1. Chapter 1 Beginnings to 1789

2. One of the most complete prehistoric skeletons ever unearthed in the Americas was discovered near Kennewick, WA in July of 1996. It was dubbed the Kennewick Man. Now it is the subject of a court battle between anthropologists who desire to learn all they can about it, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which wants to cover it up, both literally and figuratively. The Corps of Engineers wishes to turn this remarkable find over to American Indian tribes who want it reburied without further study based on the claim the skeleton is an Indian and therefore should not be desecrated by being studied. The discovery of 9,000 year old Caucasoid skeletons, older than any Mongoloid Indian remains known in North America, have been found. These include the nearly 9,400 year old mummy of a Caucasoid male found in Spirit Cave, NV, and the skeletal remains of a nine year old Caucasoid female child found in Nevada of equal antiquity. The oldest skeletal remains in North America. 3. Interestingly enough the Kennewick Man had imbedded in his pelvic girdle a two inch Clovis spear-point of gray volcanic rock evidently thrown by an enemy with probable intent to kill. Kennewick Man survived the attack, but the spear-point remained imbedded in his hip. Most Americans, taught the Bering Strait theory as an explanation for the peopling of America, are unaware it is no longer seen as the sole explanation for the presence of man on these continents. Archaeological finds in South America, on the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and elsewhere show conclusively that there were several distinct and separate migrations of different racial groups to the Americas. Recent studies point to the hypothesis of a North Atlantic Crescent which existed between Europe and North America, with both water and ice serving as a bridge between the two continents. It is clear also from genetic DNA sequencing that there was more than one migratory event. Indeed, as one DNA study bluntly stated, The notion of a homogeneous Amerindian genetic pool does not conform with these and other results. 4. A complex of strange stone structures possibly religious in nature bearing similarities to early stone work found in western Europe. They suggest an ancient culture may have existed here more than 2,000 years ago. Sometimes called "American's Stonehenge", these intriguing chambers hold a fascinating story and could be remnants of a pre-Viking or even Phoenician civilization. 5. Culture Time of Origin Location Cultural Characteristics Hopewell 400 B.C. Ohio River Valley Burial and ceremonial mounds; farming and trading Anasazi 100 A.D. Present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah Pueblos; farming and trading; raised corn. beans, squash Mississippian 700 A.D. Lower Mississippi River Earth pyramids; farming and trading; corn was staple; strict class system; absolute ruler Northwest Coast 1000 B.C. Pacific coast, from present-day northern California to Alaska Totem poles; hunting, gathering, fishing; valued wealth; strict social classes; slavery Eskimos (also called Inuit) After the last Ice Age Northernmost parts of North America Houses of snow and ice; fishing and hunting provided food, clothes, tools 6. Mound Builders are pre-Columbian North American Indians who built earth mounds. The Mound Builders belong to a number of different groups and built mounds for various purposes. Thousands of their mounds, varying greatly in size and shape, are found in eastern North America. They date from the Woodland period (about 1000 B.C. to 700 A.D. in central and southern areas; to 1500 A.D. in northern areas) and the Mississippian Period (about 700 to 1500 A.D. in central and southern areas). The Woodland Mound Builders were primarily hunters and gathers; they lived in camps and villages. Archaeologists distinguish two major cultures in Woodland times: the simpler Adena and the more advanced Hopewell, both named for sites in Ohio. The Mississippian Mound Builders were farmers who lived in villages around large religious centers. The reason for the decline and disappearance of the Mound Builders is not known. 7. Like their cultural kin - the Mogollon and the Hohokam - in the deserts to the south, the earliest Anasazi peoples felt the currents of revolutionary change during the first half of the first millennium A.D. Perhaps in a response to Mesoamerican influences from Mexico, they began to turn away from the nomadism of the ancient hunting and gathering life, the seasonal rounds calibrated to the movement of game and the ripening of wild plants, the material impoverishment imposed by the limitations of the burdens they could carry on their backs. They began living in small hamlets. They broke the land and took up agriculture. Over time, they acquired more possessions, stored food, made pottery, adopted the bow and arrow, domesticated dogs and turkeys. They still hunted and gathered, not as their only avenues for acquiring food, but as a complement to cultivated corn, beans, squash and other crops. In the first half of their history, the Anasazi distinguished themselves primarily through the artistry of their basketry, which they crafted from the fibers of plants. In the second half, they left their mark on a much grander scale, through the construction of perhaps the most stunning prehistoric communities in the United States. The Anasazi would prove be resourceful, adaptable and, ultimately, the most enduring of the Pueblo cultural traditions. The name "Anasazi" has come to mean "ancient people," "ancient ones", although the word itself is Navajo, meaning "enemy ancestors. The heart of the Anasazi region lay across the southern Colorado Plateau and the upper Rio Grande drainage. It spanned northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, southeastern Utah and southwestern Coloradoa land of forested mountain ranges, stream-dissected mesas, arid grasslands and occasional river bottoms. 8. Five Nations or Six Nations was the confederacy of Iroquois Indians that centered in what is now New York state. Five Tribes of the Iroquoian language family- Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca- formed a league about 1570, under the leadership of Dekanawida and Hiawatha. (Longfellows poem, although it used the character, is based on Ojibwa or Chippewa legends.) They were joined by Tuscarora groups from North Carolina, 1712-22, and thereafter were sometimes called the Six Nations. The Tuscaroras, however, never achieved full equality in the league. The Iroquois were supplied with guns by the Dutch and later by the English, and they conquered many Algonquian tribes. Siding with the English, the Five Nations was a strong factor in wars with the French. In the American Revolution, the league lacked unity and was badly defeated by the Americans. After the war, the Mohawks and Cayugas, as well as some of the Senecas, settled in Canada. Seneca Rocks Mountain, WV. Evidence suggests that the Native Americans of the Archaic Period may have camped frequently at the mouth of nearby Seneca Creek at the foot of the Rocks. The famous Great Indian Warpath, known locally as the "Seneca Trail", followed the Potomac River, allowing the Algonquin, Tuscarora, and Seneca nations to transit the area for purposes of trade and war. Excavation for the building of the present Seneca Rocks Visitor Center uncovered evidence of two villages, the most recent of which thrived about 600 years ago. About a dozen dwellings were found 9. Clovis People Eskimo (Inuit) Northwest Coast People Mississippian People Anasazi Hopewell People 10. 1. From where did the first migrations to North America come? 2. What are some of the evidences that these pre- Mongoloid came from Europe? 3. What are the five major culture groups of North American Indians? 4. What two cultures built mounds or pyramids? 5. What Southwestern culture had an advanced culture and built complex Pueblos? 11. Presented for the consideration of Her Majesty Queen Isabella By Christopher Columbus of Genoa 14 Mar 1491 12. Current Route: sail Mediterranean, overland across Asia A long and dangerous way to Cathay and the Indies New Proposed Route: sail South of Africa, then Eastward Even longer and more dangerous for Spanish traders 14 Mar 1491 13. A Direct route should be possible by sailing Westward Faster and safer because it is a lot shorter Hitherto unexploited by the English or Portuguese 14 Mar 1491 14. World Trade Market Share (FY 1490) Spain Portugal England All Other 14 Mar 1491 Spain 18.00% 23.00%25.00% 34.00% In FY 1490, Spanish trade lagged far behind that of England and Portugal less that 1/5 European total A new route Westward could redress the balance 15. We will explore a Western sea route to the Indies If we can discover a new route to the Indies, the benefits to the Kingdom of Spain will be immense: Significant rise in trade Possession of all new lands discovered Substantial increase in revenues to the crown! But we must act soon: (From reliable sources) English and Portuguese are even now considering India expeditions. 