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Qualitative Methods in Psychology
Theory and Practice
Chinchu C Psychologist, Trainer & Research Consultant
Association for Social Change, Evolution and Transformation(ASCENT)
How do we know truth?
Nimmy, the lady claims that Misha, their cat loves her ‘The Most’ than anybody else in the world And John, her boyfriend, claims Misha loves him more
How do we know what is True ? Image Courtesy: https://laughingsquid.com,
Concept and Content Courtesy: ANNEMARIE ZAND SCHOLTEN, University of Amsterdam
Idealism: Reality exists only in our minds.
Realism: External reality exists; Universal concepts like ‘Love’ and ‘Gravity’ exist too.
Objectivism: Applies Realism. External Psychological and Social Phenomena (Intelligence, Social Cohesion…) exist.
Constructivism: Social Phenomena are mental constructions. Meaning of ‘Happiness’ or ‘Femininity/Masculinity’ depend on culture and contexts
Interpretivism: Applies Constructivism: The observer’s experience can be different from the participant’s experience
Hermeneutics(വ്യാഖ്യാനം), Phenomenology(How people
experience the world) and Verstehen (Empathic Understanding)
Does a ‘Truth’ exist?
Qualitative Research generally applies a Constructivist- Interpretivist view Unstructured Interview, Participant Observation etc.
Quantitative Research generally applies an Objectivist-Positivist approach Focuses on counting, measuring and generalizing.
None of these should be taken as water tight compartments.
What we need is Mixed Methods where both methods complement each other, especially in fields like Psychology
The Fundamental Approaches
But why Mixed Methods?
We have all seen such surveys. Is this Qualitative or Quantitative?
Courtesy: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net
Capital Punishment = വ്ധശിക്ഷ
Did the respondent understand the term "capital punishment"?
Does the respondent have any idea about alternatives to capital punishment (otherwise how can they judge what's "best")?
Did the respondent read carefully enough to determine that the statement was limited only to convicted murderers (for instance, rapists were not included)?
Does the respondent care or were they just circling anything arbitrarily?
Was the respondent mentally alert (especially if this is late in a long survey or the respondent had other things going on earlier in the day)?
What was the setting for the survey (e.g., lighting, noise and other distractions)?
Was the survey anonymous? Was it confidential?
In the respondent's mind, is the difference between a "1" and a "2" the same as between a "2" and a "3" (i.e., is this an interval scale?)?
Data needs to be as naturalistic as possible (ഒട്ടം രൂപമാറ്റം വ്രാതെ)
Researcher is the tool Validation is done during the earlier stages itself.
Real-life data collection can also enhance validity
Reflexivity is incorporated for continuous scrutiny.
Personal Reflexivity : How your own values, expectations, beliefs, interests etc. have shaped this research
Epistemological Reflexivity: How is the design constructed, How was the research question formed; What were the other possible questions, their consequences…..
The issue of Reliability. How dependable the data is ? Is replication really possible?
Some General Principles
“I am frequently reminded of the old joke about the individual who explained that he was looking for his missing keys under the street lamp because ‘the light is better there’ . . . The ‘street lamp’ draws us to it by its apparent capacity to facilitate our search”
Lorion, R.P. (1990) Evaluating HIV risk reduction efforts: ten
lessons from psychotherapy and prevention outcome strategies, Journal of Community Psychology, 18: 325–36
Framing your Research Question
Semi-Structured Interview is an effective tool for data collection
Used in
Phenomenology,
Grounded Theory,
Thematic Analysis…
Interview as a Data Collection Tool
FGD can be more productive than personal interviews because of its collaborative nature
The researcher should be aware of group dynamics at play
Less artificial than interviews
Researcher plays the role of moderator
6 to 8 participants
Interactions should be similar to normal, real-life discourse
FGD as Data Collection Tool
Done in Natural settings
Can be Structured or Unstructured
Used heavily in Ethnography and Action Research
Involves Participation, Documentation, Informal Interviewing, and Reflection
Substantive, Methodological and Analytical notes need to be taken
Participation is of utmost importance in Participant Observation. Mere Observation won’t suffice
Observation Schedules may come in handy
Observation
Interpretation has a long history, beginning from classical hermeneutics to the data science and social media analysis
Realist interpretation: A straight forward description of events
Phenomenological Interpretation : Mapping the experiences of the actors
Social Constructionist Interpretation: Deconstructing the narration/event, with assuming different perspectives
Interpretations can be based on Suspicion or Empathy
Suspicion: To reveal a hidden truth; working like a detective. Remember Freud. Involves some assumptions
Empathy : Trying to get close to the experience of the subject. No underlying assumptions. Not necessarily tied to theories
The role of Interpretation
Thematic Analysis
Case Studies
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
Discursive Psychology (Discourse Analysis)
Narrative Analysis
Visual Methods
Some Methods
A form of pattern-seeking in data.
