturing Beetles

This same form is used for recording small group data and for recordingcombined data for the entire class.


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Figure 2. Formulas for Daily Prediction Totals

This simple proportion gives an estimate of the number of a particularspecies in a designated area. The percentage of the number of marked beetlesfound on the second day gives us an idea of what percent of the totalpopulation we marked the previous day.

Because this was our first experience with the capture/recapture method, wetook data for four days and made comparisons of estimated population sizes.We used the data again when we were studying probability and statistics.


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Dream House: A Discovery Learning ProjectRoosevelt Middle School

Port Angeles, Washington

Engaging students while covering important content is a challenge faced byall teachers. In some cases, combining subject matter provides more avenuesto “hook” students, and to differentiate for multiple learning styles byoffering more than one way to reach an outcome. The Dream House projectcrossed multiple disciplines, combined multi-layered daily activities withlong-term goals, and used various assessment methods.

This project was a collaborative effort of Mimi Tiderman and SusanWilliams, sixth grade teachers at Roosevelt Middle School in Port Angeles,Washington. This project took four weeks and was accomplished as part ofthe math curriculum, though it integrated elements of geography andlanguage arts.

The unit began with students reading a description of Bilbo’s house in J.R.R.Tolkein’s The Hobbit. As a class, they discussed the ways that it wasperfectly suited to its environment and its inhabitant.

Next, students were introduced to the idea of dreaming up their own house.They had no limits, including cost. But, they did have to address somespecific criteria, such as:

ß Where will the house be located? Including the hemisphere,continent, country, state or province (if applicable) and city (in ornear).

ß Why did you choose to build the house there?ß How have you designed your house to be unique to you and/or its

setting?

Students began the project with a pre-design activity. They looked at floorplans from architectural magazines to get ideas and began measuringeverything from doorways to bathtubs. In hindsight, the teachers would liketo have invited an architect to share actual blueprints with the class.

For the first draft of the project, students had to list all of the rooms theywanted to include and determine the initial layout and shape of the house.Some began with the outside frame and other began by fitting togetherindividual rooms, like a puzzle. As students tried to answer questions aboutroom dimensions, such as square footage, they realized that they lacked somenecessary math skills. The classroom atmosphere became one of studentssaying, “I need to know how to do X” and teachers saying, “Let’s figure itout!” The lessons stuck much better embedded in a real world context.

Mini-lessons arose to teach the difference between linear measurement andarea, how to find the perimeter, how to represent architectural characteristics


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in the floor plan. Related lessons included issues of privacy and access asstudents had to determine whether a room would be accessed through ahallway or private entrance, for example.

The students’ favorite part of the project was shopping for home furnishings.They were charged with completely furnishing three rooms in the house,within a budget of $3,000 to $20,000 for each room. “Furnish” also includedflooring, such as hard wood or carpet. Student shopped in catalogs and honedtheir Internet skills by shopping online. They learned to manipulate photos,comparison shop, figure tax, and balance a budget.

The final product of the Dream House project consisted of an informationsheet, which demonstrated students’ knowledge of math concepts, an essayanswering the original location and design questions, anddrawings/blueprints of the façade and floor plans. The final assessmentincluded a student self-assessment; they were very hard on themselves,especially after seeing other students’ projects.

Some project extensions created options for extra credit.

Students could:

ß Build a scale model of their houseß Create a landscaping plan for their houseß Use a computer program (CAD) to input their house dimensions and

see if it looked like they thought it would

Students often ask, “Why do I need to know this?” With this project, studentsparticipated in deciding what they needed to learn and could make theconnection between their work and the world around them.


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PRE-DREAM HOUSE DESIGN ACTIVITY!

You will attempt to complete as much of this assignment as possible. At any time you believe that youneed more information or need to learn how to do something before you can complete requirements, listthem on “I NEED TO KNOW!!” chart below.

Draw floor plans for a bungalow (small house). The following is required:Roomsß 2 Bedroomsß 1 Bathroomß Kitchenß Living room

A keyß Show the scaleß Symbols for windowsß Symbols for doors

Show the dimensions and square footage of each room

Choose the floor covering of your choice for each roomß Figure the cost of the carpet, etc. that you choose

Figure the total cost of the house based on total square footage ($89/sq. ft.)

I NEED TO KNOW:

1.

2.

3.

4.


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DREAM HOUSE PROJECT!