14 Mar 1491 16. To ensure success, we have: Prepared a fleet of three seaworthy ships Hand-selected a staff of experienced officers and able-bodied seamen Contracted for the services of scientists, linguists, surgeons, and priests to accompany the expedition The team is assembled but we need your support. 14 Mar 1491 17. 14 Mar 1491 C. Columbus Admiral Nia (caravel) Pinta (caravel) Santa Maria (flagship) V.Y. Pinzn Captain J. Nio Master S.R. de Gama Pilot (Crew of 21) M.A. Pinzn Captain F.M. Pinzn Master C.G. Xalmiento Pilot (Crew of 24) C. Columbus Captain J. de la Cosa Master P. Nio Pilot (Crew of 38) Vicente Yez Pinzn Martn Alonso Pinzn 18. POTENTIAL DANGERS Portuguese mercenaries Hostile natives Weather Navigational uncertainty HOW WE COPE Diplomatic mission from the Queen to Portugal Trained military men will accompany the ships Officers and crew have experience in the latitudes New, more precise navigational methods have been developed 14 Mar 1491 19. Ships D 725,000 Personnel 350,000 Supplies 125,000 Trading Goods 250,000 Weapons 50,000 Total Projected Budget D 1,500,000 14 Mar 1491 All figures in thousands of Ducats Already Raised (14 Mar 1491) D 500,000 20. We propose that the Queen provide: An investment of D1,000,000 (reimbursable from profits) A royal charter for the expedition Diplomatic papers to assist in potential negotiations with Indian potentates. Royal contracts for ships supplies Royal support is essential to our chances of success 14 Mar 1491 21. Spain has a golden opportunity to enhance its position as a world power: Establish a practical sea route to the Indies Increase Spains share of world trade Bring untold gold into the royal treasury It will be like a New World for Spain 14 Mar 1491 22. The First Voyage The Pinta, the Nia, and the Santa Maria were outfitted in the minor port of Palos. Columbus was aided in recruiting a crew by two brothersMartin Alonzo Pinzon, who received command of the Pinta, and his younger brother Vincente Yanez Pinzon, who commanded the Nia. They left Palos on 3 Aug 1492, rerigged the Nia in the Canaries, and sailed to the west. A landfall was made on the morning of 12 Oct 1492, at an island in the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador. 39 men were left on the island at the settlement of Navidad while Columbus returned to Spain on the Nia. Columbus claimed to have reached islands just off the coast of Asia and brought with him artifacts, Indians, and some gold. On 16 Jan 1493, the Nia and the Pinta began the return voyage. They carried gold, bright-feathered, colored parrots, and other strange animals and plants, some Indian cloth and ornaments, and several Indians. A stormy eastward passage separated the two ships and did much damage. Columbus, on the Nia, put in at Lisbon for refitting. The Pinta made port at the Spanish town of Bayona, to the north of Portugal. In Lisbon, Columbus was welcomed by King John. With repairs completed, Columbus sailed. At midday of 15 Mar 1493, the Nia dropped anchor in Palos harbor. The Pinta made port later the same day. The court at Barcelona, and the Spanish king and queen welcomed Columbus there. To the court, Columbus took six of the Indians, the gold, and some of the plants and Christopher Columbus Cristbal Coln Cristoforo Colombo 23. animals. The sovereigns rose to greet Columbus and seated him at their right. All honors and titles promised him were confirmed. This moment was the height of Columbus glory. The admiral made three more trips to the New World: 1493 to 1496, 1498 to 1500, and 1502 to 1504. On the first return voyage, he had 17 ships and about 1,200 men. At Hispaniola, Columbus found that La Navidad had been burned and the 39 seamen slain. A new colony was started. Columbus explored the coasts of Jamaica, Cuba, and Hispaniola. The Second Voyage Funded by Ferdinand and Isabella, Columbus set sail from Cadiz on his second voyage on 25 Sep 1493. This time he had 17 ships and almost 1,500 men. The explorers went past Puerto Rico and reached the site of Navidad on 27-28 Nov 1493. The encampment had been destroyed, and the Spaniards, who had seized gold and women, had been killed by the Indians. The Third Voyage The colonists there were in revolt, and Columbus soon had to face a royal commissioner, Francisco de Bobadilla, who arrived from Spain in 1500 with full powers. Bobadilla removed the Columbus brothers from the government and sent them back to Spain in chains. 24. The Fourth Voyage He sailed along the coast past Panama, finally heading again for Santo Domingo. His vessels, rotted by shipworm, were abandoned in Jamaica, where Columbus was marooned for a year. Finally rescued, he reached Spain in November 1504. 25. Francisco Vzquez de Coronado was born in Spain. He became a Spanish conquistador who between 1540 and 1542 visited New Mexico and other parts of the southwest of what is now the United States. 26. Coronado was in New Spain, near Mexico City when he began his expedition. He was told by Friar Marcos de Niza that there were 7 golden cities called Cibola and the Pacific Ocean within eyesight. Friar 27. Coronado took over 2,000 men with him on his expedition North from Mexico into what is now known as the present-day state of New Mexico. On his way there he split up his men into several smaller groups and had them leave at different times and some travel different routes in order to make it to Cibola. 28. Before long, in an Indian ambush, Coronado's military advisor was pierced by an arrow. The men encountered rattlesnakes, scorpions, huge lizards, and owls. Some of the men had never seen them before. Many of them died. 29. Coronado found Cibola. He and his men were very disappointed to find only a small tribe of Zuni Indians that lived in pueblos. The Zuni attacked the conquistadors. Coronado won the battle but was injured. He later recovered. 30. The golden city Friar Marcos De Niza spoke of didnt actually exist. His soldiers wanted to kill the Friar, but instead Coronado forced him to return to Mexico in disgrace. 31. Coronado and his men continued to explore the rivers and land in the Southwest Region of what would soon be the United States of America. 32. He was the first European to see the Grand Canyon in Arizona. He traveled through the panhandle of Texas, the panhandle of Oklahoma, and even parts of Kansas during his expeditions. 33. At one point he met an Indian he called The Turk. Turk told Coronado that he knew of Quivira, a rich country in the Northwest. During their voyage, Coronado suspected Turk was lying about the route and killed him. 34. When he reached the Quivera Indians in Kansas, Coronado was once again disappointed. There was no rich country at all. The village consisted mostly of thatched huts, and not even small amounts of gold could be found. 35. Look at some of the rivers Coronado and his men crossed. 36. Throughout the harsh winters and the expedition, Coronados men ran out of supplies and began to get hungry. The Indians were forced to share with them. Eventually battles broke out between Coronados groups of men and the Indians. 37. During the Tigeux War, one of the battles between Coronados men and the Indians, hundreds of Indians died. It has been speculated that Coronado and his men were among the first to celebrate a type of Thanksgiving with the Indians of America after finding some lost food supplies. However, its not the same Thanksgiving we celebrate today. 38. Coronado returned home with only 100 men remaining. He had not discovered any golden cities or rich countries. 39. Coronado had invested a lot of his own money into his expeditions. When most of them had failed to help him find any gold or wealth, he soon became BANKRUPT. In fact, he returned home bankrupt (out of money). He later died in 1544. 40. 1. Coronado was looking for the city called _________ also known as the 7 cities of gold. 2. Who told Coronado that this city existed? ___________________ 3. What did he find when he arrived? ___________________ 4. Name one way some of his men died. _______________________ 5. Who went bankrupt at the end of the trip? ________________ 41. 