TreesEYEWITNESS COMPANIONS

IDENTIFICATION • FORESTS •HISTORIC SPECIES • WOOD TYPES

EYEWITNESS COMPANIONS

TreesCOLIN RIDSDALE

JOHN WHITECAROL USHER

Foreword byDAVID MABBERLEY

Foreword 10

WHAT IS A TREE? 12

Tree Classification 14

Tree Evolution 16

Tree Structure 18

How Trees Work 20

Tree Reproduction 22

Forests of the World 24

Coniferous Forests 26

Temperate BroadleafForests 28

Tropical BroadleafForests 30

Tropical Rainforests 32

Barren Lands 34

Identifying Trees 36

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CONTENTS

LIVING WITHTREES

38

Early People and Trees 40

Tree Myths and Spirits 42

Trees for Sustenance 44

Trees for Wood and Building 46

Trees for Paper and Pulp 48

Other Products from Trees 50

Trees for Amenity and Ornament 52

Planting and Caring for Trees 54

Forest Practice 56

Trees and the Environment 58

Tree Conservation 60

TREES OF THE WORLD

62

SPORE TREES 64

SEED TREES 66

Cycads 68

Ginkgo 70

Conifers 74

Flowering Trees 110

Primitive Angiosperms 112

Monocotyledons 122

Dicotyledons 141

Glossary 344

Tree Families 349

Index 350

Acknowledgments 359

11F O R E W O R D

FOREWORDIn every society, trees provide food in the form of fruits and nuts,flavorings, and even edible flowers and leaves. Trees are the source ofpharmaceuticals, as well as buildingtimber and firewood. Their protectivebark provides not only medicines butalso resins, barkcloth, and cork. Theirheartwood and water-transportsystems produce long-lasting woodthat is used to make furniture and the pulp for all modern books andnewspapers. Trees provide the basesfor the perfume industry.

As a whole, forests harbor 75 percentof the world’s biodiversity. Treesintercept rainfall and gently release it in watersheds; they absorb carbondioxide and replenish the air withoxygen. Trees are planted to restoredegraded landscapes and provideforage for hungry animals. Theyprotect coastlines and riverbanks.Some act as important shade treesand windbreaks; many others aregrown as ornamentals.

The original vegetation of much of the world was dominated by trees,and our ancestors were tree-livingprimates. Trees were the sources offood and medicine long before therewas human consciousness. They stillfeature strongly in our human psyche:the forbidding forests of fairy tales,sacred groves, the Tree of Knowledge,

SWAMP CYPRESSThe buttresses of this deciduous conifer rise from thefreshwater swamps of the southeastern United States.The bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) displays rich,orange-brown colors in fall.

and the Tree of Life—in Christianity,Jesus’s cross is often called “the Tree.”We have a great fascination with thetallest and oldest trees, which spangenerations of human lives. Theirmajestic gigantism is as attractive asthat of the dinosaurs.

Perhaps even more importantly,trees have provided the buildingmaterials and fuel for mostcivilizations, either as wood orfossilized as coal. More trees are usedfor fuel than construction—indeed, theNorth American peoples thought thatthe first European settlers could onlyhave left their country because theyhad run out of firewood.

Brought up in the Englishcountryside before it was so mercilesslypressed into intensive agriculture, Iwas privileged, as a boy, to wanderthrough woodlands and alonghedgerows, learning for myself aboutthe trees and the animals that theysheltered. Standing in a tropicalrainforest, among the redwoods ofCalifornia, the giant eucalyptus ofsouthwestern Australia, or even therelic pine forests of Scotland, inspiresan awe that few other experiences can.

Not merely for economic reasons,then, should we do all we can toconserve these bases of civilization,trees, but because we rely on them somuch for our spiritual welfare, too.

DAVID MABBERLEYUniversity of Washington, Seattle;Universiteit Leiden, Netherlands;

University of Western Sydney & RoyalBotanic Gardens Sydney, Australia

“THE FOREST IS A PECULIAR ORGANISM OFUNLIMITED KINDNESS AND BENEVOLENCE THATMAKES NO DEMAND FOR ITS SUSTENANCE AND

EXTENDS GENEROUSLY THE PRODUCTS OF ITS LIFEACTIVITY: IT AFFORDS PROTECTION TO ALL BEINGS,

OFFERING SHADE EVEN TO THE AXMAN WHODESTROYS IT.” T he Buddha

WHAT IS A TREE?

14

This definition is not absolute; gardenerscontest the height threshold, somepreferring to use 17 ft (5 m) as their cutoffand others choosing a threshold of 13 ft(3 m). It is likely that bonsai enthusiastswould entirely dismiss any figuressuggested. Horticultural selections ofdwarf conifers also fall into a gray areausually called “dwarf trees.”

BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION Classification is the process of arrangingplant groups into an order. This helpswith the identification of individualspecies and indicates natural relationships

between groups. Attempts to classifyplants were made by the ancient Greeksand Romans, including Theophrastus inthe 3rd century BCE. and Pliny the Elderbefore 79 CE. Their methods relied onsometimes very long descriptions insteadof succinct names.

Over the centuries, several othersystems were proposed. The two-partscientific naming system still in use today(see right) was devised by Karl vonLinné (known as Linnaeus) a Swedishbotanist who published his SpeciesPlantarum in 1753. Linnaeus used aclassification system known as artificial

The definition of a tree accepted by science and the forestry industryis: “A woody plant (arboreal perennial) usually with a single columnarstem capable of reaching six meters [21 feet] in height.” Less than21 ft (6 m) of potential height is regarded as a shrub.

Tree ClassificationW H A T I S A T R E E ?

FLOWERING TREESEach of these categories offlowering trees includes a numberof families that share certainfeatures, such as fruit type or leafarrangement.

SEED TREESThis varied groupincludes theprimitive cycadsand ginkgo as wellas conifers and thediversity of treetypes found amongthe flowering trees.

MAJOR DIVISIONSThis chart indicates the major groups andsubgroups of trees described in this book. It doesnot imply any kind of evolutionary order. Trees arenot equally divided between groups. The sporetrees, the most primitive, are represented by onlyone living genus, although they were far moreplentiful in prehistoric times. Seed trees includethe most numerous group: the dicotyledons.

SEED TREES

FLOWERINGTREES

PRIMITIVEANGIOSPERMS DICOTYLEDONS

CYCADS GINKGO CONIFERS

SPORE TREES

MONOCOTYLEDONS

15

classification, which places plants into groups such as families and genera based on the establishment of a few shared defining characters(characteristics). Other classificationsystems place plants into an evolutionaryorder based on fossil records and

comparative anatomy. This book isarranged in the system accepted by theInternational Union for the Conservationof Nature (IUCN). The principal sourceis Kubitzki’s Families and Genera of VascularPlants. According to this system, trees fallinto two main groupings: spore trees andseed trees. Seed trees are further dividedbetween cycads, ginkgo, conifers(gymnosperms), and flowering trees(angiosperms). Flowering trees have threesubdivisions: primitive angiosperms,monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

T R E E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

A MULTIPLICITY OF FORMSThe basic definition of a tree encompasses anastonishing variety of plant forms, from thegrass-tree (below, left) to the boojum (below,center) and the beech (below, right).

THE NORDMAN FIR IN CONTEXTIn the Linnaean system, all species areclassified within their major grouping byfamily and then by genus. Each species may include one or more subspecies. Thisexample shows the classification of theNordmann fir (subspecies borisii-regis).

FAMILY A family contains one or more relatedgenera. The family name is alwayscapitalized in roman type.

GENUSA genus contains one or more species, andits name forms the first part of the speciesname. It is capitalized in italic type.

SPECIESThe species is the basic unit ofclassification. The name is made up of thegenus and species names in italic type.

SUBSPECIES Some species have subspecies that maydiffer in a minor way from the main species.The name has three elements.

Pinaceae

Abies

Conifers

Abies nordmannianasubspecies borisii-regis

Abies nordmanniana

16

Plant life has existed on Earth for millions of years, with records ofthe first land plants dating from the Silurian period (350–320 millionyears ago). The huge success of trees in evolutionary terms is due totheir ability to adapt to a wide variety of environments.

Tree EvolutionW H A T I S A T R E E ?

The earliest trees were conifers, whicharose in the Permian period (220–195million years ago), but it was not untiltoward the end of the Cretaceous period(140–70 million years ago) that forestvegetation had evolved into tree typesthat we would recognize today. By thistime, forests contained trees that weresimilar to planetree, magnolia, poplar,and fig. Such flowering plants were betterequipped to spread to new areas than

earlier flora. This spread was dictated bygeographical and climatic changes.Another advantage of flowering trees wastheir association with pollinating insectssuch as bees; this enabled the plants tocolonize a wide diversity of new sites.

Silur ian

350–320

GEOLOGICALPERIOD

MILLIONYEARS AGO

First land plants, such asCooksonia, appear.

Devonian

320–275

Seed ferns andhorsetails develop stiffstems. Reproductionis by spores dispersed by the wind.

COOKSONIA

PREHISTORIC FORESTPrehistoric forests were dominated by tree ferns andgiant horsetails creating areas of dense vegetation, ashere in the Yarra Ranges National Park, Australia.

Carboniferous

275–220

Permian

220–195

Evergreen trees appear. Scale trees,such as Lepidodendron, form forestswith Calamites, which resembledmodern bamboos and creepers.

Conifersdevelop andshade out mosthorsetails butcoexist withseed ferns.

LEPIDODENDRON

TREE MIGRATIONTrees respond to changes in conditions onEarth by adapting their size and shapemorphologically or by “moving.” A treepopulation moves by successfully seedingin the direction of the most favorableconditions. In this way, modern trees havesurvived ice ages and global warming orglobal cooling for millions of years.

CONTINUING EVOLUTIONTree evolution is a continuing process.Today there are species that areparticularly unstable and prone to cross-breeding with near relatives. However, the resulting progeny are occasionallybetter suited to prevailing conditions thanthe original tree and are therefore morelikely to survive and reproduce.

17

CYCADSThis ancient family of tropical andsubtropical plants is represented byabout 100 living species.

T R E E E V O L U T I O N

COAL

GINKGOSOnly one living species (maidenhairtree) remains of this once extensivegroup of primitive plants.

TREE FERNSPart of the Cycad family, these fernsfrom the Southern Hemisphere growup to 33 ft (10 m) tall.

Coal is carbon from forest swampsof the Carboniferous period.Regular subsidencecaused the forest to be flooded by fresh orsalt water. Eventually mudstone,shale, or limestone sediments accumulated,compressing the remnants of forest and peat to form coal. In some areas, a long sequence

of inundation and forestregeneration occurred, causing“coal measures”— thinalternating bands of coaland rock. The layers belowcoal seams frequently

contain fragments oftree roots.

Triassic

195–170

Cretaceous

140–70

Eocene

70–45

Oligocene

45–35

Conditions not favorablefor tree growth until latein the period. Tree ferns(such as Dicroidium),cycads, and conifers areable to survive.

DICROIDIUM

Cycads and conifersflourish. Maidenhair trees(Ginkgo and Baiera) andAraucaria conifers appear.

ARAUCARIA

BETULITES

Flowering plants(angiosperms), such asthe birchlike Betulites,begin to appear. Mostmodern tree families haveevolved by this time.

Flowering trees dominate.Palms appear. The deciduousconifer dawn redwood is first noted.

Grassland replaces largeareas of forest. Forestedswamps lay down browncoal (lignite). Modern treeshave changed little sincethis period.

MINING FOR COAL

Jurassic

170–140

COAL

18

Tree Structure

W H A T I S A T R E E ?

Like all living organisms, a tree is a complex structure composed of millions of cells, each with a distinct function. Unlike animals,however, trees are unable to move around to find food, so they maketheir own using sunlight and obtain water from the soil via their roots.

ROOTSThe roots of all trees anchor the tree into the ground so it is well supported and can grow upright, andenable it to seek out water and minerals to sustaingrowth and reproduction. Contrary to popular belief,root systems do not mirror the branches of a tree.They seldom reach very deep down into subsoil orbedrock; however, they do extend sideways wellbeyond the tree canopy.

a spreading base connects thetree to a circle of roots thatanchor it in the ground trunks grow longer and

straighter when trees growclose together

bark becomessmoother higher up the tree

the bark at the base ofa tree is more likely tobe rugged and cracked

corky layer

Trees need a reliable supply of essentialnutrients for growth, reproduction, andimmunity. They are distinct from manyother plants in that they are designed forlongevity. Most trees have the potential to live for decades and, in some cases,hundreds of years, and need to adaptthemselves accordingly. Each year, treesadd a new layer of growth to theirexisting frames. To support this extrabulk, stiff wood is made in the stem and

branches. Spreading roots develop toprovide anchorage. These are subdividedinto thousands of rootlets for maximumwater- and mineral-absorbing capacity. Inmany species, flowers, followed by seededfruits, are the means of reproduction.

PARTS OF A TREEAll trees have the same basic components of roots, trunk, branches, leaves, and flowersbut there is huge variation between species.

TRUNK AND BARKThe trunk holds the tree upright so that the foliagecan reach the light. Tissues within the wood conductwater and nutrients to the leaves, and sugars to allparts of the tree. The central heartwood confersstrength and stiffness. Bark, which may be smooth,rough, or fissured, is the distinctive outer covering ofthe trunk that protects against the elements andinvasion by insects, animals, and disease.

FISSURED BARK

branches remain at the same heightabove ground as a tree grows,becoming thicker each year

deepcracks

ROUGHBARK

T R E E S T RU C T U R E

LEAVESGreen leaves (inbroadleaf species) or needles (thespecially adapted leaves in conifersand trees inhabiting extremely dryconditions) are the sites ofphotosynthesis (the manufacture of food using sunlight, carbon dioxide,and water) and transpiration (waterloss by evaporation). Chlorophyll (the green component of leaves)

converts minerals and waterbrought up from the soil

and carbon dioxide fromthe air into sugars andstarches using sunlight (see also pp.20–1).

leaves and flowersdevelop from budseach spring

in summer, deciduoustrees have a densecanopy of leaves

FRUITFruits develop from the fertilizedfemale parts of the flower. A fruit may besoft and fleshy or hard and dry. In conifers, the fruitis a seed-bearing cone. In all cases, seed distributionis the goal, and this takes place indifferent ways. Fruit may be eaten bybirds and other animals, and theseeds dropped or released inthe animal’s droppings atsome distance from thesource; some fruitsand seeds aredispersed by the wind, or by becoming attachedto an animal’s fur.

FLOWERSFlowers on trees

are the sites ofsexual reproduction.

There is great variety in color,appearance, and scent of

the flowers, and manyhave specially adapted

mechanisms for attractingpollinators. Pollen may becarried from one flower toanother by insects, such asbees, or the wind. Male and

female parts may form part of thesame flower, or they may be borne separately.

BRANCHESThe aerial and lateral extensions of the tree,branches enable the canopy of leaves to exploit asmuch as possible of the sun’s radiation. They extendfrom the trunk and have a similar structure internallyand protective bark externally. Where lateral

extensions are very wide, branches have theability to buttress themselves by producing

an extra layer of wood on the underside.

PEACHES

needlelikeshape

young fruit

MAGNOLIA

male flower

showy petalsALDER CATKINS

19

CONIFER

BROADLEAF

large surfacearea

female flower

leaf bud

20

Growth and reproduction are a tree’s most important functions, and to achieve this end, the tree needs a constant supply of food andwater that must be circulated to all parts of its structure. This is acomplex process, the main component of which is photosynthesis.

How Trees WorkWHAT IS A TREE?

Three fundamental stimuli govern treegrowth: geotropism (response to gravity)makes shoots grow up and roots godownward; phototropism (response tolight) affects the direction of foliagegrowth and keeps roots away from light;hydrotropism (response to water in theground) affects the direction and extent of root growth.

HOW TREES MAKE FOODThe manufacturing of food for a tree—photosynthesis—takes place within the leaves. The end products arecarbohydrates (starch and glucose) andcellulose formed from hydrogen, oxygen,and carbon derived from the air andminerals from the soil. Sunlight providesthe energy for this process. Photosynthesiscan only take place in thepresence of chlorophyll,

a green pigment found within structurescalled chloroplasts in the leaf cells. Thecarbohydrates are transported to all partsof the tree. On arrival at the root tips, thesugar content builds up in the cells until itis greater than in the surrounding soil. Tomaintain a state of equilibrium, water

HOW PHOTOSYNTHESISWORKSThe leaf is the main site ofphotosynthesis, which is the processby which carbon dioxide andhydrogen are converted intocarbohydrates to feed the tree and thewaste product oxygen is releasedinto the atmosphere.

sunlight activates chlorophyllinside leaf cells

sugars are carriedback into the treeto fuel growth

water andminerals aresupplied toleaf cells

oxygen is released asa byproduct throughstomata (pores)

chlorophyll inside leaf cellsconverts water and carbondioxide into sugars

carbon dioxide entersleaf through stomata

LEAF VEINSA network of veins (sometimes called nerves) on the underside of a leaf transports the productsphotosynthesis to and from all parts of the tree.

