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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
By:- Firoz QureshiDept. Psychiatric Nursing
QUALITATIVE PARADIGM
Naturalistic paradigm Soft science Focus: usually broad Holistic Subjective Reasoning: dialectic, inductive Basis of knowing: meaning, discovery Shared interpretation Communication and observation Basic element of analysis: words Individual interpretations Uniqueness
The “Logic” of Qualitative Research
Based on holistic view & following beliefs:(1) There is no single reality – reality is based on
perceptions – it is different for each person – changes over time
(2) What we know has meaning only within a given situation or context
The reasoning process in qualitative research involves:
- perceptually putting pieces together to make wholes
What is the concept of “Gestalt”?
This concept is closely related to “wholism” and proposes that a particular phenomenon is organized into a cluster of linked ideas, “a gestalt”.
Disadvantage:- understand a phenomenon through the
interpretation of a particular theory
Experiencing “Gestalt Change”
First to deconstruct your original sedimented views
Reconstruct another view
Focus on a different view point or looking at something differently (a different lens)
To increase openness
Philosophy and Qualitative Research
Frameworks are not used the same as in quantitative
The goal is not theory testing Each study should be guided by a particular
philosophical stance
Philosophical Stance assists to: (a) directs the question(s) that are asked(b) the observations which are made (c) the interpretation of data
DESIGN OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
Specify design before data collection Adhere to the design after study started Study design evolves over time Researcher Decisions include:(a) How to obtain(b) From whom to collect(c) How to schedule(d) How long
Design of Qualitative Research
EMERGENT DESIGN A design that emerges as the researcher makes
ongoing decisions reflecting what has already been learned
Lincoln & Cuba (1985) – not researcher laziness or sloppiness – but rather desire to base inquiry on realities and viewpoints of those under study
Key: realities and viewpoints that are NOT KNOWN or UNDERSTOOD AT THE OUTSET
Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design
Flexible, elastic, capable of adjusting Merging together of various data collection strategies Holistic, understand the whole Research intensely involved Research to become the research instrument Requires ongoing analysis of data to formulate
subsequent strategies and to determine when field work is done
What is “Bricolage?”
Qualitative Designs
PHASES of a Qualitative Study:
(1) Orientation an overview(2) Focused exploration(3) Confirmation and closure
(Lincoln & Cuba, 1985)
Qualitative Design Features
Control over the independent variable
Type of group comparisons
Number of data collection points
Occurrence of the independent & dependent variables
Qualitative Research Traditions
Four traditions described by nurse researcher:
(1) Ethnography(2) Phenomenology(3) Grounded Theory(4) Historical Research
ETHNOGRAPHY
Research tradition in anthropology Provides a framework for studying meanings,
patterns, and experiences defined by a cultural group in a holistic fashion
Ethnoscience (Cognitive Anthropology): focuses on the cognitive world of a culture – semantic rules and shared meanings that shape behavoir
ETHNOGRAPHY
Focus: the culture of a group of people Assumption: every human group evolves a
culture that guides members view of the world and the way they structure their experiences
At times referred to as “macroethnography: - able to study broadly defined cultures
At times referred to as “microethnography” – able to study cultures using a very narrow focus
Ethnography Cont’d
Aim: to learn from rather than study members of a cultural group
Two perspectives:(1) Emic – insider’s view, the way the members of a
culture envision their world(2) Etic - outsiders’ interpretation of the
experiences of that culture – strive to get at cultural experiences that members do not talk about or may not even be consciously aware
Ethnography Cont’d
Extensive field work Typically labor intensive Time consuming
Researcher as instrument - to study a culture it requires a certain level of intimacy – needs to be developed – become one within the culture
Ethnography Cont’d
Three types of information:(1) Cultural behavoir(2) Cultural artifacts(3) Cultural speech
Sources of information – in-depth interviews, records, charts, observations and other types of physical evidence are used
Ethnography Cont’d
Products of this research includes:- rich and holistic descriptions- describe normative behavoir and social patterns- Information about health beliefs and health practices- Facilitates an understanding of behavoirs affecting health
and illness- Leininger coined the phrase:
“ethnonursing research” –the study and analysis of local or indigneous people’s viewpoints, beliefs and practices
about nursing care behavoir and processes of designated cultures
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is both philosophy and a research method
Purpose of this research method is to describe experiences as they are lived – to capture the
“lived experience”
Developed by Husserl & Heidegger – an approach to thinking about people’s life experiences.
Phenomenology Cont’d
Philosophical Orientation- view the person as integral with the
environment- World is shaped by the self and also shapes
the self- The person is a self within a body- Person is referred to as “embodied” – our
bodies provide the possibility for the concrete actions of self in the world
Phenomenology Cont’d
A phenomenological researcher asks the question:“What is the essence of this phenomena as experienced by these people and what does it
mean?”