6. Name five present-day states Coronado traveled through during his expedition. _______________________________________ _____ 7. Name one tribe of Indians he met. _______________ 8. Did Coronado ever find a city of wealth or gold? __ 9. List one of the two types of Indian housing mentioned. Thatched huts/pueblos 10. Coronado was the first explorer to see what famous present-day tourist destination? __________________ 11. (Bonus) Why do you think Coronado has been labeled the Misfortunate Explorer? 42. 1540-1549:Spanish looking for Cibola all over! (California/Texas/Florida) 1539: De Soto- Florida (land of gold) Collects 200lbs of pearls on his exploration Was in Peru w/Pizarro Took over Indian village Kills/tortures if they dont give in Found survivor from Narvez Finds the Mississippi River Died of fever and was buried in the river 43. 1540-Alacron 1st to reach California Sailed up the Gulf of California and Colorado River in the Grand Canyon 1524-Cabrillo (little goat) Believed California was run by Griffins Died being chased by Indians 44. Founded in 1610 Built on a plateau First permanent European colony in North West America 1630-60,000 Indians converted to Christianity 45. 1542-King Charles 1 outlaws Indian slavery Las Casas had an Indian slave as a child 1512-became a priest & owned slaves 1514-gave his slaves their freedom Dec 1520- established Venezuela (peaceful area) Native Americans and Spanish Didnt want to work together 46. Sepulveda Opposed Las Casas opinion Native Americans needed Spanish Slaves were good English read about Spanish Will treat American Indians differently! 47. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey In 1578, Elizabeth I granted Gilbert a charter that permitted him to settle any lands not already held or claimed by Christians. He set sail the next year, but his fleet broke up, and he was forced to return to England. A second colonizing expedition was planned, and the voyage began in June 1583. It reached St. Johns Bay, Newfoundland, in August and claimed the territory in the name of the queen. Raleigh, Sir Walter In 1584, Raleigh obtained a patent authoring colonization of lands in North America; he christened these lands Virginia in honor of the Virgin Queen (Elizabeth I). Raleigh never visited Virginia himself, and the attempt at settlement on Roanoke Island (in present North Carolina) failedthe so called lost colony of Roanoke. Jamestown Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North America, was situated on a marshy peninsula (now Jamestown Island) in the James River of Virginia. An expedition sent by the London Company selected the site principally on the basis of its strategic military location. 48. The colony which was the first permanent English settlement in the New World suffered from poor leadership, famine, disease, disputes with the Indians, and failure to find a marketable product. In the first seven months, they were nearly wiped out by disease and famine, but CPT John Smith revived the settlement in 1608. After the severe winter of 1609-10 (the starving time), the settlers were prevented from abandoning Jamestown only by the arrival in June of the governor, Lord De La Warr, with supplies and additional men. Instead of spending their time growing the crops necessary for survival, the settlers quarreled with one another and searched fruitlessly for gold, silver, and a westward passage to the Pacific. They discovered, however, that the land was suited to the cultivation of an important cash crop, tobacco. The settlers managed to turn the Indians of the Powhatan Confederacy against them despite the marriage (1614) of John Rolfe to Pocahontas, the daughter of Chief Powhatan. Of many Indian attacks, the most serious came on 22 Mar 1622, when Indians led by Opechancanough massacred 347 people. Arrival in Jamestown colony in 1607 49. Entrance to James FortFenced corn field outside the fortRaised vegetable beds outside the fortJames Fort houses 50. Slavery had been common for centuries in African tribes, as in other tribal societies. Slaves were usually captives taken in raids or wars. They enhanced the power and wealth of tribal chiefs. When European slave ships first appeared along the African coast, chiefs met them at the shore to barter human wealth for merchandise such as weapons, ammunition, metal, liquor, trinkets, and cloth. The slavers brought only the finest physical specimens, partly because they would be worth more at their destinations and partly because only the youngest and healthiest had a good chance of reaching their destinations alive. Conditions aboard ship were dreadful. The maximum number of slaves was jammed into the hull, chained to forestall revolts or suicides by drowning. Food, ventilation, light, and sanitation were the minimum necessary to keep the cargo alive and often not enough to do that. Mortality ran as high as 20%. When an outbreak of smallpox or dysentery occurred, the stricken were cast overboard. The first slaves to arrive in the English colonies in America, about 20 in number, were put ashore at Jamestown, VA in 1619. At that time, the Africans were classed with white indentured servants brought from England under work contracts. 51. The Pilgrims were English Separatists who founded (1620) Plymouth Colony in New England. In the first years of the 17th century, small numbers of English Puritans broke away from the Church of England because they felt that it had not completed the work of the Reformation. They committed themselves to a life based on the Bible. Most of these Separatists were farmers, poorly educated and without social or political standing. One of the Separatist congregations was led by William Brewster and Rev. Richard Clifton in the village of Scrooby in Nottinghamshire. The Scrooby group emigrated to Amsterdam in 1608 to escape harassment and religious persecution. The next year they moved to Leiden, where, enjoying full religious freedom, they remained for almost 12 years. In 1617, discouraged by economic difficulties, the pervasive Dutch influence on their children, and their inability to secure civil autonomy, the congregation voted to emigrate to America. After some delays and disputes, the voyagers regrouped at Plymouth aboard the 180-ton Mayflower. It began its historic voyage on 16 Sep 1620, with about 102 passengersfewer than half of them from Leiden. 52. Plymouths government was initially vested in a body of freemen who met in an annual General Court to elect the governor and assistants, enact laws, and levy taxes. By 1639, however, expansion of the colony necessitated replacing the yearly assembly of freemen with a representative body of deputies elected annually by the seven towns. The governor and his assistants, still elected annually by the freemen, had no veto. At first, ownership of property was not require for voting, but freemanship was restricted to adult Protestant males of good character. Quakers were denied the ballot in 1659; church membership was required for freemen in 1668 and, a year later, the ownership of a small amount of property as well. 53. SpanishmissionfoundedonVirginiasYorkRiver1570 Roanoke,Virginiaestablished1587 Roanokediscoveredtohavevanished1590 Jamestown,VAestablished1607 JamestownVirginiasStarvingTime1609-10 HouseofBurgessesmeetsforthefirsttime1619 MayflowerCompactsigned/Firstslavesbroughtto Jamestown/PlymouthColonyisfounded1620 PowhatanattackonVirginiacolonykills347settlers1622 Virginiabecomesaroyalcolony1624 RogerWilliamsexpelledfordangerousideas/ MassachusettsBayColonyfounded1630 SettlementsarestartedintheConnecticutValley1635 RogerWilliamsfoundedProvidence,RI/ ThomasHookerfoundsHartford,CT 1636 PequotIndianWar1636-37 KingPhilipsWar1675-76 1639FundamentalOrdersofConnecticutaredrawnup 54. Dates American Name European Name Peace Treaty 1689- 97 King Williams War War of the Grand Alliance Ryswick 1702- 13 Queen Annes War War of the Spanish Succession Utrecht 1739 War of Jenkins Ear 1744- 48 King Georges War War of the Austrian Succession Aix-la- Chapelle 1754- 63 French and Indian War Seven Years War Paris 55. Slavery is known to have existed as early as the Shang dynasty (18th12th century BC) in China. It has been studied thoroughly in ancient Han China (206 BCAD 25), where perhaps 5 percent of the population was enslaved. Many were used in the practice of human sacrifice through decapitation. Slavery continued to be a feature of Chinese society down to the 20th century. Korea