EUCALYPTUS STOMATA

passes through cell walls into the root.The liquid is taken up by the tree, aidedby a partial vacuum caused by the loss ofexcess water (transpiration) from foliage.Eventually the mineral-rich water reachesthe leaves and is used in the food-manufacturing process.

USING EARTH AND AIRA tree requires mineral salts, which areobtained by the roots in solution from thesoil. Minerals go up through the xylem inthe trunk (see Tree Circulation, above).

Excess water is expelled through pores onthe surface of the leaf (stomata) and onyoung shoots (lenticels). These pores openor close in response to humidity anddrying winds to maintain constant waterpressure within the tree. The mostimportant of the mineral salts is nitrogen.Leaves absorb hydrogen, carbon, andoxygen from the air, but nitrogen cannotbe absorbed in this way. Lightning stormscause nitrogen and oxygen to combineand dissolve in rain to form nitrous andnitric acids. In the soil, these combine

with mineral salts and ammonia toform nitrites and nitrates, a processcalled the nitrogen cycle. A few plantspecies have nitrifying bacteria ontheir roots that convert nitrogen inthe air into an absorbable form.Nutrients are recycled when deadleaves fall and rot, eventually beingtaken up again by the root system.

GNARLED BARK The outermost layer of the trunk is composed ofdead cells that impart a distinctive appearance.Bark is primarily protective, but it also containstiny pores that allow gases to flow in and out.

TREE RINGSEach band in a cut trunk representsa new layer of xylem laid downannually during the growing season.

TREE CIRCULATIONThe transportation of nutrients and water between leaves and roots isa complex process in a tree. The main components of the system(shown schematically below) are xylem vessels, which transportwater and mineral salts, and phloem vessels, which carry mainlysugars. These vessels are situated in the veins of leaves and in the growing sections of the wood of the trunk and branches.

XYLEM VESSELS IN A PINE BRANCH

heartwood—the oldestpart of the trunk

phloem—the part of thewood that transportssugars from the leaves

cambium – thegrowing layer thatwidens the trunk byadding to bothphloem and xylem.

bark—the outerprotective layer

xylem—the part ofthe wood thatcarries water andminerals from theroots

22

As in most other plants, many trees reproduce in three stages—pollenrelease, fertilization, and seed dispersal. Since trees are static, manydevices have evolved over the years to increase the chances ofsuccessful reproduction. Trees also have other means of propagation.

Tree Reproduction

W H A T I S A T R E E ?

DIOECIOUSAn example of a dioecious tree, holly (Ilex aquifolium) is eitherexclusively male or, as inthis case, female, whichproduces berries.

HERMAPHRODITEApple (Malus) blossomsare hermaphroditic, withmale and female parts.

POLLINATIONMost trees are either gymnosperms(conifers) or angiosperms (floweringplants). Conifers have separate, male andfemale flowers on the same tree; these are wind-pollinated. The male flowers are small conelike structures of bractsand stamens that produce vast clouds of pollen in early spring. The femaleflowers are miniature versions of themature cones they will eventually become.Angiosperms have an elaborate array of flower types, some designed for windpollination and others with fragrant petalsand nectar to attract insects or othercreatures. In some species, trees areexclusively male or female (dioecious). In others, both male and female flowersappear on the same tree; they may becombined (hermaphrodite) or they maybe separate (monoecious).

male flower

female flower

BEE ON BLOSSOMWhile the bee penetrates the petals for nectar, pollen sticks to the insect and is transferred to the next flower.

MONOECIOUSThe majority of conifershave both male andfemale flowers on thesame tree, as in the Scotchpine (Pinus sylvestris).

SEED DISPERSALConifer seeds are usually dispersed by thewind. Cones open in response to heat andhumidity, releasing the winged seeds overa long period to ensure that some of ithas a chance of survival in ideal conditions.Some pines have seeds that stay in thecone until it drops to the ground and iscarried away by an animal. Otherconifers benefit from forest fires. Thecones survive the heat of the fire, thenopen to shed seed some hours later whenthe ash-enriched ground has cooled.Broadleaved trees employ a range ofseed-distribution techniques. Some fruitshave to be ingested by birds or animalsbefore they will grow. Others are carried

away and buried by animals or birdsand may be abandoned or

forgotten, allowing them togerminate. Winged seeds (keys)

are carried away from the mother tree.Some, such as alder, are able to float inwater. Many large seeds also float; some,such as the coconut, can travel greatdistances across oceans.

SELF-PROPAGATIONSome trees have the ability to layer—that is, root into the soil when a branch restson the ground. This is useful for treesprone to lightning strikes; the parent isdestroyed but a ring of clones survives.Suckering is another successful survivaltechnique. Surface roots send up newstems at a distance from the parent,eventually forming new trees. A fewwetland trees propagate by breaking up.The crack willow (Salix fragilis) dropstwigs, which eventually stick in wet mudand grow. Some forms of this species nolonger reproduce sexually.

WIND DISPERSALWhen temperature and humidity arejust right, the cone opens to releaseseeds that are carried by the wind.

LAYERINGThe lower branches of some trees can takeroot if they make contact with the soil. Thered mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), picturedabove, provides an extreme example of this.

SUCKERINGWith new shoots constantly springingup from the root system, this grove ofaspens (below) is in fact composed ofmultiple stems of a single parent tree.

BIRD DISPERSALIn addition to receiving nutritionalvalue from the berry, the feedingbird inadvertently spreads the seed.

WATER DISPERSALOne of the largest and heaviestseeds, the coconut has evolved totravel hundreds of miles by water.

Forests of the World

FOREST ZONES

CONIFEROUS FOREST

Covers huge swaths ofCanada, Scandinavia, andRussia, and some mountainranges. Conifers are well-adapted to harsh winters.

TEMPERATE BROADLEAFFOREST

Comprises species thattolerate seasonal coolconditions. Found farthersouth than conifers in theNorthern Hemisphere.

TROPICAL BROADLEAFFOREST

Includes all tropical foresthabitats except rainforest.This diverse categorysupports many species thatalso thrive in other zones.

TROPICAL RAINFOREST

Is home to evergreen plantsthat exist only in areaswhere humidity is 100percent, e.g. West Africa andparts of South America,Southeast Asia, and India.

There are four broad forest zones (seepanel, below), and within these there arenumerous landforms and microclimatesthat affect vegetation. At the extremes ofthe zones, atypical habitats exist such astreeless swamps and fens, deserts, andmountains. In the Northern Hemisphereand equatorial regions, rainfall affects thedistribution of trees. For example, inCalifornia, rain falls mostly in winter; if itis absorbed by the soil and bedrock, treescan survive the summer months. If not,treeless desert will result. Snow on theAtlas Mountains in North Africa sustainsconiferous forests that would not surviveelsewhere in Africa. There is less

conformity in the Southern Hemisphere,where zonal distribution is more complex.The huge expanse of southern oceans isbroken by only three big landmasses, eachof which is diverse and mountainous andwith excessively hot regions. Mountainsand coastlines influence climate andtherefore zones and species. So thebroadleaf temperate zone in southernAustralia is a quite different habitat fromthat of the same zone in Europe.

The worldwide distribution of trees is the result of continuingevolution, with species settling into the most suitable climatic andgeographic conditions. Broad zones provide a useful classificationsystem, but there are many exceptions and borderline situations.

WORLD FOREST ZONESThe world can be split very broadly into four mainforest regions, interspersed by areas that are relativelytreeless, such as mountains, prairies, and ice caps.

24 W H A T I S A T R E E ?

KEY

Temperate broadleaf forest

Coniferous forest

Tropical broadleaf forest

Tropical rainforest

Barren lands

Prairie-savanna

Ice caps

ATLANTICOCEAN

PACIFIC OCEAN

GREENLAND

SOUTHAMERICA

NORTH AMERICA

25F O R E S T S O F T H E W O R L D

CONIFEROUS FORESTFir, pine, cedar, and spruce, species that are muchexploited for their wood, are typical inhabitants of the coniferous forests of the world.

TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTA mix of deciduous and evergreen trees that havevarious adaptations to survive a cool season populatelarge areas in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

EUROPE ASIA

AUSTRALIA

INDIAN OCEAN

AFRICA

26

Conifers were once the dominant group of trees on the Earth butsuffered from competition from broadleaved evergreens, whichflourished in temperate and warm climates. Conifer forests nowdominate only in cold, dry, mountainous regions.

Coniferous ForestsW H A T I S A T R E E ?

SURVIVING THE COLDPrimitive coniferscould not compete forlight with the large, flat leaves of the newbroadleaf species. Theycould grow tall, reaching abovethe canopy, but in so doing theyprovided shelter and incentivefor the broadleaves to catch up.However, conifers had anadvantage in that their narrow,often waxy foliage was good for

conserving moisture. The only way forthem to survive was to move by

seeding into colder, drier areas.So conifers moved north

toward the polar region and up into themountains.

CONIFERS TODAYIn the cold Arctictundra, the forest

consists of thin, narrow-crowned spruces andlow, bushy junipers. On

mountains, dwarf pines hug the tree line,stunted by snow and wind. In the vastwastes of Siberia and Canada, growth isslow, but trees remain vertical with short

CONIFER NEEDLESCones of tamarack (Larix laricina) on a long branchlet with needlelikeleaves adapted for wintry conditions.

BLACK FORESTDensely packed plantations of conifers characterizetemperate conifer forests such as the Black Forestregion in Germany, pictured here.

branches to shed snow easily. Dense forests of pine andsilver fir (Abies alba) occur in the German Black Forest,the Caucasus, and Asia. Pine forests thrive in thenorthwestern US and along the Pacific coast.

Conifers are genetically programmed to a particularclimate. They must grow actively for about two monthsa year to survive, and many hardy species need a coldspell to rest, which ripens and stiffens the wood. In thesouth, Alpine trees fail by growing during brief warmwinter spells, only to be cut back by late frosts.Southern trees moved north start growing too late anddo not complete their growth cycle before the winter.

27

SURVIVAL THROUGH THE SEASONSMassive forests of fir, spruce, and pine trees follow the winding path of themajestic Rocky Mountains in North America. They are able to survive theharsh winter conditions as far north as Alaska.

C O N I F E RO U S F O R E S T S

FORESTS WORLDWIDE

THE AMERICAS

A huge belt of forest runsfrom Alaska to Labrador.Species of redwood (Sequoia)populate conifer forests of the western US. The monkeypuzzle tree (Araucariaaraucana) is a conifer species thatoccurs in the wild inArgentina and Chile.

ASIA

Vast areas ofRussia arecovered bydense spruceand pineforests, mainlySiberian spruce(Picea obovata). The characteristic coniferspecies of Japan are theJapanese cedar (Cryptomeriajaponica) and Japanese larch(Larix kaempferi).

EUROPE

Northern Europe is home tovast pine and spruce forests.Conifers extend south into thebroadleaf zone—for example,Maritime Pine (Pinus pinaster)close to the Mediterranean.

SEQUOIA

Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, produced by burning coal and oil,combine with raindrops to form solutions of nitric and sulfuricacids. In high concentrations, these acids can kill plants andanimals and raise acid levels in soil and water. Conifer forests inScandinavia have been particularly affected by acid rain.

ACID RAIN DAMAGE

ACID RAIN

28

Temperate broadleaved trees evolved from tropical species. Duringdry periods, certain species on the fringes of tropical forests eventuallybecame deciduous, that is, dropped their leaves in response to lack ofrain as a strategy for survival.

Temperate Broadleaf ForestsW H A T I S A T R E E ?

BROADLEAVES WORLDWIDESince they first appeared, broadleaf treeshave developed survival tactics, includingdropping leaves. Some evergreen speciesevolved alternative ways of conservingmoisture, either by developing a waxycoating on the foliage (eucalyptus andhollies) or by reducing their surface area.Mixed deciduous woodland often has anunderstory of evergreens, includingboxwood and holly, that absorb enoughlight during the winter months, when theleaves are off the largertrees, to survive. The zoneof temperate broadleafforest occupies theeastern US, andEurope from Britain to Belarus and Russia.

Another large area of this type of forest exists in China

and Japan. In the SouthernHemisphere, the zone includes

temperate rainforest in Argentina andChile, southern areas of Australia, andpart of New Zealand’s South Island.

BEECH FORESTWhere beech predominates in a forest, it tends to shade

out competitor species of trees so thateventually only mature beech trees survive.

MAPLE LEAVESIn fall, chemical changes inleaves as they are about to be shed produce a rich palette of warm colors.

BROADLEAVES AT HIGH ALTITUDEIn some tropical areas, isolated temperate broadleavedtrees grow in the cooler conditions at high altitude. Insouthern Australia, eucalyptus forests typically consist of slender trees up to 200 ft (60 m) tall, and the forest isa light, airy environment because the leaves hang downand turn edgeways on to the sun, keeping them coolbut letting the light through.

29T E M P E R A T E B RO A D L E A F F O R E S T S

AUTUMN GLORYIn New England, acre upon acre of mixed deciduouswoodlands of maple, hickory, hornbeam, and aspen producea fine display of fall color, which heralds the changing ofthe seasons every year.

FOREST TYPES

BEECH FOREST

Beech forest occupies warmtemperate zones and isdemanding of light. Itsuppresses other trees.

BIRCH–ALDER FOREST

Found in cold and poor soilconditions. Birch exists acrossthe Northern Hemisphere upto the Arctic tundra. Aldercolonizes wetland by makingits own nitrogen fertilizer.

EUCALYPTUS FOREST

South of the tropical zone inAustralia, cold-tolerantspecies form dense forests. InTasmania, some tolerate snow.

OAK FOREST

Many forests evolve into oak,with different oak species inAmerica, Europe, and Asia.Other trees coexist, creating arich and diverse ecosystem.

SOUTHERN BEECH FOREST

In Chile and Argentina,southern beech (Nothofagussp.) forms dense forests.Smaller forests occur in New Zealand.

In many parts of the world, particularly in northern Europeancountries, tracts of broadleaf woodland have been preservedspecifically as hunting forests and havens for game, such as deerand wild boar. Traditionally, pigs were kept in the woods andfattened on beech “mast” and acorns before being slaughtered.

FORESTS PRESERVED FOR GAME

ELK IN A FORESTCLEARING

30

One of the most diverse categories, tropical broadleaf forests arefound in all tropical habitats, except rainforest and barren lands. The tree species that populate such forests have adapted in manydifferent ways to a wide range of habitats and climates.

Tropical Broadleaf ForestsW H A T I S A T R E E ?

SPARSE AFRICAN FORESTIn inhospitable parts of the world where extreme heatand dry conditions prevail, tree life is sporadic, with onlya few species, such as acacia, able to survive.

DIVERSE CONDITIONSThe climate that encourages growth of tropicalbroadleaves is similar to that of tropical rainforests. The difference is that a dry season occurs for part of the year, which interrupts growth and forces treesinto a dormant phase. Deciduous species shed leaves inresponse; evergreen trees enter a rest period as seen inthe wood by discernible rings of fast and slow growth.

Classification of this type of forest is difficult becausethere are many transitional areas, particularly along thecooler fringes of a tropical zone or where forest meetsthe sea. Oceanic tropical forests are mainly evergreen,forming an incomplete canopy, with further levels ofvegetation including a shrub layer and ground cover.Lianas and epiphytes are frequent. Sea mist contributesto alleviating the freshwater deficit. Red mangrove(Rhizophora mangle) swamps rapidly build up a humid jungle of stems and roots.

TROPICAL BROADLEAFFOREST AREAS

CONTINENTAL TROPICALFOREST

This type of forest is found inhot, dry places such asAustralia and Africa.

MONSOON WOODLAND

Found in India, Myanmar,Laos, Thailand, Cambodia,Sumatra, and Java.

OCEANIC TROPICAL FOREST

These coastal forests arefound in the Pacific Islandsand northeastern Australia.

RIVERINE FOREST

Found in deep river valleyswhere there is waterfallspray and high humidity.

SUBTROPICAL RAINFOREST

Found in Florida, the BrazilianHighlands, and the GreatDivide in Australia.

THORN FOREST

Found in east Brazil,Paraguay, and coastal Texasand Mexico.