Assumption: there is an “essence” an essential variant structure Investigates subjective phenomena Belief that truths about reality are grounded in
peoples’ lived experiences
Phenomenology Cont’d
Four aspects of the lived experience:
(1) SPATIALITY
(2) CORPOREALITY
(3) TEMPORALITY
(4) RELATIONALITY
Phenomenology Cont’d
Data sources: In-depth conversations Researcher helps the participant to describe lived
experiences without leading the discussion Two or more interviews/conversations are needed Usually small number of participants (ie. 10 or
less) May use participation, observation and
introspective reflection
Grounded Theory
Is an inductive research technique developed for health-related topics by Glaser & Strauss (1967)
Emerged from the discipline of sociology
“Grounded” – means the theory developed from the research is grounded or has it roots in the data from which is was derived
Grounded Theory Cont’d
Philosophical Orientation: Based on symbolic interaction theory Explores how people define reality and how their
beliefs are related to their actions Meaning is expressed through – symbols – such as
words, religious objects, and clothing Symbolic meanings are different for each of us In social life - meanings are shared by groups –
socialization process Group life is based on consensus and shared
meanings
Grounded Theory Cont’d
Is an approach to study the social processes and social structures
Focus: is the evolution of a social experience – the social and psychological stages that characterize a particular event of process
Grounded Theory Cont’d
Methodology:- does not begin with a focused research question- the question emerges from the data
- fundamental structure feature – is the “data collection” is the “data analysis” Is the sampling of participants occurs
simultaneously This procedure is referred to as “constant
comparison”
Grounded Theory Cont’d
Constant Comparison: is used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories and to identify the basic problem
Categories that are elicited from the data are constantly compared with data obtained earlier so that “commonalities” and “variations” can be determined
Categories can be “condensed” and “collapsed”
Grounded Theory Cont’d
Data Sources:
- in-depth interviews are most common- Observational methods- Existing documents
- Usually a sample of 25 to 50 informants
- Has contributed to the development of middle range nursing theories
Historical Research
Historiography examines events of the past Historians believe the greatest value of historical
knowledge is an increased self-understanding
Philosophical Orientation: A very old science Primary question “Where have we come from, who
are we, and where are we going?” Myths, past, present and future are not
distinguishable Myths are a form of story telling
Historical Research Cont’d
History moves beyond the myth Chronicling events, deeds, victories and stories
about people and civilizations Comparing histories, identifying patterns
Aim: to discovery new knowledge Seeking to answer questions concerning causes,
effects and trends relating to past events To shed light on present behaviors and practices
Historical Research Cont’d
Assumptions:
(a) There is nothing new under the sun
(b) One can learn from the past
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Usually small, non-random samples Concern: measure attributes and relationships in
a pop’n Need a representative sample
Aim: to discover meaning, uncover multiple realities, therefore generalization is not a guiding criteria
Sampling in Qualitative Research
Types of sampling:
(1) Convenience sampling(2) Snowball sampling(3) Theoretical sampling(4) Purposeful sampling – several strategies –
maximum variation sampling, extreme/deviant case sampling, and typical case sampling
(5) Simple random
Sample Size
No firm establishment of criteria or rules Should be determined on the basis of
informational needs
Is largely a function of:(a) the purpose of the inquiry(b) the quality of the informants(c) The type of sampling strategy used
Sample Size
Guiding Principle is that of,
DATA SATURATION: sampling to the point at which no new information is obtained and redundancy is achieved
Critiquing the Sampling Plan
Evaluate the sample plan based on the following:
(a) Terms of its adequacy(b) Terms of its appropriateness
Adequacy means –
Appropriateness means -
Assessment of Qualitative Data
Need to address validity and reliability Do the measures used by the researcher yield data
reflecting the truth?
Lincolon & Cuba (1985) – four criteria:(1) Credibility(2) Dependability(3) Confirmability(4) Transferability(criteria for establishing “trustworthiness”)
Assessment of Qualitative Data
Credibility – refers to confidence in the truth of the data
Prolonged engagement Persistent observation Triangulation External checks – peer debriefing & member
checks Researcher credibility
Assessment of Qualitative Data
Dependability – refers to data stability over time and over conditions
Steps to approach:
(a) Stepwise replication(b) Inquiry audit
Assessment of Qualitative Data
Confirmability –refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data – what does that mean?
AUDIT TRAIL:
Transferability – refers to the extent to which the findings from the data can be transferred to other settings or groups = similar to the concept of generalizability
THICK DESCRIPTION:
Thank you