This project will consist of several components, each worked on in class and after explanation. There isno need to work ahead, but you can think ahead!

ß Make a FLOOR PLAN OF YOUR HOUSE using graph paper. It will consist of 6-20rooms. Include doors, windows, hallways, fireplaces, etc. using the methods shown in class.

ß Include the SQUARE FOOTAGE of each room with DIMENSIONS written clearly onyour drawing.

ß FURNISH 3 ROOMS OF YOUR HOUSE. To complete this part of the assignment youmust have all the following in each room:

A. A page for each room with a catalog or digital picture of the items to be purchasedfor the room.

B. Create a spreadsheet of expenditures, spending no less than $3,000 and no morethan $20,000 per room.

ß DRAW A SIMPLE VIEW of the front of your house.

ß PURCHASE FLOOR COVERING FOR 3 ROOMS in your house. Figure the cost foreach room using the floor covering form (in packet). Be careful that you are figuring squarefootage, not square yardage.

ß SUBMIT A HOUSE INFORMATION SUMMARY with your final project (form inpacket).

ß WRITE A HOUSE ENVIRONMENT ESSAY describing how, where, and why you buildyour house.

ß STAY UNDER THE TOTAL BUDGET OF $1,500,000 (not including rooms furnished)using the cost of $89.75 per square foot.


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DREAM HOUSE INFORMATION SHEET

1. HOUSE ENVIRONMENT

Attach an essay in final form explaining:ß Where you will build your dream houseß Why you chose to build it thereß How you have designed you house to be unique to you and/or its setting

Supply the following information here before you begin your essay:ß Hemisphereß Continentß Countryß State or Province (if applicable)ß City (in or near)

2. TOTAL NUMBER OF ROOMS:

3. ROOMS AND SIZE (example: Bedroom #1 is 15 ft. x 18 ft. = 270 sq.ft.)

Room Dimensions Square Footage

4. TOTAL SQUARE FEET:

5. TOTAL COST OF CONSTRUCTION:

6. TOTAL COST OF FURNISHINGS:

7. TOTAL MONEY SPENT:


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The Boat ProjectGena Merliss, Dan Noel, Mit Wanzer, Ann Colligan,Tanya Bouzy and Derek BrownFrancis W. Parker Charter Essential Schoolhttp://www.parker.org/

The Boat Project came about because of the dedication and collaborationbetween six teachers in the Mathematics, Science, and Technology team atParker Charter Essential School in Devins, Massachusetts. The Boat Projectwas a seven-week unit involving 150 students in grades 7 and 8.

The Boat Project was designed to cover the content areas of density,measurement, mechanics, and fluid dynamics, but the teaching team foundthat communication, career exploration, community connections, andlanguage arts were threaded throughout the project.

Teacher Gena Merliss said the integrated curriculum influenced students’learning because, “kids could see math and science as one, and they werejumping back and forth between the two without even realizing it. The mathbecame the evidence for their scientific reasoning.”

In terms of the collaboration between staff to build the curriculum, Dan Noelstressed the “ability to have an openness to let your team-members decidewhat is important to cover in their subject-area, and then working that intothe plan.” Having common planning time was crucial for Gena and Dan, aswell.

What emerged from all of the collaboration was a unit with solid content andhigh student engagement with a problem-based frame that students loved.The school hosted a family boat night where the fire department came andbrought their rescue boat, and students found local boat owners andinterviewed them informally. Then they put their knowledge to the test (aftermuch trial and error on a smaller scale) and built their boats for the big race,which had many challenges, surprises, and rewards.

The three Challenges of the Week (COW’s) that follow demonstrate theseamless blend of math, science, and technology present in this project, but,more than anything else, it is clear just how much fun this project was forstudents and teachers alike.


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Boat Project Description

Ahoy maties! Your challenge for this term is to design a boat that can carry you. And unless you want toget wet, it better be a good, sound boat! Each student will design a boat and create a small cardboardmodel of it. On October 20, we will test the boats to see which one carries the most weight. The winnerof the contest will receive an exciting prize! Then the class will get to build that boat. The final test willbe when we put it in the water with someone inside.