GIRAFFEBROWSING ON

ACACIAS

SURVIVING DROUGHTContinental tropical forests have a verydry season that affects survival andnatural selection. Many trees have smallleaves protected by dense hairs. Othershave drastically reduced their leaf area to conserve moisture. An example is thebeefwood (Casuarina equisetifolia), whichresembles a horsetail with slender-jointedbranches and scalelike leaves. Tropicalforms of eucalyptus often grow alongside

this species. Monsoon woodland is a type

of tropical forest that growsin tropical climates

characterized byperiods of very highrainfall. Typicalspecies include

ebony (Diospyros ebenum) and sago palm(Metroxylon sago). Riverine forests occurin humid valleys where rainfall isless excessive.

Subtropical rainforestoccurs at high elevationoften above tracts of actualrainforest (see pp.32–3).

The mainlydeciduous thornforest occursbetween dense treecover and semi-desert in tropicalzones. It is hot and dry for longperiods. Adequatemoisture ismaintained in the soil and trees deriveprotection from their close proximity toone another. Species that thrive in theseareas include carob (Ceratonia siliqua) andbaobab (Adansonia digitata).

31T RO P I C A L B RO A D L E A F F O R E S T S

WILDLIFE IN EUCALYPTUS FOREST

MOUNTAIN GUM LEAVESThe pale, gray-green waxyleaves of this species are anadaptation to prevent excessheat and moisture loss.

DENSE TROPICAL EUCALYPTUS FORESTTight packing and flammable leaves make eucalyptusprone to forest fires, but they have a built-in response:hidden buds in the stump regrow after the fire is out.

Tropical forms of eucalyptus are among themost successful of trees, with over 500species and 150 varieties known. Almost allof these can be found in Australia, wheretheir aromatic leaves provide the staple dietfor koalas. Eucalyptus leaves are not verynutritious, but these tree-dwelling marsupialshave a low energy output, spending up to18 hours a day resting in the branches.

KOALA EATING EUCALYPTUS LEAVES

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Luxuriant tropical rainforest is a diverse evergreen plant communitythat exists in parts of the equatorial zone where there are conditionsof high humidity and consistently warm temperatures. There is nodry season, and growth of plants is continuous throughout the year.

Tropical RainforestsW H A T I S A T R E E ?

UNIQUE ECOSYSTEMAn astonishing variety of plants live inthe rainforest, all with an ability to growrapidly, an essential ingredient in thebattle for light and survival. Rainforesttrees typically have long, branch-free

stems and small leafy tops packed into acontinuous green canopy. Beneath thisare smaller trees and shade-tolerantshrubs. Numerous climbing plants, suchas lianas, cling to trees, and orchids andferns flourish on the dark forest floor. Therainforest habitat is perpetuated fromwithin as well as by the climate. Reducingits size or making holes in it by fellingtrees changes the microclimate, at greatcost to the diverse species it supports.

SOUTH AMERICAN RAINFORESTLarger than all the other rainforests combined, theAmazon basin rainforest (below and left) is home toalmost half the world’s bird species. Its trees releasevast amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere.

HOW A RAINFOREST WORKSTranspiration of moisture from the trees supplementsthe natural rainfall in the forest. Massive quantities oflife-giving oxygen are manufactured by the trees as abyproduct of photosynthesis and pumped into theatmosphere. The whole ecosystem is also a hugestoreroom of fixed carbon. Although moisture isplentiful, rainforest soils tend to bepoor. Evergreen foliage produceslittle leaf mold, and the very highrainfall saturates unprotected soil sothat nutrients not locked up in plantsare soon leached away.

33

TEAK In the rainforest, species such asteak (Tectona grandis) grow togreat heights to reach the light.

T RO P I C A L R A I N F O R E S T S

AROUND THE WORLD

AFRICA

Equatorial rainforest occupiesmuch of the Congo Basin andthe Guinea coast. There areisolated areas in Zambia,near the Indian Ocean, and in eastern Madagascar.

INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

The western seaboard ofIndia and Sri Lanka is tropicalrainforest in the strict sense.Similar monsoon jungle andequatorial broadleaf forestobscure its eastern limits.Concentrations of rainforestalso occur in Bangladesh.

SOUTH AMERICA

The world’s largest area ofrainforest occupies theAmazon Basin, extendingfrom the Atlantic coast to the foothills of the Andes. It merges into savanna in the north and in the south,tropical broadleaf forestand grassland.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Much of this area oncesupported rainforest,

particularly Sumatra,Borneo, the Celebes,

and the Philippines.In Myanmar, teak

(Tectona grandis) is still harvestedcommercially. It is

sustainable only if replantedor allowed to regenerate.

MAHOGANY Mahogany trees (Swietenia spp.)growing close together in therainforest have few lower branches.

ORCHIDOrchids often share the rainforest,some growing on moist bark instead of soil.

RUBBER PLANTATION

Rainforests provide many of the raw materials for industry,including plants for the pharmaceutical industry and rubber. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was first found in the Amazon rainforest; vast plantations now exist in India, Indonesia,

Malaysia, and other equatorial regions. Latex isthe sap of the tree, and careful cutting of the

bark (known as “tapping”) releases the latexwithout causing damage. An individual treecan produce latex in viable quantities for up to 30 years.

TAPPING RUBBERRUBBER TIRE

34

Many situations exist in which trees survive against all the odds, and it is remarkable how they can adapt to hostile places. Lands may bebarren for many reasons, including temperature extremes, boggyground, and wind and salt near the sea.

Barren LandsW H A T I S A T R E E ?

TREE PIONEERSSome groups of trees are speciallyadapted as pioneers, opening the wayfor others. Attributes of such treesinclude early maturity,massive seed production,rapid growth, and arelatively short lifespan. For example, thelodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta) produces itsfirst cones and fertile seedin just six years, and some poplars grow61⁄2 ft (2 m) a year. The ability to survivein close proximity to one another isanother attribute of pioneer species suchas the birch, which often grows in densethickets, producing few branches andsmall, bushy tops. The birch plantationstarts to decline and break up after only

40–60 years, usually giving wayto more robust species, such asoak, that require shelter asseedlings. Alder is an ideal

wetland pioneer, able to seed insedge beds and other boggy places.

EXTREMES OF TEMPERATUREBarren land often occurs where extremesof heat or cold provide a challenge tosurvival. In cold regions such as theArctic sub-tundra, mountain snowlines,and bleak moorland, a number of hardytree species exist just inside the limits ofsurvival, waiting for a chance to ventureinto new, treeless territory. The triggermay be a run of slightly warmer wintersor the arrival of rudimentary shelter.Even damage on hills by avalanche orerosion may provide an opportunity forseeding. Shelter is usually in the form of hardy alpine shrubs such as dwarfwillows, dwarf birch (Betula nana), orshrubby junipers. Once established, thesespecies provide additional shelter forlarger woody plants, and a progression to scrub and eventually forest occurs. In hot conditions, migration into treelesssemi-desert is triggered by a climaticanomaly, such as freak rainfall ortemporary cooling. The activities ofburrowing animals may also provideopportunities for seeds of acacia, thorn,or palm to germinate. Tree survival in hotconditions often depends on establishinga tight group that will provide mutualshelter from the sun. All desert trees relyon deep roots to seek out groundwaterand on nighttime condensation beingtrapped and dripping from the foliage.

ADAPTED FOR THE HEATThe drooping leaves of many eucalyptus specieshave evolved to turn edgeways to minimize the

area exposed to the heat of the sun.

DESERT TREESCacti show an extreme adaptation to a dry habitat.Their fleshy trunks conserve water, while their leaveshave been reduced to spikes to reduce water loss.

35B A R R E N L A N D S

ADAPTED TO COLDIn cold climates, the tree species that survive tend togrow slowly and have small, hard needles. Chances ofsurvival increase where trees grow close together.

CLINGING ONSome trees require little soil, surviving in rock fissuresand damp, peaty cavities. Here, an acacia is clinging tothe edge of the Waimea Canyon, Kauai Island.

TREES BY THE SEAIn coastal areas, sea water leaching into the ground can make the landinhospitable to trees; most are killed by excessive soil salinity. Some plants,however, are salt-resistant and rapidlymove back into bare ground. Salt spray is limiting but not usually fatal. Younggrowth may be killed each year, so trees

take on a sculpted appearance, leaningaway from the sea. As in other hostileconditions, trees survive by making use of available shelter.

STONY GROUNDFrankincense trees (Boswellia sacra) survive in stonydeserts because small amounts of moisture condensebetween the hot surface and cold subsoil.

36

Many people can easily identify the trees that are common in the area in which they live. However, there are times—for example, whentraveling or when confronted with an unfamiliar species—when it isuseful to be able to identify a tree in a more systematic way.

Identifying TreesW H A T I S A T R E E ?

FIELD WORKReliable identification depends onthorough observation. Gather as muchinformation as possible in the form ofnotes, sketches, photographs and, withpermission, small samples of foliage,including a flower and fruit, even if it isold material picked up from the ground.As well as the items described in thepanel below, a usefulpiece of equipment forfield work is a pair ofbinoculars to see featuresthat are out of reach.Many types of binocularswork as a powerful handlens if used backward.

You will also find ituseful to acquire adetailed guide to thetrees of the area inwhich you are interested.Some guides, known askeys, are designed toidentify trees by a process of elimination.Trees are divided into groups accordingto certain distinguishing characters.Smaller groups are then subdivided untilfinally the plant, or group to which it

belongs, can be identified. It is importantto always use a local key that refers to theregion you are in. Photographs andillustrations are a valuable aid at everystage of the identification process.

VARIABLE HABITEach tree species has a characteristic overallshape when it growsunimpeded. However, thehabit can be dramaticallydifferent if the tree is, forexample, growing in closeproximity to others, as can be seen in thesephotographs of beechtrees alone (above) and ina forest (left).

A TREE FILEDetailed notes, sketches, photographs, bark rubbings,and samples of leaves and fruit should enable you toidentify all but the most unusual trees.

TAKING FIELD NOTES

When you go out on a “tree spotting”trip, you will find it helpful to take a fewitems of equipment to aid identification.You will need a notebook, pencil, and a selection of colored pencils to recordyour observations in words and pictures.You don’t need to be an accomplishedartist to make useful visual notes andsketches. A magnifying glass will enableyou to see details on leaves, such as hairsand veins. With wax crayons and plain paper, you can take rubbings of bark texture. If you intend to bring samples of fallen leavesor fruit home, be sure to have a store of labelsand bags to put them in. Finally, bring a camerato take photographs of the tree.

I D E N T I F Y I N G T R E E S

SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATIONWhen faced with a tree that you areunable to recognize immediately, it isimportant to follow the process ofidentification systematically. Observe andtake notes on each aspect of the tree’sphysical characteristics: bark, leaves, fruit,and flowers (see below). Take note, too, ofthe tree’s size and habit (overall shape),although this is not necessarily a definingfeature (see Variable Habit, opposite).Other important information to recordcould include the tree’s location and thetype of habitat in which it is growing—

for example, open parkland, barrenmountainside, or dense forest. Note, too, other tree species growing nearby.

Many tree enthusiasts derive greatsatisfaction from keeping their own log of interesting trees they have seen. Notes,photographs, sketches, and bark rubbingscan all contribute to a fascinating recordof “meetings” with trees. A record ofassociated birds, insects, and other wildlifeis also of interest. You might considerobserving several trees close to yourhome through the seasons and over a number of years.

37

LEAVESObservation of a leaf should includetaking note of its type, how it isarranged on the shoot, its overall shape,whether the leaf margins are smooth,lobed, or toothed, and what color theyare above and beneath. Use amagnifying glass to observe fine hairsand veining. (See Glossary for moreinformation on leaf types.)

BARKThe bark of a tree often changes withage. Nevertheless, it is an importantfeature to observe. Note the color andthe texture, whether it is smooth, flakingor peeling, or fissured. Make a barkrubbing with wax crayon for yourrecords. You should also look for anyresin visible from previous cuts in thebark. Do not make such cuts yourself.

FLOWERSThe color and shape of the flower are the most obvious features, but be sure toalso look at their arrangement—whetherthey are solitary blooms or appear in amore complex inflorescence (see alsoGlossary). Some species have male and female flowers on the same tree.Others have male and female flowers on different trees.

FRUITFruits appear after flowers and will onlyrarely be seen together. They may beseveral different types. Take note of theexternal color, shape, and size. Then, ifpossible, open one and observe thenumber and arrangement of seeds withinthe fruit. Be aware that fruit often changessignificantly in size and color as it ripenson the tree.

NEEDLES SIMPLE COMPOUND

FISSURED SMOOTH FLAKING

CLUSTER SOLITARY INFLORESCENCE

DRUPE PODCONE

toothedmargin

bright greencoloration

clusteredarrangement

LIVING WITHTREES

Since humans first evolved from apelikemammals, trees and forests have providedus with food, warmth, protection from theelements, and safety from predators.Trees were a source of plentiful andvaried food, from succulentshoots to leaves, fruits,nuts, and berries. ManyNeanderthal sites from100,000 years ago are stilllittered with tree seeds andhusks. Woods were alsohome to animals to hunt,from squirrels to deer andwild boar.

WOOD FOR FIREEarly people probablynoticed a wildfire’s warmth,saw how the flames keptlarge predators at bay, andeven tasted how the heatcooked carcasses. Earlyevidence for controlled firesat a specific site, usingcollected wood, comes from

the charred animal bones and fossil ash layers at “Dragon Bone Hill,”Zhoukoudian, near Beijing, China. These hearths date back more than400,000 years. They were tended by

representatives of the now-extinct human species Homoerectus. By 100,000 years ago, the also-extinct Neanderthalpeople were using wood-fueledfires at various sites aroundEurope, to help keep themwarm in the intense cold ofthe last great Ice Age.

TREES FOR SHELTERPrehistoric humans probablysheltered in woods, sinceconditions among the trees werepreferable to the harsh sun orwindy blizzards of open country.Some 400,000 years ago nearBilzingsleben, Germany, patternsof preserved holes suggestupright posts for specially builtwooden shelters—again,

40

More than ten million years ago, our apelike ancestors lived in trees,which provided their major needs of safety, food, and warmth. By five million years ago, our human ancestors walked on the ground.But we have still relied on trees through every phase of our prehistory.

Early People and TreesL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

LIVING ALOFTOur closest living cousins, thechimpanzees, still rely on treesfor most of their requirements.

TREES FOR TRANSPORTDugout canoes (like thismodern Dutch example) maydate back over 8,500 years.

probably the handiwork of Homo erectus. By 60,000 yearsago, Neanderthal people may have constructed hutlikeshelters in Moldova. From 30,000 years ago, Grimaldisand Cro-Magnons—European groups of our ownspecies, Homo sapiens—made more complex dwellingsfrom wood, mammoth tusks, and animal skins, atsites such as Dolni Vestonice, in the Czech Republic.

WOODEN WEAPONSBefore the Stone Age, ancient humans probably usedbranches to smash and stab. But unlike stone, wooddecays. So evidence for wooden weapons and utensilscomes mostly from associated stone artifacts such as ax-heads, spear-tips, or arrow-heads, and prehistoric art.Homo erectus may have thrown spears some 400,000 yearsago near Schoningen, Germany. Nearby in Lehringen,the Mousterian tool culture of Neanderthal peopleprobably included wooden spears. Early Homo sapiensleft evidence of wooden spears 80,000 years ago atMount Carmel, Israel. The notched spear-thrower or atlatl, for greater power and distance,dates from over 20,000 years ago; it may have ledto the bow and arrow. Stone arrowheads were known inAfrica before 25,000 years ago, with European versionsfrom 12,000 years ago. Danish bows of yew and elm dateto 10,000 years ago. A frozen traveler, “Otzi the Iceman,”who died 5,300 years ago in the European Alps, had14 wooden arrows in his quiver.

DEER-HUNT WITH WOOD BOWS AND ARROWSThis painting from Cavalls Cave near Valltorta, Spain, datesback 12,000 years. Luckily, pigments of prehistoric art lastlonger than most wooden objects they depict.

ATLATLWooden spear-throwersprobably precededthe bow andarrow.

ANASAZI AXThis Aztec tool, almost

1,000 years old, has itsoriginal wooden shaft and

willow twine binding,

FLINT-HEADED ADZA stone held in a woodenshaft was a basic toolfor early humans.

SPIRIT HOMESAlthough ancient storytellers sometimesspoke of trees as spirits, in mostmythologies trees are the homes of spirits.From North America to Africa, thesespirits protect the trees they inhabit—theyare said to attack anyone who tries toharm a tree or cut it down. If treatedproperly, tree spirits are usually seen ashelpful to humans, but forests can be dark and intimidating places, and this isreflected in stories, common in Africa, offorest spirits that trap the unwary in theirbranches or eat human flesh.