had a very large slave population, ranging from a third to half of the entire population for most of the millennium between the Silla period and the mid-18th century. Slavery existed in ancient India, where it is recorded in the Sanskrit Laws of Manu of the 1st century BC. The institution was little documented until the British colonials in the 19th century made it an object of study because of their desire to abolish it. In 1841 there were an estimated 8,000,000 or 9,000,000 slaves in India. Slavery was widely practiced in other areas of Asia as well. A quarter to a third of the population of some areas of Thailand and Burma were slaves in the 17th through the 19th centuries and in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, respectively. But not enough is known about them to say that they definitely were slave societies. Other societies in the Philippines, Nepal, Malaya, Indonesia, and Japan are known to have had slavery from ancient until fairly recent times. The same was true among the various peoples inhabiting the regions of Central Asia: the peoples of Sogdiana, Khorezm, and other advanced civilizations; the Mongols, the Kalmyks, the Kazaks; and the numerous Turkic peoples, most of whom converted to Islm. 56. In the New World some of the best-documented slave-owning societies were the Klamath and Pawnee and the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California. Life was easy in many of those societies, and slaves are known to have sometimes been consumption goods that were simply killed in potlatches. Other Amerindians, such as the Creek of Georgia, the Comanche of Texas, the Callinago of Dominica, the Tupinamb of Brazil, the Inca of the Andes, and the Tehuelche of Patagonia, also owned slaves. Among the Aztecs of Mexico, slavery generally seems to have been relatively mild in the form of labor. However, slavery for human sacrifice was a sacred duty to every Aztec warrior. Aztec warriors gave a sacred oath to capture rather than kill their enemies so they could be sacrificed. On one day, Aztecs sacrificed over 20,000 victims. People got into the institution through self-sale and capture and could buy their way out relatively easily. Slaves were often used as porters in the absence of draft animals in Mesoamerica. The fate of other slaves was less pleasant: chattels purchased from the Mayans and others were sacrificed in massive numbers. Some of the sacrifices may have been eaten by the social elite. There are also examples of cannibalism among the Anasazi of the Southwest U.S. 57. In England about 10 percent of the population entered in the Domesday Book in 1086 were slaves, with the proportion reaching as much as 20 percent in some places. Slaves were also prominent in Scandinavia during the Viking era, AD 8001050, when slaves for use at home and for sale in the international slave markets were a major object of raids. Slaves also were present in significant numbers in Scandinavia both before and after the Viking era. Continental EuropeGreece, Italy, France, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, and Russiaall knew slavery. Russia was essentially founded as a by-product of slave raiding by the Vikings passing from Scandinavia to Byzantium in the 9th century, and slavery remained a major institution there until the early 1720s, when the state converted the household slaves into house serfs in order to put them on the tax rolls. Some 40 million house serfs were freed from their lords by an edict of Tsar Alexander II in 1861 after 1000 years of slavery. Many scholars argue that the Soviets reinstituted a form of state slavery in the Gulag camps that flourished until 1956. 58. Slavery was much in evidence in the Middle East from the beginning of recorded history. It was treated as a prominent institution in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi of c. 1750 BC. Slaves were present in ancient Egypt and are known to have been murdered to accompany their deceased owners into the afterlife. It once was believed that slaves built the great pyramids, but contemporary scholarly opinion is that the pyramids were constructed by peasants when they were not occupied by agriculture. Slaves also are mentioned prominently in the Bible among the Hebrews in Palestine and their neighbors. Slaves were owned in all Islmic societies, both sedentary and nomadic, ranging from Arabia in the centre to North Africa in the west and to what is now Pakistan and Indonesia in the east. Some Islmic states, such as the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, and the Sokoto caliphate, must be termed slave societies because slaves there were very important numerically as well as a focus of the polities' energies. 59. Slaves have been owned in black Africa throughout recorded history. In many areas there were large-scale slave societies, while in others there were slave-owning societies. Slavery was practiced everywhere even before the rise of Islm, and black slaves exported from Africa were widely traded throughout the Islmic world. Approximately 18,000,000 Africans were delivered into the Islmic trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave trades between 650 and 1905. In the second half of the 15th century, Europeans began to trade along the west coast of Africa, and by 1867 between 7,000,000 and 10,000,000 Africans had been shipped as slaves to the New World. Although some areas of Africa were depleted by slave raiding, on balance the African population grew after the establishment of the transatlantic slave trade because of new food crops introduced from the New World, particularly manioc, corn (maize), and possibly peanuts (groundnuts). The relationship between African and New World slavery was highly complementary. African slave owners demanded primarily women and children for labor and lineage incorporation and tended to kill males because they were troublesome and likely to flee. The transatlantic trade, on the other hand, demanded primarily adult males for labor and thus saved from certain death many adult males who otherwise would have been slaughtered outright by their African captors. After the end of the transatlantic trade, a few African societies at the end of the 19th century put captured males to productive work as slaves, but this usually was not the case before that time. 60. Slavery has existed in many parts of the world People forced into slavery came from different walks of life Farmers, merchants, priests, soldiers, or musicians; fathers and mothers, sons and daughters. Shortage of labor in Americas led to beginning of Atlantic slave trade European planters needed workers on sugar, tobacco plantations Beginnings Planters first used Native Americans; European diseases killed millions 1600s, used indentured servants Expensive to support workers Native Americans Millions forcibly taken to Americas Most from coast of West Africa Some exchanged for firearms, goods Others kidnapped on raids by traders African Slaves Origins of the Slave Trade 61. Spread of Culture As result of slave trade, people of African descent spread throughout Americas, Western Europe Spread called African Diaspora Eventually led to spread of African culturemusic, art, religion, foodthroughout the Western World Economies Forced labor of Africans did enrich other parts of world Labor of African slaves built economies of many American colonies Their knowledge of agriculture contributed to growth of rice industry in southern English colonies 62. 