The Learning GoalsIn order to advance in academic standing at Parker Charter School, students must demonstrateproficiency in 5 competencies: Math, Science, Humanities, Technology, and Personal Development.The benchmarks needed to reach the competency in science include skills and habits of mind. In thescience competency, we address these benchmarks in this term:

Design ProcessPropose a design to a given problem or challengeImplement a solution that conforms to design constraintsCommunicate the problem, process, rational and solution

Data and ResultsTake scientific measurementsObserveConstruct table of data using ExcelSummarize results concisely

Materials and MethodsConduct experimentsCommunicate experimental procedureIdentify variablesDefine variables operationallyDesign investigations with appropriate methods of recording and interpreting data

ContentPhysical science-fluid mechanics: density, pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes principle, waterdisplacement

Accurately use scientific and technological vocabulary, symbols and models

Demonstrate an understanding of scientific concepts in writing and orally

Identify the relevance of scientific concepts and their connection to real life

TeambuildingBuild a boat with other students


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Challenge of the Week #12Float Your Boat!

Boat: Due March 14th, 2003Write-up: Due March 17th, 2003

Design Challenge:

Build a boat that can carry the most cargo in your class . . . without sinking!

Be sure to include:

ß Fantasy drawingß Final drawing on graph paperß Your boatß Explanation of how concepts of fluid mechanics influenced your designß Summary and analysis of results

Assessment rubric for COW #12, based on the Parker School Criteria for Excellence and Habits ofLearning

1. You understand the problem.ß you restate the problem in your own wordsß you make connections to class activities

2. You solve the problem.ß you use graphs, tables, drawings, and modelingß you use mathematical and scientific languageß your work is correct and you have supported it with evidence

3. The work shows effective effort.ß your approach is efficient or sophisticatedß your work is well organized and detailedß you have completed all parts

4. You go beyond the requirements (exceeding the standards).ß you formulate a conjecture or a question and follow through with an investigation

Exceeds = all of 1-4Meets = all of 1-3Approaches = some of 1-3Just Beginning = little or none of 1-3


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Challenge of the Week #13Local Wonders

Due March 28th, 2003

You may not live near the Titanic or even the Mayflower, but you can choose any local boat that issignificant because of its appearance, strength, speed, or historical or social impact. Once you havechosen your “local wonder” you should visit it, research it and present your findings orally to the class.

Your final presentation should include:

1. Name and description of boat (identify the type of boat, when it was built, describe and explainits parts).

2. Why is this local wonder important, interesting, or significant? What is/was it used for?

3. Approximate size (dimensions, displacement, etc.)

4. Approximate date boat was built.

5. What the boat is made out of? How was it constructed?

6. Multiview drawing of your boat.

7. Interesting facts about your local wonder.

Sample questions to research:

ß What are the parts of the boat?ß Why was it built?ß Why did the builders choose the materials they did?ß How much weight can it hold?ß How long did the construction take?ß What is the boat used for?ß Who has owned the boat?

[Assessment Rubric not available]


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Challenge of the Week #14Ferry Service

Due April 18th, 2003

You are an employee of Quality Boat Systems (QBS), a company that designs boat hulls for carryingpeople and cars. Like many other boat design companies, QBS has been able to develop cost-effective,high performance hulls by building and testing scale models. Your customers want boats that willspeed up their ferry service to and from the cape cod mainland to Martha’s Vineyard. Your team’schallenge is to research how to increase the speed through water by redesigning the boat hull. ForCOW 14, each student will hand in his/her own written work, but will design the boat in pairs.

Design Challenge:

ß Make a Quick-Build according to plans and collect baseline performance data

ß Understand how fluid dynamics affects hull speed

ß Redesign the model hull to improve its performance

ß Test the new design, Collect quantitative data, and calculate percent improvement inperformance

ß Document your process, design improvement and tests using the steps of the EngineeringDesign Process

ß Explain your rationale for your final boat design, connecting it to what you have learned duringthis unit

Assessment rubric for COW #14, based on the steps of the Engineering Design Process

1. You identify the need or problem

2. You research the need or problemß you examine the current designß you explore other options: class, books, magazines, internet

3. You develop possible solutionsß you brainstorm possible solutionsß you draw on mathematics and scienceß you present the possible solutions in two and/or three dimensions

4. You select the best possible solutionß you determine which solution best meets the original requirements


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5. You construct a prototype

6. You test and evaluate your solutionß you evaluate whether your solution worksß you make sure that it meets the design constraints

7. You communicate the solutionß you state how your solution meets the needs of the initial problemß you discuss the pros and cons of your design

8. You attempt to redesignß you propose further improvements or ask questions

Exceeds = all of 1-8 and it is connected to what you learned in this unitMeets = all of 1-8Approaches = some of 1-8Just Beginning = little of 1-8


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The Ultra 5000 ProjectJames Mitchell, Patty Blome, and Eileen EgeThe O’Farrell Community SchoolSan Diego, Californiahttp://ofarrell.sandi.net/index.html

The Ultra 5000 Project, formed by an interdisciplinary team at the O’FarrellCommunity School, combines community involvement, problem-basedlearning, and career exploration in an exciting, ambitious format with highrewards for students.