Large baobabs are said to be home tomany spirits. People are expected towarn these spirits well in advance—often in writing—before felling abaobab. The notice gives the spirits thechance to find another tree. If peopleneed to cut down a tree for the timber,this has to be done with the correctrespect and ritual. Repeating theappropriate spell or chant before fellinga tree will bring good fortune to anyobjects that are made from the wood. Ina similar way, a shaman must observethe correct rituals when cutting wood

and carving it to make a drum. Onlythen will the drum speak with the treespirit’s voice.

The ancient Greeks believed that eachtree had its spirit, or hamadryad, whowatched over the tree and tried to stop

people from cutting itdown. Hamadryads,like the trees theyinhabited, could livefor hundreds of years,and a hamadryadonly perished whenher tree met its death. In Japanese folklore,many trees are said tohave spirits. One storytells how the spirit of

42

Trees were the largest and oldest living things known to many earlypeoples. Their size and their importance in terms of providing shelter,sustenance, and a wide variety of materials have earned trees aprominent place in the world’s myths and legends.

Tree Myths and SpiritsL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

YGGDRASILThe great ash tree of Norse mythology, Yggdrasil, wasbelieved to support the world. Its branches and rootsprovided structure and protection.

THE ENDURING BAOBAB The capacity of the toweringAfrican baobab to survivelightning strikes contributes toits link with the supernatural.

T R E E M Y T H S A N D S P I R I T S 43

a plum tree defended a peasant who triedto stop a nobleman from transplantingthe tree. When the nobleman drew hissword on the peasant, the tree moved sothat the blow hit one of her branches,which then fell on the nobleman’s head.

THE POWER OF ANCIENT TREESTrees that are unusually tall and old havealways been given special respect andstatus. Especially ancient trees, such assome yews in English churchyards, areparticularly revered and are said to “wardoff evil spirits.” The “world tree” of Norsemythology, the ash called Yggdrasil, was

so huge that it linked together the entireNorse cosmos. The tree spread its canopyover the whole world and the sky, while itsroots extended into the underworld. Stagsgrazed on its branches, a wise eagle livedin its canopy, and a squirrel carriedmessages between the eagle and theunderworld. A sacred spring bubbledamong its roots.

SPRUCE TREE MYTH

Some native peoples of the North Americansubarctic have myths of the Distant Time, whenliving things had a human form. Among thesepeople were widows who pinched their skin andcried when told that their husbands had died.These women were believed to have becomespruce trees, whose coarse, pinched bark wasthe result of this repeated pinching.

SPRUCE TREES IN WINTER

PRAYING BENEATH A BO-TREEA Hindu devotee of Vishnu prays beneath a bo-tree (or bodhi tree) in Sarnath’s Deer Park. Both Hindus andBuddhists have special reverence for the bo-tree, whichHindus regard as the eternal tree of life, and underwhich the Buddha achieved enlightenment.

VOICE OF THE TREEIn Africa, people say

that trees are the homes ofpowerful spirits. A shaman’s

drum is usually made from wood, and he hopes that the spirit of the tree

speaks when he plays his instrument.

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Early humans depended on natural woodlands for foods such as fruitand nuts, later learning to cultivate trees for these foodstuffs. In themodern world, vast businesses are based on edible tree products, fromfruit and nuts to crops, such as coffee, that have to be processed.

Trees for SustenanceL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

APPLE ORCHARDWith hundreds of varieties and rich in fiber and vitaminC, the apple is a deservedly popular fruit. Orchard trees(below) are often specially selected for small size tomake the job of harvesting the crop (left) easier.

FROM TREE TO TABLEFruit and nuts from trees are harvestedworldwide: from hot climates come thedate, papaya, pomegranate, olive, lychee,mango, avocado, coconut, pistachio, andBrazil nut, among many others. Citrusfruits (lemons, oranges, among others) arean important group grown mainly insouthern Europe and North Africa.

Cooler climes produce apples, pears,plums, damsons, cherries, walnuts,chestnuts, and almonds. Peaches, apricots,and figs are found in temperate regions.

Growing fruit and nuts commerciallyis a precise science. Orchards must becorrectly managed, and the right type ofplants must be grown and, if grafted,put on the right rootstock. Irrigation andprotection from extremes of weather areimportant considerations. Pests, diseases,and competition from grass or weeds mustbe anticipated and controlled beforedamage occurs. Pruning to control treegrowth and improve crop yield is critical.

PROCESSED CROPSMany fruits and nuts that are eaten rawmay be processed into other products toextend their life. Pineapple is canned,juiced, and pulped. Apples and orangesare turned into juice. Plums and apricotsare made into jam, canned, or bottled.Coconut is shredded, creamed, or madeinto milk, and olives and many nuts arepressed to extract edible oils.

Other crops, notably coffee andcocoa, are transformed totally beforethey are fit for consumption. Coffee and

cocoa beans are harvested by hand, anddried or roasted. The beans are thensold to manufacturers around the world,to be turned into a vast array of edibleproducts and beverages.

COCONUTA giant among nuts, the versatilecoconut provides a rich food sourcefor humans and animals alike.

COFFEE BEANSCoffee undergoes a long process ofproduction before it can be roasted,ground, and savored as a drink.

ALMONDGrown in cool climes, the nut of thealmond tree can be eaten raw,cooked, or made into confectionery.

Cocoa beans are found in the seed pods of thecocoa tree (Theobroma cacao). The pods areharvested at the peak of ripeness, split open,and the beans removed for fermentation anddrying, before being made into chocolate.

SHELLING COCOA PODS

HARVESTING COCOA BEANS

46

Wood is a sustainable commodity.Produced year by year in the stems oftrees, it is made by the tree itself fromnutrients from the soil and plant foodmanufactured in the leaves. Each type of tree produces wood with different

qualities, making it useful for variousfunctions. Some woods, such as oak, arehard and strong; others, such as yew andash, are soft and flexible; poplar has fireretardant qualities; and many others aresought out for their color or grain.

Trees for Wood and BuildingL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

WOODEN DWELLINGIn some parts of the world, a simple sheltermade from cut branches provides an effectiverefuge from the elements for one or morefamilies and their animals.

WOOD TYPES

SOFTWOOD

Softwoods come fromconiferous trees. They have a more primitive cellularstructure than hardwoods andoften contain aromatic resins.

Softwoodscan actually beheavier than hardwoods.Some are used mainly forconstruction (cedar, pine, or larch, for example), others for paper or boardmanufacture (spruce, fir,hemlock, among others).

HARDWOOD

Timber from deciduous orevergreen broadleaved treesis called hardwood. The termdoes not refer to the physicalhardness of wood but is aclassification based oncomplex cell structures.

Hardwoodsrange from veryhard ebony to very soft balsaand are used mainly forbuilding or furniture-making.

CEDAR

BEECH

In previous centuries, people depended entirely on wood to buildfences, boats, dwellings, and furniture. Easy availability, sustainability,and variety made it a reliable choice. Although now replaced by othermaterials for many purposes, wood is still a valuable resource.

PRACTICAL USESIn former times, people relied on woodfor shelters and boats. Often, thin rods ofcoppice wood (trees repeatedly cut backto produce material of a particular size)were used to build a basic shelter andconfine domestic livestock. Early housesand barns tended to be built with smalltimbers squared up with an adz, or largecruck frames produced by splitting awhole tree trunk in half. Saw technologylagged far behind the ax, adz, or splittingwedge, and therefore sawn wood wasrarely used.

Wood was usually processed in theforest to avoid the problems of haulingheavy timbers great distances on poorroads. Choosing the right shape of tree or limb for a particular job was animportant consideration, no more so thanin shipbuilding, where naturally curved

timbers were selected for frames and“knees” to support decks.

With the industrial agesawn wood came into its

own. Balks of timber

47T R E E S F O R W O O D A N D B U I L D I N G

were used for grand houses,sea defenses, wharves, mill machinery, railroadties, and industrialbuildings of every sort.Round wood was usedextensively in coal minesto reinforce shafts andtunnels and for telephoneand electricitytransmission poles.

Today, wood in abuilding may be a reconstitutedconstituent ofmanufactured boardor glued laminatedbeams. Wood supplies now are muchdepleted and, increasingly, timber comesfrom carefully managed plantations rather than natural forests.

FURNITUREWood has been muchprized over the centuriesfor making fine furniture.

WOOD-FRAMED BOATWhere handmade boats are still produced, naturallycurved timbers are preferred for the frames because oftheir superior strength and durability.

WOOD-FRAMED HOUSEWood-frame construction is the most common method ofhouse-building in the United States. Wooden elementsmay be reconstituted or laminated for extra strength.

TRADITIONAL HANDMADE PAPERContemporary traditional papermakingtechniques involve pouring prepared liquidpulp onto a mesh of finely woven cloth set in a wooden frame the size of the intended sheet.The water drains through, leaving a flat film of fibers. Thickness of paper can be adjusted by

adding more or less pulp. A second framed mesh(the deckle) is pressed onto the surface of the pulp,expelling more moisture. Soon, the fibers form a

sheet that is turned upside down onto damp felt todry. Color, scent, and herbs can be added to the pulp.Various methods of pressing the paperare used to produce different surfaces.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSIn 1840, Friedrich Kellerinvented an industrial process,still in use today, for reducinglogs into paper pulp. Softwoodmade up of long fibers, such asspruce and poplar, is particularlysuitable for making paper. It issometimes used with hardwood,such as oak, to make paper for aparticular purpose or quality.

Modern factory papermakingis a remarkable process that startswith vats of liquid pulp at oneend (the wet end) of the millingmachine and finishes with dryrolls of paper at the other end(the dry end). Pulp is usually made of waste, which is

wood not reserved for lumber; it is chopped into chipsthat are broken down by steam and chemicals into a

semi-liquid “soup” of fibers. A pump sprays a thinlayer of liquid paper pulp onto a moving wire screen,which may be up to 20 ft (6 m) wide, traveling at 60 mph(95km/h). By the time pulp reaches the end of thescreen, it has partly solidified, and the damp “paper” isfed onto the first of many pressing and heated dryingrollers. Finally, rolls of paper, some around 16 ft (5 m)wide and weighing many tons, are removed from themachine. The process is continuous, with new rolls beingstarted without breaking the cycle. Papermaking is ahighly skilled and precisely coordinated job.

48

Wasps have been making paper for millions of years, but for humans, it started in the 3rd century BCE in ancient Egypt. TheChinese were the first to use wood for paper. Their skills reached the Middle East in the 8th century CE, and Europe 300 years later.

Trees for Paper and PulpL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

HANDMADE PAPERColoring and flowers can beadded to the pulp to createspecial effects.

ETHANOL BURNING

FIBERBOARD

WOOD PRODUCTS

ETHANOL

Volatile ethanol is atraditional fuel derived from wood. It is preparedby fermentation of sugars, but the processrequires substantialamounts of energy.

MODERN WOOD FUEL

Modern use of wood for fuelinvolves efficient self-feedingcombusters, boilers, and heatexchangers that burn woodchips from sustainable low-grade woodland or sawmillwaste. Such wood-fuelheating is environmentallyfriendly, clean, and cost-effective.

BIOMASS

Some species, such as poplar,willow, and eucalyptus, canbe grown like an agriculturalcrop, cut every two or threeyears. The end product iswood chips that are suitablefor fuel and other purposessuch as mulching.

FIBERBOARD

Pressed wood chips and pulpmixed with adhesives andhardeners produce varioustypes of fiberboard forinsulation, flooring, interiorsurfaces, and domesticcabinetry and shelving.

PAPER FOR PRINTINGEvery day around the world,massive amounts of paper areused to print newspapers. Paperquality does not have to be high,so recycled paper is used, whichhelps to conserve resources.

OTHER PULP PRODUCTSWood pulp is naturally brown and has tobe bleached to produce paper for printing.The brown pulp can be used to makecardboard, boxes, or brown paper. Thisand other packaging is made in much thesame way as paper. Posterboard isproduced in individual sheets. Wet pulp ismolded to make shaped packaging.

Medium-density fiberboard (MDF)and hardboard are pressed from hotpulp made from finely ground wood.Chipboard and thick reconstituted

boards are pressed from coarsematerial bound by adhesive. Theseproducts require relatively low-qualityraw materials and can incorporatepreservatives and insect repellent.

Most waste paper can be recycled provided theprint can be removed easily. Every ton ofrecycled paper produces about as much usablewood pulp as an equivalent weight of logs. Thequality of paper made from recycled papercan be greatly improved by mixing itwith a quantity of new pulp.

PAPER RECYCLING

RECYCLING LOGO

LOGGINGTrees are felled, floated downriver, and processed on a vast scale at this lumber mill in Sabah, Borneo.

50

MYRIAD USESBefore the advent of the modernpharmaceutical industry, most medicinescame from trees and other plants. Today,many trees are still exploited for theirmedicinal products, such as quinine fromthe bark of the chinchona tree (Cinchonaofficinalis), which is sometimes used totreat malaria. There are also manyspecies still to be discovered that havepotential medicinal value, particularlyamong the rich flora of the rainforests. It is important that these species are

allowed to flourish—they may hold thekey to conquering many diseases. Manypoisons and mind-altering drugs, such askhat (Catha edulis), also come from trees.

All trees contain long, tensile fibers togive them strength and the ability to bendin the wind. These capabilities have beenharnessed to make a range of everydayitems such as cloth, rope, and baskets.

Rubber, cork, various resins, andtannin all come from the bark of trees,and many natural dyes are made fromleaves, flowers, or crushed seeds. Treesare also the sources of many highlyvalued volatile oils that are used inperfumes, aromatherapy, and cooking; the oils may be extracted from the bark,leaves, flowers, or fruit.

In addition to their vital role in producing wood, paper, andfoodstuffs, trees are the sources of a wide variety of other productsranging from textiles to medicines. Each product is harvested from a particular part of the tree: bark, sap, leaves, flowers, or fruit.

Other Products from TreesL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

WILLOW Many types of willow trees (particularly Salix purpurea)have bark that is rich in salicin, a chemical that is theactive ingredient of the painkiller aspirin.

51O T H E R P RO D U C T S F RO M T R E E S

SELECTED TREE PRODUCTS

Products from trees range from hard-wearing materials to delicate volatile oils. In most cases, a muchlarger quantity of raw material is harvested compared to the end product. Cork and fibrous matter areexceptions in that extraction is not required, so the picked materials roughly equal the final wares.

Seed pods are thesource of kapok fiber

Inner bark used for ropeand coarse fiber

Twine for weaving andagricultural use

Bark provides winecorks and flooring

Sap (latex) is the rawingredient of rubber

Resin used for gum,varnish, medicines

Tannin from bark forpreserving leather

Coloring for food,cosmetics, fabric

Coloring for hair and skin decoration

Resin used for varnishesand turpentine

Original source ofchemical in aspirin

Leaf extract providesantibacterial agents

Extracts used toimprove mental function

Oil for flavoring andtoothache relief

Oil used in perfumesand to repel insects

Oil used in aromatherapyand inhalations

FIBER

CORK

LATEX, GUM

TANNIN ANDPRESERVATIVES

DYE

RESIN, VARNISH,TURPENTINE

MEDICINAL

AROMATIC OIL

Kapok tree(Ceiba pentandra)

Little-leaf linden(Tilia cordata)

Raffia palm(Raphia farinifera)

Cork oak(Quercus suber )

Rubber tree(Hevea brasiliensis)

Mastic tree(Pistacia lentiscus)

Oaks(Quercus sp.)

Annatto(Bixa orellana)

Henna(Lawsonia inermis)

Maritime pine(Pinus pinaster )

Willows(Salix sp.)

Loquat(Eriobotrya japonica)

Maidenhair tree(Ginkgo biloba)

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)

Italian cypress(Cupressus sempervirens)

Gum trees(Eucalyptus sp.)

52

For thousands of years, trees have been planted to bring pleasure. A rich history of gardening exists in China and Japan, particularlynear temples. In the West, the first gardens were cultivated in NorthAfrica, the Mediterranean area, and Mesopotamia before 2000 BCE.

Trees for Amenity and OrnamentL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

DESIGNING WITH TREESHumans seem to have a need to surroundthemselves with trees, and this isespecially important in the artificialenvironment of a modern city. Plantingtrees in a city or landscape involvescareful planning because results may not be achieved forover 50 years. It involves anunderstanding ofhow trees evolve.They grow larger,change with theseasons, and rapidlyfill up spaces. Theextended time scalealso means theoriginal purpose of the planted area maychange—for example, an area planned as a park may be developed for housing.