400 years of Atlantic slave trade (200 years in the United States 1619-1808) Devastated West African societies Estimates of 15 to 20 million Africans shipped to Americas against will Millions more sent to Europe, Asia, Middle East Human cost enormous Countless died in transit Millions deprived of freedom Descendants doomed to lives of forced servitude Cost of Slave Trade Effects profound in Africa Slave raiders captured strongest youngfuture leaders of societies Divided Africans one from anothersome rulers waged wars to gain captives Forced labor of millions of Africans did not enrich Africa Effect on Africa Effects of the International Slave Trade 63. Olaudah Equiano wrote about conditions on slave ship: The stench of the holdwas so intolerably loathsome, that it was dangerous to remain there for any time The shrieks of the women, and the groans of the dying, rendered the whole scene of horror almost inconceivable. Horrific Conditions Middle Passage, terrifying ordeal Captive Africans chained together, forced into dark, cramped quarters below ships decks Could neither sit nor stand Journey lasted three to six weeks, ten to twenty percent did not survive Ordeal Middle Passage 64. The first slaves were introduced into the English-American colonies by a Dutch trader, who, in 1619, sold twenty of them to the settlers at Jamestown, Va. After that the trade between North America and Africa was carried on quite vigorously; but some of the colonies remonstrated, and in the Continental Congress, and also in the public mind, there was a strong desire evinced to abolish the slave-trade. Lawrence and Cassandra Southwick were banished from the colony of Massachusetts, in 1658, under penalty of death if they should return. Their crime was the embracing of the principles and mode of worship of the Quakers. Their two children remained behind in extreme poverty. They were fined for non-attendance upon the public worship carried on by their persecutors. The magistrates insisted that the fine must be paid, and passed the following order: " Whereas, Daniel Southwick and Provided Southwick, son and daughter of Lawrence Southwick, absenting themselves from the public ordinances, having been fined by the courts of Salem and Ipswich, pretending they have no estates, and resolving not to work, the court, upon perusal of a law which was made upon account of debts, in what should be done for the satisfaction of the fines, resolves, that the treasurers of the several counties are and shall be fully empowered to sell said persons to any of the English natives at Virginia or Barbados to answer the said fines." Endicott, it is said, urged the execution of the measure with vehemence; but, to the honor of the marine service, not a sea-captain in the port of Boston could be induced to become a slave- dealer to please the General Court. They were spared the usual brutal whipping of contumacious persons as a special mark of humanity. 65. In 1662 the Virginia Assembly passed a law that children should be held, bond or free, " according to the condition of the mother." This was to meet the case of mulatto children, born of black mothers, in the colony. It was thought right to hold heathen Africans in slavery; but, as mulattoes must be part Christians, a knotty question came up, for the English law in relation to serfdom declared the condition of the child must be determined by that of the father. The Virginia law opposed this doctrine in favor of the slave-holders. Some of the negroes brought into Virginia were converted to Christianity and baptized. The question was raised, " Is it lawful to hold Christians as slaves ?" The General Assembly came to the relief of the slave-holders by enacting a law that slaves, though converted and baptized, should not therefore become free. It was also enacted that killing a slave by his master by " extreme correction " should not be esteemed a felony, since it might not be presumed that " malice prepense " would " induce any man to destroy his own estate." It was also enacted, as an evasion of the statute prohibiting the holding of Indians as slaves, " that all servants, not being Christians, imported by shipping, shall be slaves for life." Indian slaves, under this law, were imported from New England and the West Indies. Freed slaves were then subjected to civil disabilities. 66. Many slaveholders lived in constant fear of rebellion by angry slaves who could no longer take harsh treatment they faced on plantations. Slave traders carried captive Africans throughout the Americas SpanishCaribbean sugar plantations; PortugueseBrazil; EnglishWest Indies but also to colonies in North America. England dominated the slave trade by end of 1600s Most slaves worked on plantations Others worked in mines, in towns, in the countryside Skilled craft workerscarpenters, metalworkers, cooperscontinued crafts in Americas Women given domestic duties Jobs Slavery in the Colonies Slaves had to meet own basic needs at end of workday Cooking, mending, tending the sick fitted in around work for slaveholder Living conditions harsh Physical, degrading punishment inflicted for minor offenses Living Conditions 67. Resistance Slaves coped with inhumane conditions many different ways Some resisted by trying to keep cultural traditions alive Others turned to religion for strength, hope Some fought back by slowing work, destroying equipment, revolting Some able to flee, establish communities of runaways Property Laws in Americas considered enslaved Africans to be property Slaves had no rights, freedoms Slaveholders controlled most conditions under which they lived Often enslaved people endured brutal treatment, abuse 68. What type is being described? Comparison- Continent Properties What is it like? Properties--What were their purpose? 69. 1. Name three uses for slaves in slave-owning societies? 2. What was the primary use of slaves in China, Mesoamerica and South America? 3. What was the fate of male captives into slavery in Africa prior to Europeans coming to Africa for male manual slavery? 1. What is the spread of culture that was a result of African slavery called? 2. Who wrote about the horrible conditions of the Middle Passage? 70. In 1655 a British expedition under Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables captured Jamaica and began expelling the Spanish, a task that was accomplished within five years. However, many of the Spaniards escaped slaves had formed communities in the highlands, and increasing numbers also escaped from British plantations. The former slaves were called Maroons, a name probably derived from the Spanish word cimarrn, meaning wild or untamed. The Maroons adapted to life in the wilderness by establishing remote, defensible settlements, cultivating scattered plots of land (notable with plantains and yams), hunting, and developing herbal medicines; some also intermarried with the few remaining Arawak. Trappers, traders, and adventurers use the Northwest territories for portage and barter throughout the 18th Century. The first known non-Indian settler was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable (or Pointe du Sable), son of a wealthy French merchant who had moved to Haiti and married a black woman there. Sable settled in the Great Lakes area in the 1770s. In 1795, the United States obtained a six-mile-square area about the river mouth. In 1778, the American capture of Kaskaskia, the British seat of government, made Illinois a county of Virginia. The first settlement on the site of Chicago was made in 1779 by the black pioneer Jean-Baptist-Point Du Sable. On 4 Jul 1800, the Northwest Territory was divided, and the Illinois country was made a part of Indiana Territory, and Illinois attained statehood nine years later. 71. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) Developed the heliocentric theory, the belief that the sun is at the center of the universe. Galilei Galileo (1564- 1642) Discovered that light objects fall at the same speed as heavy objects. Observed the craters of the moon, as well as the moons of Jupiter. Proved empirically that the planets revolve around the sun Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Built one of the earliest modern observatories. Johannes Kepler (1571- 1630) Proved mathematically that the planets revolve around the sun. Sir Isaac Newton (1642- 1727) Showed that all objects in the universe obey the same laws of motion. Explained this by demonstrating the action of gravity and inertia. Founded calculus and physics. Considered one of the most influential people in history. Andreas Vesalius (1514- 1564) Pioneered the study of human anatomy. William Harvey (1578- 1657) Discovered that blood circulates in the body and is pumped through vessels by the heart. Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) Built and used one of the first microscopes. Discovered single-celled living things. Karl von Linn (Linnaeus) (1707-1778) Developed a system for naming and classifying plants and animals Nicolaus Copernicus Galilei GalileoTycho BraheJohannes Kepler Sir Isaac Newton Andreas VesaliusWilliam HarveyAnton van LeeuwenhoekKarl von Linn (Linneaus) 72. Earth not supported Job 26:7 Job 38:12, 14 73. Medieval belief of the geocentric universe 74. The earth is round (circularity) Job 26:10; Prov 8:27; Is 40:22; Amos 9:6 Renaissances Age of Exploration Prince Henry the Navigator, King of Portugal Vasco da Gama, Bartolomeu Diaz, Ferdinand Magellan Christopher Columbus It was the Lord who put it into my mind I could feel his hand upon me the fact that it would be possible to sail from here to the Indies . . . All who heard of my project rejected it with laughter, ridiculing me . . . There is no question that the inspiration was from the Holy Spirit, because He comforted me with rays of marvelous illumination from the Holy Scriptures . . . For the execution of the journey to the Indies, I did not make use of intelligence, mathematics, or maps. It is simply the fulfillment of what Isaiah had prophesied. 