The O’Farrell Community School is a pioneer charter school in the SanDiego school district. The school serves 1,500 middle school students in six“families” of 250 students each, with a high level of autonomy granted toeach family. The families share a common administrative office and CEO,but have control over staffing, scheduling, discipline, assessment andcurriculum decisions. Each family has a core of subject-specific and specialeducation teachers, family support teachers, ESL teachers, and instructionalaids. Most students remain with the same educational family the entire timethey attend O’Farrell.

The Ultra 5000 project was a joint effort by the Horizon Explorers teachers(Family 6), to combine the study of science and the humanities. Enlisting theaid of a forensic scientist, Family 6 created a unit complete with a crime lab,a press center, and a courthouse. The team strived to make the project asimulation of the criminal and judicial system, and the students were asked toselect a role in the process to solve a problem/crime. The crime was the theftof a new telescope, the Ultra 5000, during a party at the school. Studentsselected roles from the following choices:

ß Jurorsß Defense Attorneysß Prosecution Attorneysß Paralegalsß Bailiffß Suspects

ß Witnessesß Custodiansß Handwriting Specialistsß Forensic Scientistsß Reporters

Each day the students were given a case update and a task (see sample dailyassignment) pertaining to their role. Moving between the crime lab, witnessroom, attorney room, courthouse, and library, the students would completetheir task by working cooperatively and doing research surrounding their roleand objective. The project would culminate when the trial ended and the juryreached a verdict.

The Horizon Explorers teachers found that the students were highlymotivated by the project, and couldn’t wait to find out what the next layer ofthe case would be. The teachers also found that having the expertise of aforensic scientist raised the standard of the work and gave the students a


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high-stakes audience. Students also contacted community members who heldjobs in the roles they were playing for the project.

Through the Ultra 5000 project, students engaged in:

Science - data collection, scientific inquiry, investigative analysis andinterpretation;

Social Studies - studying societal institutions, power, authority, andgovernance, governmental mechanisms, and social justice;

Language Arts - writing for different audiences, purposes, and careerapplications, reading to learn new information and for career applications,and communicating to a range of audiences for effective delivery.


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Sample Project Description:

What Happened?

On Thursday at 6:00 pm there was a party at O’Farrell Community School inroom 213 to celebrate the arrival of a new telescope – the Ultra 5000.People from the community, in addition to the school staff, were invited toattend the celebration.

The telescope is a state of the art model that has the power to see thesurface of Pluto with perfect clarity. The marvelous part of it is that itweights a mere 15 pounds, which makes it very light and portable. Needlessto say, it is extremely expensive.

Sometime during the evening, the Ultra 5000 telescope was stolen. Thenight custodian, Joe Clean, called the police to report the missingproperty and possible burglary at 9:57 pm.

There is a guest sign-in sheet, which names most of the guests who were inattendance that night, in addition to their arrival times. A few of theattendees are Sadie Truth, Justin Time, Seth Mefree, and Hope N.Forthebest.

All of the attendees of the party are suspects. Furthermore, thecustodian has not been cleared from being a suspect. The task of solvingthis crime now rests in the hands of detectives and forensic scientists.They are assigned to collect and examine the physical evidence left in room213, as well as to sort through the information provided by the suspectsand witnesses in their interviews. It is up to them to try to piece togetherall of the evidence to find out who stole the Ultra 5000 telescope and putthe suspect on trial in a court of law.


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Sample Project Assignment:

Reporter

What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCOMPLISHED grade forthe Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”

You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following(in order):

q Log of all interviews conducted

q Subject/Date/Time/Location sheets

q Sampling of interviews (at least two)

q Sampling of articles written (derived from interviews) (at least two)

q Sampling of articles written about forensic science (derived fromresearch)

q Journal/collection of daily reflections on Forensic Science

NOTE! Your journal must include reflections on the followingquestions:

1. What are you learning about the role you have been assigned?2. How is forensic science affecting your character’s life? or

What have you learned about forensic science?3. Explain one new hypothesis that you or your team has

developed.