THE RIGHT SPECIESCare is vital when choosing tree species toavoid the need for lopping and felling,and to discourage unhealthy or dangeroustrees from growing. It is vital to know thegrowth rate and potential size and shapeof every species that is to be considered in the plan. Various questions should beasked—for example, is the tree broad,narrow, spreading, weeping, columnar,shrubby, evergreen, or deciduous? Does ithave any particular soil preference? Is ittolerant of shade, strong sunlight, wind,or pollution, either of the air or soil? Treebreeding, especially in the United States,has produced various cultivated forms oftrees that have been developed to fulfillspecial requirements, particularly narrow-crowned trees that are suitable for liningstreets. A species of Chinese pear (Pyruscalleryana) has provided a rich resource forexperiment, yielding not only a narrowprofile tree well suited to the urbanenvironment, but also a range of

attractive fall foliage colors in individualcultivars, such as ‘Redspire’, ‘Trinity’, and‘Autumn Blaze’.

The nature of the site will imposelimits on the types of tree that can beplanted. Grazing animals, conservationconstraints, recreation needs, landscape

STREET TREESPalms are ideal streettrees in warm countries;they cast shade, haveclear stems, and do notdrop slippery leaves orblock streetlights.

enhancement, shade, and screeningtraffic require trees with different kindsof tenacity. Regular maintenance isessential to ensure that beauty, function,and longevity can be prolonged.

CITY TREESThe urban environment is harsh and thelifespan of a city tree is short comparedto the same species in the country.Screening, one of the main uses of treesin a city, is best achieved by mass planting,but this may not be appropriate wherepeople feel threatened in dark, confinedplaces. Thickly planted trunks may alsoform a litter trap.

TREES IN GARDENSGarden trees can form an eye-catchingfocus or a pleasing background. Size iscrucial; small yards need small trees, andsome species should not be planted nearhouses because of the risk of damagefrom invasive roots. Dense foliage can beused to advantage, providing shade andblocking unattractive views. You cancreate striking contrasts and accents byplanting trees with copper or red foliage.Features such as glossy leaves, an unusualundersurface color, or colored bark canadd interest in a garden, as can trees withconspicuous flowers, although treeblossoms are often short-lived.

53T R E E S F O R A M E N I T Y A N D O R N A M E N T

JAPANESE GARDENThe Japanese are masters of garden design. They arefamous for thoughtful planting of trees to provide agood succession of spring blossoms and fall foliage.

CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORKTree-filled parks in the center of major cities not onlyprovide much needed leisure space, but also create a“green lung” that helps to improve air quality in areasof high pollution.

The ornamental value of trees has been taken tothe extreme in the Japanese art of bonsai, inwhich miniature versions of trees are cultivated.Maple and juniper are commonly grown species.The art of bonsai lies in producing aestheticallyappealing shapes by prescribed techniques ofgrowing, pruning, and training, and by choosinga base or container that perfectly complementsthe tree. More art thanhorticulture, bonsai is a very popularpastime.

BONSAI LARCHAND PINE TREES

BONSAI TREES

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Planting and Caring for TreesL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

The act of planting a tree is the final and least difficult stage in aprocess that involves consideration of many factors ranging from theseason to the type of tree. Assessing the physical attributes of the site,such as soil type and position, is also a key element.

CHOOSING AND PLANTING A TREEEvery tree has ecological and physicalneeds that should, ideally, match thelocation. Exposure, drainage, soil type,drought, and disease must all beconsidered. In addition, there areproblems of whether the tree is likely toblock light, break into sewers or septicsystems, grow into overhead power lines,or damage cables, walls, or foundations.Expert advice on the choice of tree isessential. Having chosen the species, thenext consideration is the optimum time

for planting. Temperate trees should be planted in the dormant season,evergreens shortly before they start togrow in spring. Prepare the site byremoving rubble or diseased roots. Theground surrounding the tree should betreated or covered to stop weeds andgrass from growing. Plastic mulch matswork well and can be disguised withcomposted wood chips. Only addfertilizer to deficient soil. Do not adduncomposted mulch—this can causeoxygen and nitrogen deficiencies.

The hole should be freshly dug so it does not dry out, flood, or lose beneficialsoil organisms. Keep the tree in the shade, roots covered, until you are readyto plant. When you are finished planting, support the tree with a stake.

1 Place the tree to be planted inthe center of the chosen site andmark out a circle about 3 ft (1 m) in diameter.

3 Remove the tree from the potand gently ease the compactedroots apart and remove any that are damaged.

PLANTING A TREE

2 Dig a hole in the marked area; mix the soil with well-rotted organiccompost before partly refilling the hole. Water if dry.

4 Drive a short stake off-center and put the tree next to it; the rootcollar should be level with the ground.Backfill with soil.

55P L A N T I N G A N D C A R I N G F O R T R E E S

PRUNING A BRANCHUsing a sharp saw, pruners, or loppers, cut unwantedbranches or competing leading shoots close to the collar. Do not cut into the trunk.

PRUNING CONSIDERATIONSIn general, once a tree is established, it requiresminimal maintenance. Pruning should be kept to aminimum in the early years, bearing in mind thatevery scrap of green top growth is needed to feed thetree. However, dead or diseased twigs can be safely cutoff. Once the tree is more mature, pruning andtraining can begin, especially by removing competingleading shoots and wayward branches that mayeventually turn into weak, dangerous forks. Woundpainting is not recommended unless there is a seriousrisk of infection locally from airborne diseases.

PEST AND DISEASE CONTROLPest and disease damage is best prevented right fromthe start by a good choice of species. A tree that is notnaturally suited to its site is always more vulnerablethan one that is. Protection from air pollution, saltspray, and wind can best be achieved by choosing ahardy species and a protected site. Browsing animalshave to be kept out with tree shelters or fencing.Squirrels and small rodents can be a difficult problemthat may require professional control. Avoid wateringif at all possible in order to promote root growth, butif it is essential, water liberally and continue wateringuntil the end of the growing season. It is preferable touse rain water that has collected in a barrel instead ofcity water, which contains many chemicals that arepotentially harmful to a growing tree.

SPOTTING PROBLEMS

HOLES IN LEAVES

This damage is often causedby sawfly. Thelarvae will stripwhole branches.Holes in leavescan also becaused by weevilsand fungal orbacterial canker.

WEBBER MOTHS

Leaf damage along with theappearance of a dense whitewebbing over the affectedleaves and shoots may be theresult of infestation by the

caterpillars ofvarious moths.

Mild casescan betreated by

carefulpruning.

In more seriouscases, it may be

necessary to use chemicalpesticides.

RUST DAMAGE

Summer foliagecovered withorange-coloredcrusts is usuallythe result offungal disease.If the tree issmall enough, itcan be treatedwith a commercialfungicide following theinstructions on the label.

BARK DAMAGE

Splits in the bark may becaused by drought and madeworse by irregular watering.Bark damage can also becaused by rodents or bydiseases such as stem canker.

56

The aim of a well-run commercial forest is to produce timber, whilealso conserving wildlife and providing amenities. For success, the longprocess depends on careful planning in the early stages and expertmanagement throughout the life of the forest plantation.

Forest PracticeL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

Forest management begins withthe selection of new sites orsuitable existing woodlands forregeneration. Preparation of theground may involve clearing anddraining, cultivating baresections, and fencing the area tokeep out animals. Vehicle accessmay need upgrading, but oftennot until it is time to harvest.

COMMERCIAL PLANTINGForest nurseries grow seedlings inraised beds, and these are dug up andtransplanted after a year. These youngtrees grow to around 12 in (30 cm) tall intwo to three years depending on thespecies. This technique encourages adense root system and a well-balancedplant. Hardwoods with long taproots,such as oak, often have the main rootshortened to promote fibrous growth; thisimproves the tree’s survival chances.Planting is still generally done by hand,except in open sites, such as farm

woodlands, where an adapted agriculturalplanting machine may be used. To planta tree, a slot is cut in the ground andopened up by a transverse slot and someleverage with the spade. The tree islowered into the hole, then firmed in witha boot. After the first year or two, failedtrees are replaced. Planting takes place atthe start and end of winter in order toavoid periods of severe weather,

particularly frost.

COPPICINGThis ancient and sustainable

system of woodlandmanagement involves

harvesting the shoots from anestablished root system

every 7–15 years.

TREE SHELTERSPlastic tubes called tree shelters are used to protectyoung trees from attack by rodents and sometimes deer.They are removed once the trees are well established.

FOREST MAINTENANCEYoung plantations survive best wherecompetition from natural vegetation isminimal. This is achieved by hand-weeding, herbicides, or the use of treeshelters. Pest control may be requiredsince young trees are vulnerable to attackfrom rodents and insects. Fertilizer maybe applied if the soil shows deficiencies.In order to produce single-trunked,straight trees, some pruning, training, andsometimes staking may be necessary.

Thinning may be carried outeither for the benefit of theremaining trees or to producesmall trunks for a particularmarket. Mixed forests can alsobe thinned to favor particularspecies, usually those bestsuited to the site.Silvicultural thinning is apainstaking process thatlooks at the situation andprospects of every treeand marks those forremoval. A morecommon andcheaper option is toremove single linesof trees; usually one in four. Theadvantage is that

57

machines can easily access the site to cutand remove the trees. A disadvantage isthat this thinning method results in theindiscriminate removal of healthy andunhealthy trees.

FELLINGFinal felling may involve total clearancewith machinery. Continuous-cover forestryis a more aesthetic method in which sometrees are left until new ones planted inbetween become established. Naturalregeneration, if of good quality, may beencouraged. Commercial management ofnatural forests usually works in this way.

Coppicing is a form of forestmanagement in which a single species isregularly cleared from small areas of alarger wood. It may also involve frequentremoval of underbrush from a forest ofa slower-growing species. This is asustainable system that provides aregular supply of timber.

PLANTING IN COSTA RICAEnvironmentalists and farmerswork together planting trees byhand as part of a reforestationprogram in the Puriscal region,Costa Rica.

GROWING IN ROWS Managed forests are usually planted in neat rows thatallow for easy access for forest-maintenance work, asin this plantation of young conifers in Scotland.

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THE CARBON CYCLECentral to the relationship between treesand the environment is the carbon cycle(see facing page). Carbon exists in theatmosphere in the form of carbondioxide. Leaves absorbthis during photosynthesis(see page 20). A byproductof this process is oxygen,which is released into the air. Animals take in oxygen and releasecarbon dioxide whenthey breathe. They alsorelease carbon whentheir dead bodiesdecompose. Anothersource of carbon in theair is from burning fuelssuch as wood, oil, andcoal. The net result is an increase inatmospheric carbon above the amountthat can be reabsorbed, and theequilibrium is upset.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGESPollution and climatic changes are thefactors most likely to endanger treespecies. First, chemicals released byindustry and other human activities arepolluting the atmosphere. In some areas,this pollution goes beyond the toleranceof native trees; sulfur dioxide poisoning isan extreme example. In some polluted

areas, however, trees have benefited in the short term because insect predatorsand fungal diseases tend to succumb first, allowing the trees to grow morevigorously. But there may also be other,

undesirable effects, suchas the loss of immunityto disease.

The major climaticchange is globalwarming—heating up ofthe planet by polluting(greenhouse) gases:carbon dioxide, nitrousoxide, and methane.Many modern trees thathave evolved with aparticular climate willhave to adapt, migrate,or perish. The last

substantial rise in global temperature was about 6,000 years ago. If humanactivities force the temperature up this high again, trees will be affected.Conifers, such as juniper and spruce, andbroadleaved species of birch and beechwill become extinct or will need tomigrate to higher and cooler regions.Eucalyptus and fan palms willcolonize new areas. Fungi, bacteria,and insects will also evolve andcould unleash epidemics ofdisease and infestation on anunprecedented scale.

A delicate and complex balance exists between the environment andtrees and, at the most basic level, one cannot survive without theother. Environmental problems impact on the health of trees, and iflarge numbers of trees die or are removed, the environment suffers.

Trees and the EnvironmentLIVING WITH TREES

SOIL STABILIZATIONIn the African state of Niger, trees are planted to form wind breaks as part of a project to stabilize sand dunes.

RAINFORESTDEFORESTATIONThe destruction of huge areasof rainforest, most seriously in South America (far right), is going to cause untoldproblems for humankind. Short-sighted commercial interestsrisk depriving the world ofmany plant and animalspecies, and destroying theplanet’s largest living “lung.”

59TREES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF TREESThe presence of trees around us issomething we often take for granted,failing to appreciate the many vitalfunctions that they perform. Tree rootsprovide infinitely better erosion controlthan any artificial substitute. Not only dothe roots stop soil from being washedaway, but the trunk and branches aboveground can trap silt and debris until theground level rises above the flood plain.Salt-tolerant species such as mangrovescan even do this close to the sea. Shelter

from wind is another benefit provided bytrees. Shelterbelts of trees can modify amicroclimate so that crops and domesticanimals can be raised on land that wasonce too bleak to use. In the southernUnited States, magnolias are used toprotect homes; often, the lower branchesare layered to increase stability.

CARBON CYCLE The diagram above shows the contrast betweensustainable carbon levels in which emissions roughlyequal absorption, and unsustainable, where carbonrelease far exceeds the ability of trees to absorb it.

UNSUSTAINABLE

living creaturesexhale carbondioxide

carbon fromburning wood,oil, and coal isreleased intothe atmosphereas carbondioxide

high levels of carbondioxide in theatmosphere add to the“greenhouse” effect

carbon dioxide in the atmosphereis absorbed by leaves

leaves fix carbonfrom carbondioxide in the formof wood

carbon from plants, feces, anddecomposed bodies of animalsremains in the soil

carbon fixed in the earth from plants in prehistoric times is extracted forfuel in the form of oil and coal

SUSTAINABLE

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Trees and forests are vulnerable. A tree may take hundreds of years to grow to maturity and be replaced, but only a few hours to bedestroyed. Technology has produced an arsenal of lethal weaponsthat have increased the ease with which trees can be removed.

Tree ConservationL I V I N G W I T H T R E E S

Trees have been exploited for thousandsof years, and some people feel that aslong as communities rely on logging andsocieties demand the products, theforestry industry cannot be abandoned.Commercial pressures can certainly helpto maintain certain tree species, but this isnot always possible in the case of raretrees that grow only slowly. However,unless sustainable forest managementstrategies are implemented, certain typesof forestry will die out because theresource will be gone.

NATURAL THREATS Although many individual species of treesare threatened with extinction due tooverexploitation, trees in general are notthreatened to the same degree. Speciesthat we know and rely on may go, but

others will take their place.Volcanoes, asteroids,continental drift, sea-levelfluctuations, and ice ages havefailed to exterminate treescompletely. Trees have a long history ofsurvival, but theyhave to evolve. Where there isbare earth or a great tree is cutdown, scores of new seedlings will movein. An oak may go,but ash, elder, andbirch will replace it.

EDEN PROJECTCarved out of an abandoned clay pit in Cornwall, England,the Eden Project comprises a series of domes in whicha botanic garden and conservation center flourishes.

RED-FAN PARROTHabitat loss threatensthis vulnerable SouthAmerican species.

HABITAT CONSERVATIONConserving tree habitats is one of the cornerstones of any conservation program. When a forest is cutdown, the plant and animal community is modified andpartly destroyed. Animals leave and the biological andgenetic diversity of the site is altered. Any change to anatural habitat will divert it from its evolutionary path.It will become a different kind of habitat. In areaswhere the landscape is “artificial,” past human activitiesare considered a valid biological contribution. If “alien”species were planted 300 years ago andthey have hybridized with native plants,the aliens are considered indigenous.

ARBORETUMS AND SEED BANKSSaving today’s trees is the business ofbotanical gardens and arboretums, andseed banks play a vital role in preservingour tree heritage. However, it is doubtfulif many saved trees will ever be returnedto the wild; there may not even be a habitat to return to. There is also adanger that new trees released into anexisting habitat might endanger residentspecies. Many rescued plants stand thebest chance of survival in an artificialplantation containing as many diverseindividuals as possible. Biodiversity isessential for vigorous trees and to avoidthreats from disease and predators.

61T R E E C O N S E RVA T I O N

GENE POLLUTION In some cases, new alien introductions will accidentally cross-breed withnative trees until no pure progeny exist. Goat willow (Salix caprea),pictured above, is a species that has been affected by this phenomenon.

MILLENNIUM SEED BANK

ENDANGERED TREESPECIES

DIOSPYROS EBENUM

In demand for its black wood,this species is threatened byoverexploitation.

ARAUCARIA ARAUCANA

The genetic diversity of thisspecies has been severelydepleted by overharvesting.

SORBUS LEYANA

This whitebeam was at onetime reduced to only ninespecimens in Wales, UK.