75. The SunThe Moon 76. Orion, The Pleiades, and Arcturus Job 38:31-32 77. The Pleiades The Pleiades are a prominent sight in winter in the Northern Hemisphere and in summer in the Southern Hemisphere, and have been known since antiquity to cultures all around the world, including the Mori and Australian Aborigines, the Persians (who called them Parveen/parvin and Sorayya), the Chinese, the Maya (who called them Tzab-ek), the Aztec (Tianquiztli), and the Sioux of North America. 78. Arcturus From midnorthern latitudes on spring evenings, the Big Dipper, Botes, and Virgo can be found high in the sky from the northeast to southeast. Follow the red arrows from the Dipper's handle to "arc to Arcturus" and the kite- shape of Botes, and then proceed to "speed to Spica" in Virgo. 79. To understand the natural world and humankinds place in it solely on the basis of reason and without turning to religious belief was the goal of the wide-ranging intellectual movement called the Enlightenment. The movement claimed the allegiance of a majority of thinkers during the 17th and 18th centuries, a period that Thomas Paine called the Age of Reason. At its heart, it became a conflict between religion and the inquiring mind that wanted to know and understand through reason based on evidence and proof. Like all historical trends and movements, the Enlightenment had its roots in the past. Three of the chief sources for Enlightenment thought were the ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers, the Renaissance, and the scientific revolution of the late Middle Ages. The ancient philosophers had noticed the regularity in the operation of the natural world and concluded that the reasoning mind could see and explain this regularity. Among these philosophers, Aristotle was preeminent in discovering and explaining the natural world. The birth of Catholicism interrupted philosophical attempts to analyze and explain purely on the basis of reason. Catholicism built a complicated world view that skewed incorrect ancient science with the Bible to explain all reality. 80. The Renaissance, with its revival of classical learning, and the Reformation of the 16th century, which broke up the Catholic church, ended the world view that the Catholic church had presented for a thousand years. Coupled with these events was the scientific revolution, a modern discipline that soon lost patience with religious quibbling and what was seen as the attempts of churches to hamper progress in thought. Among the leaders of this revolution were Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, Nicolaus Copernicus, Galilei Galileo, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, andmost significant of allIsaac Newton. It was Newton who explained the universe and who justified the rationality of nature. 81. The response of the Catholic church to the avalanche of new ideas and facts was far from friendly. A perfect example of this is that Galileo was called before the Inquisition in Rome and forced to take back his statements that the sun, not the Earth, is the center of the solar system. Religion in the 17th and 18th centuries was on the defensive, and the great number of new denominations after the Reformation made a united front impossible. While most early supporters of rationalism and new scientific methods did not deny either God or religion, they brought both under the microscope of reason. They were negative about Catholic religion while expressing a belief in a God who was the Author of Natures wonders, a God who had set the world in motion and formulated the laws by which it operated. This religious viewcalled deismfound many followers during the Enlightenment, but it was never an organized religion like Christianity. Eventually both Christianity and its deistic opponents were faced with an extreme rejection of religion in an upsurge of atheism, the denial of Gods existence. This reaction had its roots in the ancient philosophy of materialism that had been set forth by Epicurus and his followersa world of atoms and empty space and nothing more. If reason could not discover God, said the atheists, there was no purpose served by deciding there was one. 82. The modern development of the human-rights concept began during the late Middle Ages in the period called the Renaissance, when resistance to political and economic tyranny began to surface in Europe. It was during the 17th and 18th centuries, a period called the Enlightenment, that specific attention was drawn by scientific discoveries to the workings of natural law. This, in turn, seemed to imply natural rights with which the state should not be allowed to interfere. By the time of the American and French revolutions, a complete turnaround had taken place in the relationship of governments to human rights. The point of view elaborated by the American Founding Fathers, as well as by the French revolutionaries, is that governments purpose is to protect and defend rights, not to dispense or exploit them. James Madison went so far as to assert that as a man is said to have a right to his property, he may equally be said to have a property in his rights. And further, Government is instituted to protect property of every sort. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France, 1789) states that, Men are born and remain free and equal in rights, and The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inprescriptible rights of man. 83. (1694-1778) In his 84 years, Voltaire was historian and essayist, playwright and storyteller, poet and philosopher, wit and pamphleteer, wealthy businessman and political economic reformer. Yet he is remembered best as an advocate of human rights. True to the spirit of the Enlightenment, he denounced organized religion and established himself as a proponent of rationality. Voltaire was born Franois-Marie Arouet on 21 Nov 1694, in Paris. At 16, he became a writer. He wrote witty verse mocking the royal authorities. For this, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for 11 months. About this time, he began calling himself Voltaire. Another dispute in 1726 led to exile in England for two years. On his return to Paris, he staged several unsuccessful dramas and the enormously popular Zaire. He wrote a life of Swedish king Charles XII, and in 1734, he published Philosophical Letters, a landmark in the history of thought. The letters, denouncing religion and government, caused a scandal that forced him to flee Paris. He took up residence in the palace of Madame du Chatelet, with whom he lived and traveled until her death in 1749. Voltaire's chteau at Ferney, France. 84. (In 1750, Voltaire went to Berlin at the invitation of Prussias Friedrich the Great. Three years later, after a quarrel with the king, he left and settled in Geneve, Switzerland. After five years, his strong opinions forced another move, and he bought an estate at Ferney, France, on the Swiss border. By this time, he was a celebrity, renowned throughout Europe. Visitors of note came from everywhere to see him and to discuss his work with him. Voltaire returned to Paris on 10 Feb 1778, to direct his play Irene. His health suddenly failed, and he died on 30 May. Candide, the strongly anti-Romantic comic novel, is the work by Voltaire most read today. His other writings include Zadig (1747), The Century of Louis XIV (1751), Micromegas (1752), The Russian Empire under Peter the Great (1759-63), The Philosophical Dictionary (1764), and Essay on Morals (1756). Die Tafelrunde by Adolph von Menzel. Guests of Frederick the Great, in Marble Hall at Sanssouci, include members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and Voltaire (seated, third from left). 