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Paralegal

What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCPMPLISHED grade forthe Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”

You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following:

q Journal/collection of news articles with reflectionThe pool of reporters will be writing daily news articles and you willneed to read them, and reflect on your character’s portrayal,whether or not the information presented is accurate, etc.

q Journal/collection of daily reflections on forensic science




developed.

q In addition to the reflections, create a daily task list for thefollowing day.

q Create a “Joe defense attorney or prosecutor” poster.


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Handwriting analyst

What you need to turn in on April 20th to get an ACCPMPLISHED grade forthe Trial of “Who Stole the Ultra 5000?”

You will submit one complete project portfolio containing the following:

q Journal/collection of news articles with reflectionThe pool of reporters will be writing daily news articles and you willneed to read them, and reflect on your character’s portrayal,whether or not the information presented is accurate, etc.

q Journal/collection of daily reflections on forensic science




developed.

q Research paper on the life of a handwriting analyst or acriminologist.

q “Joe handwriting analyst or criminologist” poster.


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Sample Daily Assignment for Reporters and Attorneys:

Reporters!

The prosecution has just announced a defendant. The defendant will betried on Wednesday and Thursday of this week.

Your job is to get the scoop! You may question people who were suspects,or witnesses, as well as the attorneys and forensic science team.

You should have a story published on the web at http://165.24.16.243/ bythe end of the school day.

Attorneys!

On Friday, the prosecution announced who the defendant will be; now it istime to prepare for trial! The trial is on Wednesday and Thursday of thisweek.

Today, you have to decide how you are going to defend or prosecute thedefendant. In order to do this you need a plan. After developing your plan,you may want to decide who you want to call as a witness in the trial.Practice with them so they know what to expect when on the stand. Also,think about who the other side is going to call for their witness, and howyou are going to counter them on the stand.

If you want to call expert witnesses you will need to decide who you aregoing to call, and for what reason. The expert witnesses are in room 213.Call them and interview them before making a final selection.


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The following books were recommended by school practitioners. Thereviews are drawn from book jackets, publishers, and websites.

Designing & Implementing anIntegrated Curriculum: A Student-Centered Approach

Edward T. Clark, Jr. (1997)Holistic Education Press

http://www.great-ideas.org/clark.htm

Ed Clark, more adeptly than anyone else, has translatedthe revolutionary insights of systems theory andecological science into a specific educational agendafor the twenty-first century. In this new and compellingbook, he makes it clear that "integrated curriculum" ismore than the mere combination of subject areas, andmore than another passing educational fad: Byexamining hidden assumptions about human potential,learning and intelligence, the nature of the universe,and the effectiveness of organizations, Clarkdemonstrates that the established educational structure

is not equipped to cope with the major changes taking place in the worldtoday. He calls for systemic restructuring.

An integrated curriculum begins with important, open-ended questions aboutstudent’s places in society, history, their community, and the ecosystem.Integrated teaching is attuned to natural processes of learning, such asconstructing meaning and understanding context, relationships, and conceptswithin a genuine community of learning. Clark explains how, in thetechnological worldview, isolated facts came to assume undeservedimportance; in a systemic, ecological perspective, the purpose of education isnot to pile up facts but to cultivate inquiry, meaningful understanding, anddirect personal engagement. Surveying the political and economic scene atthis time, Clark concludes that such goals are vital to the survival ofdemocratic citizenship. Systemic, ecological thinking is increasingly relevanttoday because of the complexity and speed of social, cultural, andtechnological change. Clark quotes Margaret Mead: "Now young people facefutures for which their parents culture cannot prepare them." Clark’sintegrated curriculum enables students to address their world withimagination, creativity, and purpose, rather than making them passiveconsumers of textbook and media-packaged information. This is a visionarybook, yet firmly grounded in the author’s extensive and successful work withschool staffs attempting genuine restructuring.