DENDROSICYOSSOCOTRANUS

The cucumber tree isthreatened by human activityand climaticchanges.

Part of Britain’s Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, andbased in West Sussex, the Millennium Seed Bankis an international plant conservation program andcenter. This global initiative aims to safeguard thefuture of 24,000 plant species in an effort toprevent them from worldwide extinction. Started in2000, the program has already secured the futureof most of the UK’s flowering plants. The seed bankalso aims to provide a world-class resource facility.

SEED STORAGE

CUCUMBERTREE

TREES OF THE WORLD

Spore trees belong to the families Cyatheaceae andDicksoniaceae and are also known as tree ferns. Theyare the most primitive trees, reproducing by means ofspores, which form tiny plants that produce sperm or

eggs. The fertilized eggs then grow into new ferns.

pore trees are natives oftropical rainforests, wherethey may exceed 65 ft (20 m)

in height. Persistent roots that form a dense buttress support the stem,which is rarely branched. Spore treesdo not form wood. Instead, the talltrunks of tree ferns are strengthened

by deposits of a material calledlignin. The trunk supports a crown of pinnate leaves that may reach 13 ft (4 m) in length. During everygrowing season, some adult fernsform two types of fronds; sterilefronds that lack sporangia (spore sacs) and fertile fronds that bearsporangia. In some species, fronds

formed by a juvenile fern arevery different from those

formed when the sameplant reaches

maturity.

S

SPORE TREES

A YOUNG FRONDUNCURLS

woodlike stem

leaf basesor stipes

STEM CROSS-SECTIONThe fronds of the blacktree fern (Cyatheamedularis) are attached to the stem by leaf bases,seen here arranged aroundthe stem.

Dicksonia antarctica

The Tasmanian fern is very slow-growing,but can live for up to 400 years. It growsat a rate of about 11⁄2–2 in (3.5–5 cm) peryear and does not start producing sporesuntil it is at least 20 years old. A thickmass of brown fibrous roots forms on the trunk, which is covered with softbrown hairs on top, and large frondsform a spreading canopy. In the wild, this species thrives in damp places and is usually found in moist gullies andsheltered forests. However, it is also

FROND BUDBARK

tolerant of frost and drought. The pithcan be eaten, either cooked or raw, and isa very good source of starch. BARK Darkbrown, with leaf scars. LEAF Dark green,roughly textured, arching fronds, about93⁄4 ft (3 m) long, with tiny pointed leaflets, frond stalks very hairy at thebase. FLOWER Flowerless. FRUIT Smallround groups of spore capsules orsporangia (sori).

frondsegments

bark coveredwith rootsand old leafbases

frondstalk

reddishbrownhairs

Tasmanian FernHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (S.E. Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria coast, Tasmania)

roducing seed bypasses theneed to have water in theenvironment for fertilization

to occur, because the pollen, whichcontains the male germ cells, istransported to the female parts bywind or insects, so the sperm doesnot have to swim to the egg. Anotheradvantage of seeds is that they havean outer layer that protects theembryo and incorporates a foodreserve for it.

GROUPS OF SEED TREESSeed trees can be divided intogymnosperms and angiosperms.Cycads, ginkgo, and conifers are allwoody gymnosperms. All of theseproduce seeds that are covered by aseed coat, but are not true fruits. Theangiosperms (flowering trees) are thelargest and most diverse group. Theyall produce seeds within a fruit.Angiosperm flowers may have someor all of four structures: a stalk; aperianth (petals and sepals); stamens(male pollen-bearing structures)and/or carpels (female ovule-bearing

structures). Gymnosperm “flowers”never have a perianth or bear ovulesor pollen on the same plant. Theyare wind-pollinated. Angiospermflowers have more means ofbecoming pollinated (wind, insects,birds, and bats). Many angiospermshave evolved alongside the insectsthat pollinate them.

P

SEED TREES

seed coneof a femalecycad

ADAPTED FOR SURVIVAL The enormous range of adaptations of seed trees hashelped them to colonize all parts of Earth.

CYCAD SEED CONESFemale cycads are fertilized by free-swimming sperm that are carried bywind from a male plant.

JAPANESE MAPLEFlowering trees have a wide variety of seeddispersal methods. The seed of this maple isenclosed in a winged key.

Seed trees are vascular plants (plants with a circulatorysystem) that transport water and nutrients by means of

tissue called xylem and phloem. Seed plants firstappeared some 350 million years ago. They were plants

with fernlike leaves that bore seeds on their leaves.

Cycads are woody plants that produce seeds and resemble ferns and

palms. They are, however, unique and unrelated to any other group of

living plants. Cycads were at their peak some 150 million years ago in

the Jurassic period. Today there are around

185 species of cycads in 11 genera,

native to warm, subtropical regions.

CYCADS

FIRE ADAPTEDShoots that will develop into

palmlike fronds emergefrom the top of a Cycas

media following aforest fire.

newshoots

The main roots of cycads arethickened and fleshy. All species alsoproduce upright-growing, branchedroots, known as coralloid roots. Theseroots contain symbiotic blue-greenalgae, which can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. The woody stems of cycads may grow entirely belowground or emerge from the ground to form a trunklike structure. Theleaves of most species are pinnate andoften develop a palmlike crown. Aplant is either male or female. Cycadsreproduce by producing cones.Woody growths on the cones, calledsporophylls, bear the sexual parts.

FOSSIL CYCAD FRONDA frond of the fossil cycad Nilssonia comptafrom the Jurassic period, approximately180 million years ago.

old leaves

C Y C A D S 69

The false sago (not to be confused withthe sago palm) occurs in dense, dry,scrubby woodland in hilly areas andsheds its foliage in extremely dry seasons.It is valued for its beauty and is widelyplanted as an ornamental. Its trunkcontains an edible, starchy material. BARK Brown, covered in old leaf bases.LEAF Pinnate, glossy bright green, 5–8 ft (1.5–2.5 m) long, with 170 opposite leaflets, flat, on hairy stalks.FLOWER Males: narrowly ovoid,

CAROLUS LINNAEUS

Carolus Linnaeus (Karl von Linné;1707–1778) was a Swedish physicianand botanist who introduced thetaxonomic system for grouping and categorizing organisms. Heestablished Cycas circinalis as asingle species, but his descriptionwas based on earlier work that

covered at leastthree distinct

species.

orange pollen cones, covered in mattedwoolly hairs; females: cones arranged in a ring around the shoot tips. FRUIT Yellow, nearly round seeds that can float.

female conefeatherlike leaves

FOLIAGE

Cycas circinalis

False SagoHEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE Deciduous OCCURRENCE India (Karnataka,Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra)

The ginkgos are a group of seed trees that appeared about 250 millionyears ago and reached their maximum diversity 100 million years ago.By about 40 million years later, the number of species in this group had been reduced to a single, very variable species known as Gingko

adiantoides, which is similar to the only species of ginkgo in existencetoday, Ginkgo biloba (maidenhair tree).

GINKGO

or Mediterranean climate. It is alsounusually resistant to pollution andpests. These attributes have madeginkgos very popular in cities. Thefemales are not as sought-after as the

male trees for yards orstreet trees because ofthe unpleasant smell oftheir seeds.

MALE FLOWERSMale ginkgo flowers producepollen containing motile (free-swimming) sperm that areamong the largest in the plantkingdom. Fertilization is usuallyby wind pollination.

LEAF SHAPEThe bright green leaves of the maidenhair tree (Ginkgobiloba) have a distinctive two-lobed shape with a deepcleft in the center.

parallel veinsgoldencoloration infall

Often thought of as a “living fossil,”Ginkgo biloba is a large woody tree,with branched stems and small simpleleaves. There is considerable doubtthat any ginkgo trees still exist outsidecultivation, although specimens in thewild have been reported in easternChina. This plant might only existtoday because of the efforts ofBuddhist monks in Japan and China.They adopted Ginkgobiloba as a sacred treeand cultivated it intheir temple gardens.Subsequently, itsworldwide popularityas a garden tree hassecured its survival. Itis a highly adaptableplant, growing inalmost any temperate

G I N KG O 71

Ginkgo biloba

A primitive and ancient species, themaidenhair tree is held sacred byBuddhists and it is often seen aroundBuddhist temples. It symbolizes longevity,hope, and unity, and is now widelycultivated around the world, especially in the US. Its wood does not decayquickly, is fire-resistant, and has a finegrain and silky shine. It is used forcarving, furniture, chessboards, and tubsfor brewing “saké,” among other items.The leaves and seeds are used in herbalmedicine. The rotting fruit has aparticularly unpleasant odor. BARK Palebrown, roughening into corky fissures.

LEAF Fan-shaped, bright green turninggolden yellow in the fall, two-lobed,notched; with parallel veins, dividing into two, about 31⁄4 in (8 cm) wide.FLOWER Males and females on separatetrees; males: in small green catkins,females: in pairs, stalked, small, green,and round. FRUIT Greenish yellow plum-

like fruit with a fleshy coating,and edible kernel.

LEAVES

Maidenhair TreeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. China

SEEDS

FRUIT

MEDICINAL LEAVES

People in China began using theseeds of this species for medicinalpurposes over 1,000 years ago.Its leaves have traditionally beenused for treating circulatory andrespiratory ailments. In the West,in recent years, ginkgo hasbecome popular as a naturalremedy to improve mentalperformance and boost short-term memory.GINKGOSUPPLEMENTS

cleft between lobes

up to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) long

silvery bloom

GINKGOThe ginkgo’s unusual fanlike leaf shape, with twolobes (hence its species name biloba) and parallelvenation, is easily identified. The leaves are used intraditional Chinese medicine to treat a variety ofailments, including high cholesterol and angina.

The leaves of conifers vary widely. Inmany conifer genera, such as spruce(Picea), fir (Abies), and pine (Pinus), theleaves are long and narrow, and arecalled “needles.” In others, the leavesare very small and scalelike—forexample, junipers (Juniperus), incensecedar (Calodcedrus), and cypresses(Cupressus). Conifer leaves are usuallycovered in a waxy layer, and thestomata (tiny pores) lie beneath theleaf surface. These leaf characteristicsprevent water loss and help conifersresist drought. In most conifers, theleaves develop on long shoots, and arearranged spirally and alternately.

Conifers produce distinct maleand female cones on the same orseparate trees. These function as

CONIFERSThe conifers are so called because they bear seed in distinctive cones.They first appeared in the fossil record in the Permian period over200 million years ago, and they are still abundant today. There are sevenfamilies of living conifers, containing over 600 species. They are widelydistributed, dominating forest habitats in the earth’s colder, drier regionsin which other trees cannot survive.

SCALELIKE LEAVESSome conifers such as the Hinoki cypress

(Chamaecyparis obtusa) have leaves thatresemble scales instead of needles.

leavesarranged inflattenedsprays

flowers. Female cones tend to bemuch larger than males. Male coniferflowers may appear in the leaf axilsor on new shoots. They usuallywither away after the pollinatingperiod has ended.

Conifers are wind-pollinated.After pollination, the scales of thefemale cone close tightly, until thedeveloped seeds are released from the mature cones (now serving as thefruit). In the “closed-cone pines,” theheat produced by a forest fire isusually needed to liberate the seeds.The Taxaceae (yew family) do nothave cones: each seed is enclosed in a fleshy coating, known as an aril.

GIANT CONIFERSConifers are known for attaining enormous heights.Giants of the conifer world include giant sequoia(Sequoiadendron giganteum), pictured right, and thegrand fir (Abies grandis), which may reach a height of 200 ft (60 m).

FEMALE CONES AND MALE FLOWERSMale lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) flowers (right)appear on the same tree as females. The femaledevelops into a seed-bearing cone (left).

S E E D T R E E S76

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

YOUNG CONES

LEAVES

FLOWERS

This popular Christmas tree, also knownas the Caucasian fir, has thick foliage anda conical shape. BARK Gray, smooth, but

developing fissures with age.LEAF Flat, notched needles,

shiny dark green above,two silver lines beneath.

FLOWER In separateclusters. Males: red;females: yellow-green.FRUIT Erect, greenishbrown cone.

This fir is shrubby or broadly pyramidal.BARK Purple-gray, smooth, with resinblisters, furrowed in plates. LEAF Narrow,notched needles, in dense spirals, 1⁄2–2 in (1.5–5 cm) long, green above,underside keeled with blue-green lines. FLOWER Males: broad, oval, red to yellowor green, tinted with violet-brown;females: rounded, blue-gray. FRUIT Cone,ripens to dark violet; red-brown bracts.

The branches at the top of this tree often divide, giving it a “stork’s nest”appearance. Its resin is a constituent ofturpentine. BARK Gray, smooth, crackingwith age. LEAF Flat needles, dark greenabove with two silver bands below.FLOWER Males: yellow, grouped onundersides of shoots; females: green.FRUIT Erect, cylindrical brown cone.

Also called the white fir, this tree thrivesin moist areas. BARK Gray-green, smoothwith resin blisters. LEAF Flat needles, oneither side of shoot, 3⁄4–21⁄4 in (2–6 cm)long, dark green above with two silverbands below. FLOWER Males: small andpurple, beneath shoots; females: green.FRUIT Erect, resinous, cylindrical browncone, 2–43⁄4 in(5–12 cm) long.

Abies koreanaAbies nordmanniana

Abies alba Abies grandis

Silver FirHEIGHT up to 150 ft (46 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE C. Europe

Grand FirHEIGHT up to 240 ft (75 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. North America

Korean FirHEIGHT 30–60 ft (9–18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Korea

Nordmann FirHEIGHT up to 150 ft (46 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N.E. Turkey, W. Caucasus

needle 3⁄4–11⁄4 in(2–3 cm) long

male flowerclusters

needle 1⁄2–11⁄4 in(1.5–3 cm) long

Tolerant of wind, snow, and poor soil,this tree has light but strong timber,which is used for interiors. BARK Silver-gray, smooth, cracking on older trees.LEAF Flat needles with rounded tips, blue-green on both sides. FLOWER Males: deepred, beneath shoot; females: yellow, aboveshoot. FRUIT Erect, barrel-shaped cone,43⁄4–10 in (12–25 cm) long.

The Atlas cedar has a stout trunk and itsbranches are angled upward. The blueform, Cedrus atlantica ‘Glauca’, has blue-white needles and is planted as anornamental in parks. BARK Silver-gray,becoming grooved with age. LEAF Greenor blue-green needles, 3⁄8–11⁄4 in (1–3 cm)long, arranged in tufts. FLOWER Males:pinkish; females: bright green. FRUIT Egg-shaped cones, 2–31⁄4 in(5–8 cm) long, with hollowed tips.

Abies procera

Cedrus deodaraCedrus atlantica

LEAVES WITH YOUNG CONES

Atlas Cedar HEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North Africa

Deodar CedarHEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Himalayas

Noble FirHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. North America

Like the Atlas cedar, this tree has a stouttrunk with a triangular crown, but withdownswept branches, and a droopingleading shoot. Its oil was once used totreat skin diseases. BARK Gray-brown andsmooth when young, rough and groovedwhen mature. LEAF Pale green needles,up to 2 in (5 cm) long, in tufts ofabout 15–20 on spur shoots.FLOWER Males: yellowish, in clusters, often curving; females: greenish, in uprightclusters. FRUIT Erect,barrel-shaped cones thatturn brown as they ripen.

LEAVES

to 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long

CONE

needle 3⁄8–11⁄2 in(1–3.5 cm) long

S E E D T R E E S78

Cedrus libani

A slow-growing tree, this cedar has a conical shape when young. Whenmature, it has a massive trunk and large,tiered branches with dense foliage. It isvery long-lived; those in the TaurusMountains in Turkey are up to 1,000years old. There are over 18 references to this tree in the Bible and the timber issaid to have been used to construct KingSolomon’s Temple. It is now used forveneers or drawer linings.

BARK Red-brown, finely fissured betweenshallow ridges. LEAF Dark green needles,borne singly on long shoots and in tufts of

about 10–20 on short side shoots.FLOWER Males: yellow-brownwhen open, up to 21⁄4 in (6 cm)long; females: bright green withpurple tinge, 23⁄4–6 in (7–15 cm)

long. FRUIT Erect, barrel-shapedcones with rounded tops, ripening

from purple to pink-brown.

cone 23⁄4–6 in(7–15 cm) long

LONG SHOOTWITH CONE

EMBLEM TREE

Some cultures hold the Cedar of Lebanon in specialesteem. The green cedar, symbolizing immortality andfortitude, is placed in themiddle of the Lebaneseflag. Between twohorizontal red stripes,the tree stands outagainst a whitebackground that isreminiscent of snow onthe mountains of Lebanon. LEBANESE FLAG

needle3⁄4–11⁄4 in(2–3 cm) long

spreading branches

Cedar of LebanonHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Middle East

C O N I F E R S 79

BARK

European larch is one of the first trees to burst into leaf in spring. Its timber isstrong and durable. BARK Gray-brown,cracking with age. LEAF Flat, soft needles,blunt or short-pointed tips, bright green. FLOWER Males yellow; females pink-red.FRUIT Brown, egg-shaped cones, withsmooth scales and visible bracts.