85. Laissez-faire (French, leave alone, allow to be), in economics, is the doctrine that the best economic policy is to let business make their own decisions without government interference. This doctrine of noninterference was first enunciated by the French physiocrats of the 18th century as a reaction against the restrictionist policies of mercantilism. Physiocracy in Greek means the government of nature. The physiocrats were the first philosophers to devise a complete system of economicthe free market or capitalism. Linked with the concept of free trade, it became the basis of Adam Smiths classical economic, Wealth of Nations. Later, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill applied the economics notions of laissez- faire capitalism to utilitarian, individualistic political theory, and the Manchester school economists John Bright and Richard Cobden used them for practical political purposes. Laissez-faire principles were strongest in the mid-19th century, but the increasing practice of monopoly and the social costs of the Industrial Revolution brought about greater government regulation. Modern proponents of laissez-faire stress the importance to economic growth of the profit incentive and the undeterred entrepreneur. The phrase has been largely supplanted by such terms as market economy or free enterprise. 86. 1. Name two scientists and their discoveries. 2. Give an astronomic argument that the Catholic church supported versus what the Bible actually taught. 3. What were the three sources for the Age of Reason and who named it? 4. What American founding father said that we had a property (ownership) in our rights? 5. What was the name of the theory the 18th century French Physiocrats developed and was featured in what Adam Smith book? 87. Exploring the who, when, where, and why behind the 13 original colonies of early America. 88. Founded in 1607 (Jamestown) Captain John Smith is given credit for starting this colony. Many people at this time wanted to leave their homeland in order to have more freedoms and to not be under the strict rule of the kings of England. Southern Colony 89. Map of Virginia published by John Smith (1612) At Jamestown Settlement, replicas of Christopher Newport's 3 ships are docked in the harbor. A Pocahontas statue was erected in Jamestown, Virginia in 1922 90. Founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims. Plymouth was the original name of the settlement. John Carver was the leader of the Pilgrims and author of the Mayflower Compact. Puritans then came and settled Boston (Mass. Bay Colony) John Winthrop was the governor of this settlement. New England Colony Plymouth Plantation, with Cape Cod Bay visible in the distance Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by William Halsall (1882) 91. The first Thanksgiving. 92. Founded in 1634 by George Calvert who started a charter but didnt live to see it come true. He believed all people should have religious freedom. King Charles I was king and didnt agree with the religious freedom. In 1649, the Toleration Act was passed that guaranteed equality of rights for everyone for religion. Southern Colony George Calvert, Lord Baltimore 93. In 1636, Rhode Island became a colony after Roger Williams, a clergyman, obtained a charter from England to form the colony. He spoke out against the Puritans strictness and went to this area to settle and provide religious choice. Rhode Island also had freedom of religion. New England Colony Roger Williams minister, author 94. Also founded in 1636 by a clergyman by then name of Thomas Hooker. He led a group of people from Rhode Island to start their own colony and they had freedom of religion. New England Colony A map of the Connecticut, New Haven, and Saybrook colonies. 95. Founded in 1663 by English nobles. Charter granted by Charles II. Charleston: main city was named after Charles II. Became very important port city. Bad politics forced a split of the colony into North and South. Southern Colony King Charles II 96. In 1729 South Carolina received its name after a political dispute and became a colony. Had large plantations for growing crops and raising livestock. Southern Colony 97. Started as New Netherland, a Dutch colony in 1609 James Duke of York was given it from Charles II. The English took over in 1664 and renamed it New York. Middle Colony (Breadbasket Colony) James, Duke of York 98. Sold to the king of England in 1679. Royal colony: king chooses governor and no elected government. New England Colony 99. In 1681, William Penn was granted a charter for land between Maryland and New York. King Charles was in debt to Penns father. Penn was a Quaker and he gave the people two rights: 1. Freedom of Religion 2. Right to elect public officials. Middle Colony (Breadbasket Colony 100. In 1682, the Duke of York granted William Penn this land. It became a colony in 1704. Middle Colony (Breadbasket Colony) 101. Sweden started this colony and lost it to Great Britain The Duke of York split this land in half for two friends. (East Jersey & West Jersey) Government quarrels caused them to be combined in 1702. Middle Colony (Breadbasket Colony)Map of New Netherland (17th century) 102. It became a colony in 1733. James Oglethorpe was granted a charter to start Georgia as a debtors colony It was known as a buffer zone between the Spanish and the English colonies. Southern Colony 103. Southern colony Middle colony New England colony 104. 1. What was the first colony started? 2. What was the big thing most people wanted when these new colonies were started? 3. Give a characteristic or fact of a New England Colony? 4. Give a characteristic or fact of a Middle or Breadbasket Colony. 5. Give a characteristic or fact of a Southern Colony. 105. Swept Protestant world in 1730s and early 1740s Evangelical Emphasis on personal conversion experience Revival Presbytery and Synod More women than men experienced conversion Split established denominations Evangelical and non-evangelical sects Gave rise to Baptists, Methodists, and other evangelical denominations Spawned founding of several new colleges George Whitefield (Black Robe Brigade) Resulted in religious transformation of America 106. The Declaration of Independence, approved by the Continental Congress on 4 July 1776, is a statement of the principles that 2 days earlier had led Congress to vote for the independence of the American colonies from Great Britain. It was designed to influence public opinion, both at home and abroad, especially in France, to which the United States looked for military support. The drafting of the document was entrusted to a committee consisting of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston. Because of Jeffersons reputation as a literary craftsman, the committee assigned the task to him, and with minor exceptions it is his work. Jefferson drew upon a long oppositionist tradition in Britain, as well as the English and French Enlightenments, as sources for his ideas; his language and the structure of his argument, however, most closely parallel the natural-rights theories of John Locke. In justifying Englands Glorious Revolution of 1688, Locke had advanced the contract theory of government, arguing that all just governments are founded on consent and are designed solely to protect people in their inherent rights of life, liberty, and property. Radical proponents of this theory had used it to justify civil disobedience whenever government encroached on any of the specified rights; the more conservative Jefferson held that resistance is justified only when a consistent course of policy shows an unmistakable design to establish tyranny. 107. King George III bore the brunt of Jeffersons attack, although earlier protests had been directed at Parliament and the governing ministry. This focus was necessary for a contractual justification of independence, as the colonists had consistently maintained that their only contract was with the crown. The social contract is the term applied, by a long-standing consensus among students of politics, to the political theories of the most famous and influential thinkers of the period reaching from the mid-seventeenth century to the mid-eighteenth century: Thomas Hobbes, 15881679; John Locke, 16321704; and Jean Jacques Rousseau, 1712 1778. Scholarly tradition has associated the three because of their alleged common insistence that society originated in a contract, compact, or agreement, explicit or tacit, to which each individual concerned consented and, so, removed himself from the state of nature and helped set in motion a regime of government under laws, of impartially administered justice, and of civic morality. Recent scholarship, however, has tended to fix John Locke 108. Thomas HobbesJohn Locke Man is basically good and can be trusted to make the correct choice Man is basically bad and cannot be trusted to make the correct choice Little government is needed because man is basically good Strong government is necessary to control man because he is basically bad