Designing and Implementing an Integrated Curriculum is a powerfulcurriculum development tool for teachers, schools, and school districts. Byusing the philosophy, strategies, and models presented in this book,individual teachers, teacher teams, or administrators can design a curriculum


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that is integrated, interesting, substantive, provocative, and genuinelyrelevant to the concerns and needs of students.Drawing from the hundreds of workshops that he has conducted over the lasttwenty years, Clark examines the assumptions that support traditionaleducational designs and proposes a new perspective that is integrated,ecological, and learner-centered. He then develops the principles of a trulyintegrated curriculum framed by a set of universally relevant concepts andorganized around "questions worth arguing about." He concludes withdozens of real-world examples that illustrate the implementation of theintegrated curriculum in a Chicago-area school.

Dr. Ed Clark is an educational consultant specializing in integratedcurriculum design and site-based educational change. He has been involvedin teacher education for thirty years -- as Director of Teacher Education atWebster University, as Professor of Environmental Education at GeorgeWilliams College, and as an independent educational consultant for the lastfifteen years. A native of Virginia, he and his wife Margaret live in the farwestern suburbs of Chicago.

Making Sense of Integrated Science: A Guide for High SchoolsBiological Sciences Curriculum Study (2000)http://www.bscs.org/cp_ids.html

The interconnectedness of natural science disciplines has becomeincreasingly obvious of late. The "high ground" perspective of observingEarth from space allows us to see that the individual "-ologies" are really partof a unified whole: integrated science.

Across the country, we at Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS)have heard a consistent message from teachers, schools, and districts that arethinking about ways to improve science education for their students. Ingeneral, we have found the following:

ß Teachers seek a coherent alternative to the discipline-basedsequence.

ß States are establishing standards across the disciplines and teacherssee a multidisciplinary science program as a way to meet thosestandards.

ß Science programs that integrate across disciplines engage a greaterdiversity of learners.

ß Science that integrates across the disciplines reflects the unity of thenatural world.

How can high school teachers best use this concept to enhance their students'understanding of their natural world? How might schools go aboutimplementing such a program? Check out our new guide: "Making Sense ofIntegrated Science: A Guide for High Schools," which is the result of a study


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funded by the National Science Foundation, and can be downloaded in itsentirety from our website.

The key features of BSCS Science Inquiry Approach include:

ß Rigorous, standards-based contentß Lessons that are activity-basedß Opportunities for structured and open inquiry in relevant contextsß A constructivist, student-centered approachß The BSCS 5-E Instructional Model [see website for information]ß A collaborative learning environmentß A comprehensive assessment packageß The use of student science notebooks

Concept-Based Curriculum and InstructionTeaching Beyond the FactsH Lynn Erickson, Gonzaga University (2002)Corwin Presshttp://www.corwinpress.com/

"It is the clearest approach I have seen for helpingteachers distinguish the difference between concepts andfacts. I will recommend it everywhere."- Heidi Hayes Jacobs, Curriculum Designers, Inc.

"A lucid and helpful volume, very much what people need to move beyondsimplistic teaching."- Grant P. Wiggins, Learning by Design, Inc.

This book is the ideal companion to Erickson’s landmark Stirring the Head,Heart, and Soul, Second Edition. Here, the author explores concept-basedlearning on a more in-depth level across disciplines and grade levels.Teachers can use the specific strategies to create a seamless learning programthat teaches students the skills they really need to think conceptually and tosolve problems in today’s complex, changing world.

Learn how to:

ß Take learning beyond the factsß Facilitate deep understanding and knowledgeß Develop conceptual systems in the brain to process new informationß Meet higher academic standards related to content knowledge,

process abilities, quality performance, and school-to-work transitionsß Align your curriculum with state and national standards and establish

appropriate performance assessments


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This excellent resource for K-12 teachers, teacher educators, curriculumdesigners, and staff developers contains numerous charts and figures thatenable readers to put the book to immediate use.

Making Integrated Curriculum Work:Teachers, Students, and the Quest for Coherent CurriculumElizabeth P. Pate, Elaine R. Homestead, and Karen L. McGinnis

Forward by James A. Beane (1997)Teachers College Press

http://store.tcpress.com/cgi/sc/productsearch.cgi?storeid=tcpress

"Almost every teacher has been confronted by studentsasking, ‘Why do we have to learn this? Rarely, though,do we hear of teachers raising similar questions: ‘Whydo I have to teach this?’ ‘What is this for?’ ‘When willthey ever use this?’… This book could stand alone asan example of the kind of reflective teacher researchthat is presently breathing fresh air into the generallyabstract and aloof world of educational inquiry… [or]as a sourcebook on teaching methods… for those whoare willing to try some progressive teaching but are notsure how to get started."