YOUNG CONES

Mostly found on upland, loamysoils, this hardy treealso grows in cold, poorlydrained areas like sphagnum bogs. Its wood is used for fenceposts andrailroad ties, and for building boats. BARK Red-brown, scaly, and thin. LEAF Flat, soft needles with blunt orshort-pointed tips, light blue-green,turning yellow in fall. FLOWER Males:yellowish and very small; females: deepred, small. FRUIT Small, egg-shapedcones, with rounded, overlapping scales,rose-red turning to pale brown.

Also known as the money pine, this tree is used in Japan for bonsai. It is apopular species for timber because itgrows faster than other larches and ismore disease-resistant. BARK Red-brown,cracking with age. LEAF Flat, soft needleswith blunt or short-pointed tips, blue-green with two gray-white bands onunderside, mostly in rosettes of 30–40.FLOWER In clusters. Males yellow; femalesgreen-yellow. FRUIT Small brown cones,with hidden bracts.

Larix decidua

Larix laricinaLarix kaempferi

needle to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) long

upright cone 11⁄4 in(3 cm) long

CONE

Japanese LarchHEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Japan

TamarackHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

European LarchHEIGHT up to 125 ft (38 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. Europe

LEAVES ANDCONE

up to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) long

1⁄2–11⁄4 in(1.5–3 cm)long

scaly barkon maturetrees

needle 3⁄8–1 in(1–2.5 cm) long

cone 3⁄8–3⁄4 in(1–2 cm) long

CEDAR OF LEBANONOver the centuries, forests of cedar of Lebanon(Cedrus libani ) have been depleted as a result offelling. However, this tree is a popular specimenplanting in many temperate parklands, such as thisgarden in Sussex, England.

S E E D T R E E S82

Named after the Sitka Sound in Alaska,this tree thrives in moist conditions, and is found only within 50 miles (80 km) ofthe coast. Its strong but light wood is usedfor pulp. BARK Gray, becoming purple-gray and peeling with age. LEAF Thin,sharp needles, dark green and shiny

above, two broadwhite bands below.FLOWER In clusters. Males: red; females:green-purple. FRUIT Pendent,slightly tapered,pale brown cones.

Picea abies

The wood of this popular Christmastree is used for building work, packingcases, paper pulp, and for makingsounding boards and posts for violins.BARK Orange-brown, turning gray-brownwith age and developing small scales. LEAF Stiff, prickly, four-sided needles, dark green on all sides. FLOWER Inseparate, upright clusters. Males: red;females: dark red. FRUIT Pendentcylindrical cones have scales that arenotched at the tip, 43⁄4–61⁄2 in (12–16 cm)long, tapered at each end, like a cigar.

Picea sitchensis

LEAVES AND CONES red-brown cones

LEAVES AND FRUIT

LEAVES

cone 23⁄4–31⁄4 in(7–8 cm) long

needle 3⁄8 – 3⁄4 in(1–2 cm) long

needle 3⁄4–11⁄4 in(2–3 cm) long

Norway Spruce HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N., C., and E. Europe

Sitka SpruceHEIGHT up to 260 ft (80 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America

Japanese White PineHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Japan and Korea

C O N I F E R S 83

Jack PineHEIGHT up to 90 ft (27 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America

Pinus banksiana

This species is the northernmost pine inthe world. It grows on poor, dry soil anddepends on fire to release the seeds fromits cone. BARK Orange-red to red-brown,scaly. LEAF Twisted, yellow-green needles,with fine lines on both surfaces, in pairs.FLOWER Males: orange to yellow; females:green-yellow. FRUIT Cones, lance-shaped,pale brown, ripening after two years.

Pinus parviflora

CONES ANDLEAVES

needle 3⁄4–2 in(2–5 cm) long

cone 11⁄2–2 in(3.5–5 cm) long

needle 11⁄4–21⁄4 in(3–6 cm) long

LEAVESANDCONES

This pine thrives on sandy soil and wasused to reclaim sand dunes in southernFrance. BARK Dark with red, brown,black, and buff tones; thick, scaly, andfissured. LEAF Needles, usually in pairs,green to yellow green, with fine lines.FLOWER Males: yellow, at base of shoots;females: red, in clusters at the ends ofshoots. FRUIT Long, oval, glossy browncones, in small clusters.

Pinus pinaster

cone 31⁄2–7 in(9–18 cm) long

needle 43⁄4–10 in(12–25 cm) long

Pinus pinea

CONE

LEAVESANDFLOWERS

needle 14–7 in(0–18 cm) longcone 31⁄4–43⁄4 in

(8–12 cm) long

male flowercluster

A common ornamental, this pine has awide, low crown and a massive, straighttrunk, which sometimes splits into two ormore branches. BARK Smooth, gray,becoming rough and fissured, peeling offinto scales. LEAF Twisted needles,triangular in cross-section, dark greenabove, pale green beneath, borne denselyaround shoot in fives. FLOWER Males:clustered around shoot; females: at end ofshoot, pink-purple. FRUIT Cones, 2–3 in

(6–8 cm) long, ripenfrom green to purple.

yellow or brownmale flowers

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

Italian Stone Pine HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Europe

Maritime PineHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Mediterranean, N.W. Africa

This pine has a broad, domed crown, atall, bare trunk, and branches that radiateupward. BARK Pale brown, cracking intolong, flat plates. LEAF Needles, in pairs,gray-green, with fine lines on each side.FLOWER Golden males and green femalesin separate clusters at the ends of shoots.FRUIT Cones, ripening from green tobrown, containing edible “pine nuts.”

ITALIAN STONE PINEThe broad, domed crown and graceful, slender trunks of the Italian stone pine (Pinus pinea) are a characteristic feature of many Mediterraneanlandscapes. However, prized for its edible nuts, ithas also been widely planted elsewhere.

S E E D T R E E S86

LEAVES

The cones of this pine stay closed foryears, opening up only in the heat offorest fires. BARK Red- or yellow-brown;old trees have deep fissures and dark scales.LEAF Needles in pairs, 11⁄2 –2 in (4–5 cm)long, blue-green turning yellow-green inwinter. FLOWER Males: yellow; females:green. FRUIT Elongated brown cone.

The largest tree in the subalpine zone,this pine can be very long-lived. Theoldest specimen is the 4,789-year-old“Methuselah” tree in the WhiteMountains of California. BARK Red-brown, fissured. LEAF Deep yellow-green,needles in fives. FLOWER Males: purple-red; females: purple. FRUIT Red-brown,drooping cone, 21⁄4 –31⁄2 in (6–9 cm) long.

This invasive pine forms dense stands.BARK Gray, forming plates. LEAF Needles,in bundles of 3–5. FLOWER In clusters.Males: stalkless; females: conical. FRUIT Pale brown or reddish cone.

Pinus longaeva

Pinus caribaea

Pinus contorta

yellow-greenneedles6–10 in(15–25 cm) long

LEAVES AND FLOWERSLEAVES AND CONES

needle 5⁄8–11⁄4 in(1.5–3.5 cm) long

purple-redmale flowers

cone to 2 in (5 cm) long

This tree grows at higher altitudes than anyother pines. BARK Pale brown, with resinblisters when young. LEAF Stiff needles, infives, shiny green above, whitish beneath.FLOWER In clusters. Males: yellow; females:red. FRUIT Erect, egg-shaped cones.

Pinus cembra

Swiss Stone PineHEIGHT up to 70 ft (22 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Europe, Russia (Urals, Siberia)

needles2–31⁄4 in(5–8 cm)long

LEAVES

Caribbean Pitch PineHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Caribbean Islands, Mexico, Nicaragua

Lodgepole Pine HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America

Bristlecone PineHEIGHT up to 50 ft (16 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America

C O N I F E R S 87

The timber of this tree is a rich source ofresin. BARK Dark red to brown, resinous,thick, scaly, fissured. LEAF Needles, inbundles of three, 8–12 in (20–30 cm)long. FLOWER Males and females on sameplant. FRUIT Elongated cones, 4–8 in(10–20 cm) long.

With its straight trunk, thick bark, andslender branches, this pine is a usefulsource of timber. It needs plenty oflight. BARK Gray, thick.LEAF Twisted,slender, rigid, darkgreen needles inpairs, 4–6 in(10–15 cm) long,with pointed tips.FLOWER Males:3⁄8–5⁄8 in (1–1.5 cm)long, yellow, inclusters at base ofshoots; females:red, at shoot tips.FRUIT Cone,2–31⁄4 in (5–8 cm)long, green,ripening to gray-or yellow-buff,falling intact fromthe tree when ripe.

The Mexican pine prefers acid soil andplenty of moisture. Its timber is used forpulp. BARK Red-orange, becoming grey-brown and vertically ridged. LEAF Palegreen to yellow-green needles, in threesor fives. FLOWER Males and females onsame plant; females appearing a yearlater than males. FRUIT Brown or yellow-brown cones in groups of 3–6.

Pinus nigra Pinus patula

Pinus roxburghii

LEAVES AND CONESneedles 6–10 in(15–25 cm) long

cone 23⁄4–4 in(7–10 cm) long

Pinus strobus

LEAVES AND CONEScone 31⁄4–8 in(8–20 cm) long

needle 21⁄4–4 in(6–10 cm) long

Also called the Weymouth pine, this treewas once extensively logged to constructships’ masts. BARK Gray, becomingfurrowed with purple-tinged rectangularplates. LEAF Needles, in bundles of five.FLOWER Males: yellow, in clusters at thebase of shoots; females: pinkish, in pairsat the end of shoots. FRUIT Banana-shaped, pale brown cones, in clusters.

Austrian Pine HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Mediterranean mountains

Mexican PineHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico

Eastern White PineHEIGHT up to 215 ft (65 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. North America

Chir PineHEIGHT up to 180 ft (55 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Himalayas

BRISTLECONE PINEBristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva) are typically foundin barren landscapes such as this on the slopes ofMount Washington, Nevada. The wood of this pinedecays extremely slowly; some wood on the groundmay be over 10,000 years old.

S E E D T R E E S90

Pinus sylvestris

The Scotch pine is one of only threeconifers native to the British Isles, althoughit is distributed in many other parts of theworld. It grows well on poor sandy soil,and it tolerates a remarkably wide rangeof climatic conditions, from the warmsummers of southern Europe, to thebitterly cold winters of Siberia.

Scotch PineHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Asia

Its wood is strong, yet easily worked, andis used to make saw logs, veneers, andtelephone poles. BARK Red-brown, turning purple-gray, with deep fissures.LEAF Blue-green twisted needles, 2–3 in(5–7.5 cm) long, in pairs, with white waxylines on both surfaces. FLOWER Males:yellow, in clusters at the base of shoots;females: crimson, in pairs at the ends ofshoots. FRUIT Small egg-shaped cones,

with broad scales, each ending in a raised peak; glossy green,

ripening to brown inthe second fall.

LEAVES,FLOWERS,AND CONES

cone 11⁄4–23⁄4 in(3–7 cm) long

CROSSBILL

LIVING ON PINE SEEDS

The Scottish crossbill, an endangered species, isrestricted to the highlands of Scotland, and dependsheavily on Scotch pine seeds for its food. Its curvedmandibles cross over when the bill is closed, enablingthe bird to pry open pine cones and get at the seeds.The female is dullgreenish, whilethe male isbright orange-red in color.

female flowers

maleflower

C O N I F E R S 91

The wood of this hemlock is used forbuilding and making boxes. The bark hasa high tannin content. BARK Red-brown,turning purple-brown, flaking. LEAF Blunt-tipped needles, dark green above, with twoblue-white bands below; unpleasant smellwhen crushed. FLOWER Reddish; males:under shoot, turn pale yellow when pollenis shed; females: at shoot tips. FRUIT Smallbronze green to brown oval cones, withrounded scales.

The hard, durable wood of this conifer isused for buildings and to make tea chests.BARK Orange or pink-brown, cracks withage. LEAF Needles in fives, 6–8 in(15–20 cm) long, green on top, bluish white lines below.FLOWER Males:yellow, inclusters;females: green-yellow in groupsof up to six.FRUIT Longcones, maturefrom green topale brown.

Named afterplant collector DavidDouglas, this tall fir isvalued for its fine timber.BARK Dark gray or purple,fissured. LEAF Soft, greenneedles; two white bandsbeneath. FLOWER Males:yellow, beneath shoots;females: red, on shoot tips. FRUIT Pendent cone,pale brown.

Tsuga heterophylla

Pinus wallichiana Pseudotsuga menziesii

Bhutan PineHEIGHT up to 160 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Himalayas

Douglas FirHEIGHT up to 325 ft (100 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America

Western HemlockHEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. North America

Eastern HemlockHEIGHT 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. North America

Tsuga canadensis

LEAVES AND CONES

Cultivated as an ornamental, with manybushy dwarf forms, the eastern hemlockgrows well on chalky soil. Its timber isused for pulp. BARK Gray, ridged, flaking.LEAF Twisted needles on yellow stalks, in three ranks, minute teeth on edges,especially near tip; dark green above,narrow silvery bands beneath; fruity smellwhen crushed. FLOWER Males yellow;females green. FRUIT Small, oval coneson short stalks.

female flowersin clusters

cone 5⁄8–1 in(1.5–2.5 cm) long

needle to 3⁄4 in(2 cm) long

wide-tippedscales

three-prongedbracts

LEAVES AND CONE

CONE

cone 2–31⁄4 in(5–8 cm) long

S E E D T R E E S92

Sacred to Aboriginals, this tree is valuedfor its large, hard-shelled, edible nuts.BARK Dark brown to black. LEAF Ovaladult leaves, overlapping on branchlets.FLOWER Males cylindrical, females round.FRUIT Huge cone, weighing 51⁄2 lb (10 kg),dark green, with50–100 seeds.

This tree has a rounded, flat crown whenit grows above the forest canopy. TheMaoris used its wood for making canoes.BARK Sheds thick flakes. LEAF Alternate,straplike. FLOWER Clustered. Males:cylindrical; females: spherical, gray-green. FRUIT Cone.

Araucaria columnaris

Agathis australis Agathis robusta

Araucaria bidwillii

thick green foliage

gray to purple mottled barkBARK

This tree is also known as the coral pine.BARK Dark brown to black. LEAF Needle-like juveniles; adults more triangular.FLOWER Male cone: single, oblong, 8 in(20 cm) long; females: 4–6 in (10–15 cm)long. FRUIT Large, egg-shaped seed cone.

This tree grows on the margins ofrainforests. BARK Orange- to gray-brown,smooth to flaky. LEAF Stiff, linear to ellipticadult leaves, 2–5 in (5–13 cm) long. FLOWER Males cylindrical; females pear-shaped. FRUIT Cones, 4–6 in (9–15 cm)long, that release winged seeds.

conicalcrown

KauriHEIGHT up to 160 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New Zealand

Queensland KauriHEIGHT up to 160 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (Queensland)

Bunya-bunyaHEIGHT up to 160 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (S.E. and N. Queensland)

Cook PineHEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South New Caledonia,Loyalty Islands

C O N I F E R S 93

Araucaria araucana

Monkey PuzzleHEIGHT 100–130 ft (30–40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Chile, S.W. Argentina

This species is now protected in the wild, and is mainly used as a popularornamental in cool temperate regions.BARK Gray-brown and resinous. It issmooth and marked by rings from old branch scars. LEAF Scalelike,persisting for 10–15 years, evenon the trunk; broadlytriangular, 5⁄16–1 in(0.8–2.5 cm) wide, shinygreen on both sides,with sharp spines.

FLOWER Male cones are erect, yellow-brown, 23⁄4–6 in (7–15 cm) long and 2 in (5 cm) wide, with 20 whorled scalesthat have outward-curving points; femalecones are globelike, green, 4–7 in(10–18 cm) long and 31⁄4–6 in (8–15 cm)wide. FRUIT Spherical seed cone hasoverlapping spiny bracts, ripento brown in 2–3 years.

old maleflower

developing flowercluster

roundedcrown

THE PEHUENCHE

The Pehuenche people of Chileconsume the seeds of the monkeypuzzle tree as a staple food. The nuts are rich in nutrients anddelicious when cooked. These seedsare also used as animal fodder. Thetree is important in the harvest andfertility ceremonies of thePehuenche people.

leaf with sharpspines

MONKEY PUZZLEThis ancient stand of monkey puzzle trees (Araucariaaraucana) is in the Malacahuello National Reserve,Chile. Trees of the Araucaria family are now foundonly in the Southern Hemisphere, although they wereonce widespread in the Northern Hemisphere as well.