Can be used to address Realist, Phenomenological or Constructionist questions
What do I want to know & What data do I collect: Both questions answered by the Research Question
Coding – Inductive ( Coding frame emerges from data) or Deductive ( pre-existing coding frame)
Second level of coding (Categorization) can be done before theme identification
Mere listing of themes is not the goal. You should make sense of the themes, their possible inner meanings, implications, an overall story that connects the identified themes … etc.
Thematic Analysis
Focus on the particular, not general (Idiographic approach)
Attention to Contexts
Triangulation is used
Temporal element ( Describes changes over time)
Concerned with Theory
Intrinsic V/s Instrumental
Single V/s Multiple
Descriptive V/s Explanatory
Naturalist V/s Pragmatic
Case Studies
Study of Subjective Experiences; Draws largely from Husserl
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is used widely in Psychology
It attempts to describe the experiences through their interpretation by the subject
Open-ended and non-directive interviewing
Analysis should record both experience and interpretation
Reading Identifying and labeling emergent themes Clustering themes Labeling Clusters Summarizing with tables and quotes.
Integration of cases and layered Interpretation are optional
Writing Up
Phenomenology
Introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss (1967); they wanted to move away from theory.
Categories: Start as descriptive labels and move on to abstract analytic categories
Category names are in vivo
Coding: The layered process to define categories
Constant Comparative Analysis: Moving back and forth between similarities among and differences between categories; building up sub categories and linking categories
Negative Case Analysis: Instances that do not fit a category
Theoretical Sensitivity: Revisiting the data based on new understanding
Grounded Theory
Theoretical Sampling: Collecting further data based on emerging categories
Theoretical Saturation: A point where no new categories emerge
Memo writing: A written record of theory development; An important part of the process
A Process for Grounded Theory
Research Question
Data Collection (Full Version/Abbreviated Version)
Data Analysis (Coding and Categorizing)
The Report (Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Reference)
Grounded Theory
Fit of data and categories – Explain the Why of each category
Theory Integration /Coherence– Relationship between units should be clear and apparent
Reflexivity - The role and position of researcher to be acknowledged
Proper and Comprehensive Documentation
Theoretical Sampling and Negative Case Analysis
Transferability : The extent of Generalization possible
Credibility: Ways to verify the findings/data
Ensuring Quality
Always be careful and never jump into conclusions
Criticize and question your own convictions and
Coming of Age in Samoa, Margaret Mead and Fa’apua’a Fa’amu and Fofoa
How a single interview shook the whole field of Anthropology, and still remains a hot topic
A word of Caution
Elliott, R., Fischer, C.T. and Rennie, D.L. (1999) Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research studies in psychology and related fields, British Journal for Clinical Psychology, 38: 215–29
Henwood, K. and Pidgeon, N.F. (1992) Qualitative research and psychological theorising, British Journal of Psychology, 83(1): 97–112
Willig, C. (2008). Introducing qualitative research in psychology: Adventures in theory and method (2nd edition ed.). Berkshire, UK: Open University Press
References