– From the Foreword by James A. Beane

Full of real stories and practical suggestions, this book searches for acurriculum that is at once inclusive, democratic, and empowering forteachers, students, and parents. Based on their one-year curricular experimentcalled the "McHome Team," the authors–two classroom teachers and auniversity professor–describe their efforts to guide a middle-school class toco-create their own curriculum. Exploring their successes and challenges, theauthors examine the implications their approach has for the study ofintegrated curricula and democratic schooling. Rather than relying on outsidesources for curriculum decisions and justifications, the authors suggest thatteachers turn to their students and to their own professional judgment tocreate possibilities for curriculum and teaching.

Introductory chapters are followed by individual chapters on each of theeight essential components of coherent curriculum:

ß Goalsß Democratic Classroomsß Traditional and Alternative Assessmentsß Content Integrationß Pedagogyß Communicationß Scheduling and Organizational Structures


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Multicultural Mathematics:Interdisciplinary, Cooperative Learning Activities

J. Weston Walch, Publisher (1993)http://www.enc.org/resources/records/full/0,1240,003787,00.shtm

Packed full of complex, constructivist activities, this activity bookdemonstrates how cultures across the globe and through the span of timeuse(d) math structures to explain, invent, and create their societies. This bookwould work very well at the ninth grade level with heterogeneous groupsworking at different paces, but needing to grasp similar concepts.

This reproducible blackline master book of 55 multicultural activities formathematics is designed as a supplement and enrichment for the mathematicscurriculum of the middle and secondary grades. The authors propose toexpose students to the mathematics practices of other peoples of the world; toshow students how mathematics is applied in science, social studies, art, andsports; and to develop the critical thinking skills of students.

Each activity includes cultural, historical, or other background information asappropriate; an explanation of the pertinent mathematical concept; problemsto be solved with examples; an optional THINK ABOUT THIS section toencourage further exploration of the mathematical concept and its relevanceto real world situations. Activities frequently are set in the context of real lifesituations. One chapter is devoted to activities that emphasize developingskills for estimation, approximation, mental arithmetic, and judging whetherresults are reasonable.

A brief teachers' guide prefaces the book. It includes suggestions for how touse the activities, a concepts and a skills chart relating the activities to theNational Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Curriculum andEvaluation Standards for grades 5 to 8, and reproducible grids. The book alsoincludes a bibliography for multicultural and global mathematics.


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Introductionß Content of activitiesß How to use this bookß Concepts and skills chartß Sequence of activitiesß Reproducible grids

Chapter 1: Numbers Old & NewReproducible activitiesß Names for numbersß All kinds of numeralsß Chinese stick numeralsß Calculating: Roman, Egyptian, and Maya

styleß The amazing Maya calendarß Ancient Egyptian multiplication by

doublingß Counting on the Russian abacusß Counting on the Japanese abacusß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 1ß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 2, Eye of

Horus fractionsß Fractions in Ancient Egypt, part 3, unit

fractionsß Is zero anything?ß Casting out ninesß More about numbers, Goldbach's conjectureß Pythagorean triples

Chapter 2: Using Numbers in Real LifeReproducible activitiesß Rounding numbersß Big numbers and approximationß Mental arithmetic, part 1, money in West

Africaß Mental arithmetic, part 2, more cowrie

shellsß Mental arithmetic, part 3, African geniusß Benjamin Banneker's Almanackß Change in population of four citiesß Growth of the population of the United

Statesß Spending our money: the federal budget

Chapter 3: Geometry & MeasurementReproducible activitiesß The largest garden plotß The shape of a houseß The wonderful pyramids of Egyptß The golden ratio

ß Stretching and shrinking a designß Similar shapes in three dimensionsß Border patternsß Symmetry in Dine artß The symmetry of symbolsß The symmetry of Hopi basketsß Islamic art: designß Islamic art: tessellations

Chapter 4: Probability, Statistics, and GraphsReproducible activitiesß What are the outcomes?, part 1, toss a

coin or twoß What are the outcomes?, part 2, toss a

cowrie shellß What are the outcomes?, part 3, toss

more coins and shellsß What do you eat?ß To smoke or not to smoke, part 1, Why

die young?ß To smoke or not to smoke, part 2, Who

pays?ß Infant mortality: why do babies die?ß Population of Californiaß Population of New York stateß Big moneyß Where does the money go?