Supported governments- republic, democracy Supported governments- monarchy, dictatorship, communism, socialism, fascism "men, for the attaining of peace and conservation of themselves thereby, have made an artificial man, which we call a Commonwealth; so also have they made artificial chains, called civil laws, which they themselves, by mutual covenants, have fastened at one end to the lips of that man, or assembly, to whom they have given the sovereign power, and at the other to their own ears. These bonds, in their own nature but weak, may nevertheless be made to hold, by the danger, though not by the difficulty of breaking them. The Leviathan 109. Democracy Republic A government of the masses A greater number of citizens and extent of territory may be brought within its compass Authority derived through mass meetings or any other form of direct expression Authority is derived through the election by the people of public officials best fitted to represent them Results in mobocracy Avoids the dangerous extreme of either tyranny or mobocracy Attitude toward property is communisticnegating property rights Attitude toward property is respect for laws and individual rights, and a sensible economic procedure. Attitude toward law is that the will of the majority shall regulate, whether based upon deliberation or government by passion, prejudice, and impulse, without restraint or regard to consequences Attitude toward law is the administration of justice in accord with fixed principles and established evidence, with a strict regard for consequences Results in demagogism, license, agitation, discontent, anarchy Results in statesmanship, liberty, reason, justice, contentment, and progress Democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and contention; have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. (Federalist Papers, No.10, p. 81, James Madison) We may define a republic to be . . . A government which derives all its powers directly or indirectly from the great body of the people, and is administered by persons holding their offices during [the peoples] pleasure for a limited period, or during good behavior. (Federalist Papers, No.39, p. 241, James Madison) 110. Wearehere 1791 Kings Earls Dukes Lords Rule of Law Constitution Equal Justice Parliament Queens S o c i a l i s m Woodrow Wilson French Revolution 1789 Nationalsozialismus National Socialism (Nazi) Communism 111. 1. What U.S. government approved the Declaration of Independence? 2. Who was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence? 3. Who demonstrated the two prevailing thoughts of government and what were the books? 4. What type of government did the founders prefer? 5. What was the usual result of a democracy? 112. It was also called the American Revolution or American Revolutionary war (1775- 83), and was an insurrection by which 13 of Great Britains North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America. After the successful conclusion of the French and Indian War in 1763, the British government decided to make its North American colonies pay more of the costs of governing and defending them. Over the next 12 years, Britain imposed a series of new taxes and other revenue-raising measures on the colonies that aroused heated opposition. The conflict thus began as a civil war within the British Empire over colonial affairs, but, with America being joined by France in 1778, Spain in 1779, and the Netherlands in 1780, it became an international war. On land, the Americans assembled both state militias and the Continental (national) Army, with approximately 20,000 men, mostly farmers, fighting at any given time. By contrast, the British army was composed of reliable and well-trained professionals, numbering about 42,000 regulars, supplemented by about 30,000 German mercenaries. 113. From the summer of 1776, the strategic initiative was taken by the British, who believed that the real core of the insurrection was in the northern tier of colonies, especially in New England. To bring the war to an end in 1776, British planners sent reinforcements to MG Guy Carleton, governor of Quebec, who had already defeated Arnold and Montgomery. Carleton should push the Americans from their remaining toeholds in Canada and pursue them down the Lake Champlain-Hudson River trough, which might be a means of cutting the colonies in half. GEN William Howes chances of completing his part of the two-pronged offensive seemed more promising than Carletons. Howe launched his campaign with the largest force he or any other British general had at his disposal during the war: 32,000 soldiers, together with 400 transports and 73 warships under his brother, Vice Admiral Richard Earl Howe, with whom he shared the American supreme command. From a military viewpoint, Washington should not have attempted to retain New York City, with its hard-to-defend islands, rivers, bays, and inlets, although Congress saw strong psychological reasons for holding a major city whose loss might dispirit patriots everywhere. As it was, Washington suffered a defeat on Long Island (27 Aug 1776). Fortunately for him, Howe did not attempt to follow up his victory quickly. 114. The Americans, however, were not without their own advantages. A vast reservoir of manpower could be drawn upon. For the most part, men preferred short-term enlistmentsand many who served came out for a few weeks or monthsbut they did serve: the best estimates are that over 200,000 participated on the patriot side. At times, American leaders had to take into the army slaves, pardoned criminals, British deserters, and prisoners of war. Moreover, Americans owned guns, and they knew how to use them. If the Continental Army won few fixed battles, it was normally fought reasonably well; it extracted a heavy toll on the enemy, who usually could not easily obtain reinforcements. The Americans also were fighting on their own soil and consequently could be more flexible in their military operations than their opponents. Washington and other Continental Army commanders usually followed the principle of concentration, that is, meeting the enemy in force wherever British armies appeared. 115. Britain seemingly had enormous advantages in a war against its colonies. It possessed a well-established government, a sizable treasury, a competent army, the most powerful navy in the world, and a large Loyalist population in the colonies. By contrast, the American rebels had no chief executive such as a king, nor cabinet whose members had assigned responsibilities. In fact, the Americans had no separate or independent departments of government such as war, treasury, and foreign affairs until near the end of the conflict. The Continental Congress itself had as its rivals the 13 state legislatures, which often chose not to cooperate with their delegates in Philadelphia. Indeed, Congress was an extralegal body, existing at the pleasure of the states before the Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781. Articles of Confederation Signing of the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress 116. Valley Forge (25 mi., 40 km) west of Philadelphia, was the campground of 11,000 troops of George Washingtons Continental Army from 19 Dec 1777 to 19 Jun 1778. Because of the suffering endured there by the hungry, poorly clothed, and badly housed troops, 2,500 of whom died during the harsh winter, Valley Forge came to symbolize the heroism of the American revolutionaries. Despite adverse circumstances, Baron Friedrich von Steuben drilled the soldiers regularly and improved their discipline. Today the historic landmarks and monuments are preserved within Valley Forge National Historic Park (est. 1976) "To see men without clothes to cover their nakedness, without blankets to lie upon, without shoes ... without a house or hut to cover them until those could be built, and submitting without a murmur, is a proof of patience and obedience which, in my opinion, can scarcely be paralleled." -George Washington at Valley Forge, April 21, 1778 117. Embattlements of Yorktown 118. 1. What caused the colonies to get angry at the British Empire and start the War for Independence? 2. Where did the British believe the majority of the insurrection was in the colonies? 3. Give one of American advantages and one of the insurmountable British odds that Americans had to overcome? 4. How many American soldiers died due to the harsh conditions of Valley Forge, PA? 5. What year and what battle did the War for Independence end with the surrender of the British army?