Chapter 5: Fun With MathReproducible activitiesß The first magic squareß Magic squares: find the mistakeß Four by four magic squaresß More four by four magic squaresß Secret codes with numbersß Map coloringß Networks, part 1, Chokweß Networks, part 2, Bakubaß Networks, part 3, more Bakubaß Three in a row games: Tapatanß Three in a row games: Picaria

Bibliography for multicultural and globalmathematics

Answer key


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Writing to Learn Mathematics and SciencePaul Connolly and Teresa Vilardi, Editors (1989)

Teachers College Presshttp://store.tcpress.com/0807729620.shtml

This book, written by undergraduate or pre-service teacher educators, offersa collection of essays that discuss how students' learning in mathematics andscience can be improved through both conventional formal writing andregular informal writing. The forward traces the development of educationalphilosophy in the twentieth century and places the writing to learn process inan historical context. It also explains the seminal nature of John Dewey'swork proposing language and writing as starting points that can be used toenhance the teaching of science and mathematics. The essays emphasize theimportance of using writing for advancing, not just testing, studentunderstanding in math and science, and present ideas and strategies designedto give students an understanding of and experience with the writing to learnprocess. This writing process also aims to enrich students' conceptualunderstanding, to develop thinking, and to integrate information. A samplearticle, Writing and Mathematics Theory and Practice, contains a review ofrecent publications that describe efforts to use writing in the teaching ofmathematics and considers the impact of writing activities on themathematics classroom. Each chapter ends with references. (Author/JRS)

Contents:PrefaceForeword:ß The ordinary experience of writing, by Leon Botsteinß Writing and the ecology of learning, by Paul Connollyß Writing and mathematics: theory and practice, by Barbara Rose

Part 1: Defining problems, seeing possibilitiesß Using writing to assist learning in college mathematics classes,

by Marcia Birkenß Writing to learn science and mathematics, by Sheila Tobiasß Reflections on the uses of informal writing, by Alan Marwine

Part 2: Writing as problem solvingß Writing is problem solving, by Russel W. Kenyonß Locally original mathematics through writing, by William P.

Berlinghoffß Writing and the teacher of mathematics, by David L. White and

Katie Dunn

Part 3: Classroom applications: what works and howß Writing micro themes to learn human biology, by Kathryn H. Martinß The synergy between writing and mathematics, by David Layzerß Exploring mathematics in writing, by Sandra Keithß Writing to learn: an experiment in remedial algebra, by Richard J.

Lesnak


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ß Writing as a vehicle to learn mathematics: a case study, by Arthur B.Powell and Jose A. Lopez

ß Writing in science education classes for elementary school teachers,by Mary Bahns

Part 4: Programmatic policies and practicesß The advanced writing requirement at Saint Mary's College, by

Joanne Erdman Snowß Qualitative thinking and writing in the hard sciences, by William J.

Mullinß What's an assignment like you doing in a course like this?: writing to

learn mathematics, by George D. Gopen and David A. Smith

Part 5: The context of learningß On preserving the union of numbers and words: the story of an

experiment, by Erika Duncanß They think, therefore we are, by Anneli Laxß Writing and reading for growth in mathematical reasoning, by

Hassler Whitneyß The dignity quotient, by Dale Worsley

Part 6: Responsesß Is mathematics a language? by Vera John-Steinerß A mathematician's perspective, by Reuben Hershß About the editors and contributorsß Index


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NOTES:

SURVEY

This collection is ever growing! We’d love to hear about additional resources foradvisories, project-based learning, literacy, and college-access. We will include newadditions in our final publication (January 2004) as well as on our website.

Suggested Resource:

(circle one)

Adapting Classroom Practice

Teaching for Equity


Suggested Resource:

(circle one)

Adapting Classroom Practice

Teaching for Equity


Based on teacher surveys, we’ve outlined some topics for our upcoming resourcecollection. Let us know if there are additional topics you’d like us to consider.

October 2003 Suggested Topics:

Performance AssessmentWeb-Based LearningFamily & Community Relationships

The first collection, from April 2003, addressed advisories, project-based learning,literacy, and college access. It is available at http://www.smallschoolsproject.org.

Return by mail: Return by Fax: (206) 543-8250Small Schools Project7900 East Green Lake Drive North Return by Email:Seattle, WA 98103 [email protected]

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