This conifer is used as an ornamental andplantation tree in Australia. The qualityof its white to light brown timber isexcellent, especially for plywood. BARK Gray-brown, rough, with horizontalbands; flakes in fine circular bands. LEAF Juvenile leaves arranged spirally onbranches, gray-green to green, withsmooth edges; adult leaves overlapping on branches, keeled on both sides,scalelike, 5⁄16–3⁄4 in (0.8–2 cm) long.FLOWER Males: cylindrical, 3⁄4–11⁄4 in (2–3 cm) long; females: more oval, 31⁄4–4 in (8–10 cm) long. FRUIT Ovalcone up to 4 in (10 cm) long, releasesseeds with narrow wings when mature.

Araucaria cunninghamii

Moreton Bay PineHEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (N. Queensland toNew South Wales), W. New Guinea

Klinki Pine HEIGHT up to 275 ft (85 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Papua New Guinea

Araucaria hunsteinii

A pyramidal tree when young, the Klinkipine becomes flat-topped with age. It isan endangered species. BARK Darkbrown, resinous, flakes in corky plates.LEAF Juvenile leaves awl-shaped; adultleaves lanceolate, 21⁄4 –6 in (6–15 cm) long,flat. FLOWER Males: narrow, cylindrical;females: oval. FRUIT Ovalcone up to 8 in (20 cm) long.

Araucaria heterophylla

This ornamental tree has branchlets inwhorls of 4–7. BARK Gray-brown. LEAF Awl-shaped juvenile leaves; scalelikemature leaves. FLOWER Males: in clusters,11⁄2 in (4 cm) long, yellow-brown or reddish;females: broader than long, with triangularscales and a bract. FRUIT Cone, releasingwinged seeds.

bright greenmature leaves

Norfolk Island PineHEIGHT 165–230 ft (50–70 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Norfolk Island (east of Australia)

C O N I F E R S 97

Used as an ornamental, this spreading treecan be shrubby. It grows at altitudes up to3,000 ft (900 m). BARK Grayish, flakes instrips. LEAF Needles in two rows, curvingupward to a V-shaped trough, glossy greenabove, two light bands beneath. FLOWER Yellow; females largerthan males. FRUIT Oval, plumlike cone.

This yew was used by American Indiansto make weapons and implements. Itsfoliage, seeds, and bark are poisonous butare also a source of taxol, an anticancerdrug. BARK Scaly, purplish brown outerscales and reddish purple inner scales.LEAF Whorled, linear, 5⁄16–11⁄2 in (0.8–3.5 cm) long, green, two yellow-greenbands beneath. FLOWER Males: paleyellow; females: tiny green globes. FRUIT Oval seed in fleshy red coating.

The fruit of the yew plum pine has afleshy, footlike base, giving rise to the genusname, Podocarpus, which means “foot” and“fruit” in Greek. BARK Gray, red, andbrown, long flakes. LEAF Alternate,lanceolate, green above, gray-green below. FLOWER Males: in conelike catkins,11⁄4 in (3 cm) long; females: solitary. FRUIT Round green or purplish cone, 3⁄8 in(1 cm) wide, with an outer fleshy layer.

An attractive ornamental, this tree is sacredin Japan. Its wood is water-resistant. BARK Red-brown, thick, soft, and stringy.LEAF Brown scale leaves on stem; fleshyneedles in clusters of 10–30 at shoot nodes,glossy green above. FLOWER Males: yellow,in dense clusters; females: oval, green,solitary. FRUIT Fragile cone, ripens tobrown; orange-brown seeds.

Taxus brevifolia

Podocarpus macrophyllus Sciadopitys verticillata

LEAVES

Yew Plum PineHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Japan

Umbrella PineHEIGHT 65–100 ft (20–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Japan

California Yew HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America (N.W. Pacific coast)

Plum Yew HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Japan

Cephalotaxus harringtonia

FEMALEFLOWERS

yellowflowers

11⁄2–21⁄2 in(3.5–6.5 cm)long

CONE

maleflower

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

maleflowers

S E E D T R E E S98

Taxus baccata

The English yew tree has poisonous bark, leaves, and seeds. It is a symbol ofeternal life in several religious traditions,perhaps because it is evergreen,exceptionally long-lived, and resistant todecay, thus uniting death (by poison) toeternal life. It thrives on chalky soil. BARK Smooth, red-brown with patchyflakes that reveal purple-red underbark.LEAF Needles, in two ranks on horizontalbranches but in spirals on upright shoots,linear, glossy dark green above with twogray-green bands below, ridged midrib.FLOWER Catkins, males and females on

separate trees. Males: spherical, beneathshoots; females: like tiny buds, near shoot ends. FRUIT Aril enclosing a singlebrown seed.

MALE FLOWERCLUSTERS

RIPE AND UNRIPEFRUIT

T. BACCATA‘LUTEA’

yellowfruit

bright redripe fruit

needle 3⁄8–11⁄4 in(1–3 cm) long

pale yellowmale flowers

THE LONGBOW

The close-grained wood ofthe yew has elasticproperties and was valuedfor making longbows inthe Middle Ages. The

English used these bows,capable of piercing armor,

to defeat French forces in theBattle of Agincourt in 1415.

Yew wood was in such demand forbow-making that local supplies weresoon exhausted.

English Yew HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

C O N I F E R S 99

Cultivated as an ornamental, this tree is also valued for its versatile timber. BARK Reddish brown, stringy. LEAF Tiny,overlapping scales in sprays, in fourranks, dark green above, paler beneath.FLOWER Males: red to purple with redpollen sacs; females: green, budlike.FRUIT Cones, dull purple to red-brown,with 8–10 scales in pairs, each scalecontaining 2–4 seeds.

This ornamental tree is especially valued forits timber in Japan. BARK Reddish brown,

vertical strips. LEAF Sharp-tipped scales, glossy greenabove, white marks beneath.FLOWER Males pale brown;females green. FRUIT Cone.

This prickly tree thrives in moist places. Itsleaves exude a strong odor when crushed.BARK Gray to gray-brown. LEAF Needles,shiny green above, two white groovesbeneath. FLOWER Males: yellowish white;

females: green.FRUIT Seed

in fleshy aril.

This tree is named for its aromatic leaves. BARK Pale reddish brown. LEAF Shiny green and scalelike,in flattened, vertical sprays.FLOWER Males red-brown topale brown; females red togolden brown. FRUIT Cone,with up to four seeds.

FLOWERS AND LEAVESBRANCH WITHCONES

Chamaecyparis pisifera

Torreya californica Calocedrus decurrens

BARK

BRANCH WITHRIPE CONES

Chamaecyparis lawsoniana

verticalfissures

sphericalmaleflowers

leaf 1⁄16–1⁄8 in(2–3 mm)long

cone 5⁄16–43⁄4 in(8–12 mm)wide

leaf to 1⁄8 in(3 mm) long

mature opencone

California Nutmeg HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE United States (California)

Incense Cedar HEIGHT 60–150 ft (18–46 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. United States, Mexico

Port Orford CedarHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE United States (S.W. Oregon to N.W. California)

Japanese FalseCypressHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Japan

BARK

S E E D T R E E S100

In Japan, this is the most important timbertree and is widely planted around temples.BARK Reddish brown to dark gray, peelingin strips. LEAF Pale green needles in spirals.FLOWER Males: plum-red, in racemes;females: green, rosette-like, in groups of 1–6. FRUIT Spherical cone.

Mexican CypressHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras

This unusual tree is a rarity in thewild, where it is stunted. It oftengrows tall in cultivation.BARK Yellowish brown.LEAF Scalelike, in sprays.FLOWER Males: yellow,egg-shaped; females:green, oblong. FRUIT Spherical cone.

Italian CypressHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mediterranean region

Monterey Cypress HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE United States (California)

cone ripensto brown RIPE

CONE

BARK

male flowers 3⁄16 in (5 mm)long

Japanese CedarHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Japan, China

This narrowly conical tree has an open,sometimes weeping, habit. BARK Reddishor grayish brown, thick. LEAF In fourranks, bluish green. FLOWER In clusters;

males yellow-brown; femalesblue-white. FRUIT Cone.

A common ornamental, planted aroundthe world, this tree grows well on alkalineand acid soil. Its wood is durable andeasily worked. BARK Gray, smooth,turning gray-brown and furrowedwith age. LEAF Scalelike, tiny, lessthan 1⁄24 in (1 mm) long, dullgreen. FLOWER Males yellow-brown; females green.FRUIT Short-stalked,glossy brown to graycone, with 8–14wavy edged scales inpairs, brown seeds.

tiny, scale-like leaves

longitudinalfissures

Cryptomeria japonica Cupressus lusitanica

Cupressus sempervirensCupressus macrocarpa

LEAVES ANDCONES

RIPECONE

roundedin shape

FOLIAGE AND CONES

MATURECONES

gray-brownwhen ripe

cone3⁄4–1⁄4 in(2–3 cm)long

C O N I F E R S 101

Widely planted as garden hedges andscreening, this fast-growing conifer is a hybrid between the Nootka cypress(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and theMonterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa),trees from different genera. The firstseedlings were planted in Britain by C. J. Leyland, after whom this tree was

Leyland Cypress HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Britain

LEAVES ANDYOUNG CONES

Juniper oil was used with cedar oil by the ancient Egyptians for embalming. The berrylike fruits were usedmedicinally in medieval times, and arestill used to flavor gin. When crushed, theleaves smell of apple or gin. BARK Red-brown, with papery sheets that peel in

strips. LEAF Flattened, awl-shapedneedles, in whorls of three;

concave, blue-green above,with a broad, waxy band; palegray beneath, with a bluntkeel. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate plants.

Males yellow; femalesgreen, budlike in leafaxils. FRUIT Spherical,fleshy berrylike cone,taking three years toripen from green toblue to black.

Common JuniperHEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE North America, Europe

cone 3⁄4 in(2 cm)wide

conical crownRIPE FRUIT

1⁄4–11⁄32 in(6–9 mm) wide

needles3⁄16– 3⁄4 in(0.5–2 cm)long

sharp tips

named. This specieshas ascending, nearlyvertical branches. BARK Reddish brown,with shallow fissures.LEAF Densely packed,overlapping onshoots, scalelike, insprays, up to 1⁄16 in(2 mm) long; green,yellow, or grayish. FLOWER Both inclusters at thetips of shoots;males yellow andfemales green. FRUIT Sphericalcone, with fourscales in pairs.

x Cupressocyparis leylandii

Juniperus communis

S E E D T R E E S102

This tree was only known from fossilrecords until specimens were found inChina in 1941. BARK Peels vertically in stringy flakes. LEAF Soft, needlelike,flat, borne on deciduous branchlets; brightgreen at first, turning dark green, and laterred-brown in fall. FLOWER Males: catkin-like in pairs on stalks, yellow, tiny, oval; females: in hangingclusters, green, rounded. FRUIT Pendent cones,turning woody and darkbrown when ripe.

LEAVES AND CONES

Dawn RedwoodHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

Metasequoia glyptostroboides

Also called the pencil cedar because itswood was used to make pencils, this treehas a slender profile and is the tallest ofthe junipers. Its wood is light, soft, andaromatic. It is durable and resists attackby insects. For this reason it has been usedto make mothproof linings for cupboards.BARK Reddish to grayish brown, peelingvertically. LEAF Juvenile leaves: needlelike,up to 1⁄4 in (6 mm) long, in threes at shoottips; mature leaves: scalelike, 1⁄32–1⁄8 in(1–3 mm) long, overlapping, below shoottips. FLOWER Yellow males and greenfemales on separate shoots. FRUIT Smooth,oval cone, ripens to violet-brown.

BARK

BARK

Eastern Red CedarHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. North America

Juniperus virginiana

FRUIT

unripe cone

conical habit

peels inlong strips

cone 1⁄8 – 3⁄16 in (3–5 cm) long

conical tocolumnarhabit

LEAVES

leaf up to 1 in(2.5 cm) long

orange-brown

C O N I F E R S 103

Sequoia sempervirens

The largest tree in the world, althoughnot the tallest, this conifer can weigh up to2,000 tons. In the Sierra Nevada, it has alifespan of up to 3,000 years. BARK Up to20 in (50 cm) thick, fibrous, with ridges.LEAF Sharp-pointed, scalelike, 3⁄16–5⁄16 in(5–8 mm) long, gray-green.FLOWER Males: pale green,round to oval, at tips ofshoots; females: green,oval, at stem tips. FRUIT Barrel-shapedpendent cone.

The world’s tallest tree, the Californiaredwood can live for over 2,000 years. It is named after a Cherokee Indian,Sequoyah. BARK Red-brown, tough,fibrous, deeply furrowed with broad, scalyridges. LEAF Sharp-pointed needles, shinydark green above with two white bandsbeneath. FLOWER In separate clusters onthe same tree; males: yellow-brown,rounded; females: red-brown, budlike.FRUIT Diamond-shaped seed cone.

Giant SequoiaHEIGHT up to 300 ft (90 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE United States (California)

Sequoiadendron giganteum

California RedwoodHEIGHT up to 360 ft (110 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE U.S. (S.W. Oregon, N.W. California)

SHOOTS WITH FLOWERSflowers at endsof shoots

LEAVES AND BUDS

BARK

UNRIPECONE

2–31⁄4 in (5–8 cm)long

male flower budsred–brown

GIANT SEQUIOAThese giant sequioas (Sequoiadendron giganteum),photographed at the Jedediah Smith State Park inCalifornia, are among the world’s tallest trees. Their lofty canopy casts dense shade, but shafts ofsunlight penetrate gaps where trees have died.

106

Freshwater swamps are this tree’s nativehabitat. BARK Pale brown, furrowed,stringy, peeling at base. LEAF Alternate,80–100 in two ranks on each branchlet;slender, short, flattened. FLOWER Males:yellow, in hanging catkins; females: green,in small clusters on the same plant asmales. FRUIT Rounded cone with smallspines, green ripening to purple.

This medium-sized conifer is tolerant ofhot conditions, and is often seen on dry,rocky hillsides. It is renowned for its resinand “thuya burls,” outgrowths formed on the roots of the tree due to fungalinfection. These are golden red and arehighly valued in Morocco. The wood isaromatic, heavy, and oily, turns well, andhas a high shine. BARK Peeling in long,slender strips. LEAF Scale leaves in whorlsof four on vertical, dull green branchlets,with horizontal bands. FLOWER Malesyellow and females green; inconspicuous.

FRUIT Cones withtwo pairs ofsmooth scalescontaining eightred-brown seeds.

Arar TreeHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Spain, Morocco, Malta,Algeria, Tunisia

Bald Cypress HEIGHT up to 160 ft (50 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. United States

FRUIT

This usually shrubby tree has several mainbranches emerging from the base. It hasbeen extensively cultivated in the past in itsnative regions. It is long-lived; some treesin China are believed to be over 1,000

years old. BARK Red-brown to pale gray-

brown, thin, flaking in long strips. LEAF Scalelike, with

blunt tips, overlapping infour ranks on shoots.

FLOWER Males andfemales on the sametree. Males: yellow-

green, oval, 1⁄16–1⁄8 in (2–3 mm) long;females: at end of shoots, blue-green,round, 1⁄8 in (3 mm) wide. FRUIT Cones,red-brown when ripe, flat, thick, woody,with 6–8 scales; seeds wingless, gray topurple-brown, with ridges.

FOLIAGE

Chinese ArborvitaeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Korea, E. Russia

Platycladus orientalis

Tetraclinis articulataTaxodium distichum

unripecone

conical habit

S E E D T R E E S

SHOOTcone to 3⁄4 in

(2 cm) long

107

ArborvitaeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. North America

Western Red CedarHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. North America

This tree is well-adapted to its snowyhabitat with its hanging foliage that allowsheavy snow to slide off. BARK Grayishbrown, fissured irregularly. LEAF Scalelike,dark green above, yellow-green beneath,

overlapping. in fourranks, thick.

FLOWER Malesgray-brown;

females green.FRUIT Darkred-brown,waxy cone,with 4–6

scales.

Yellow CedarHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. North America

This tree is valued for its soft, durablewood. BARK Red- or gray-brown, fibrous.LEAF Scalelike, in four ranks, dark greenabove, pale beneath. FLOWER Males red;females yellow-green. FRUIT Oval cone.

leaf 1⁄16–3⁄16 in(2–5 mm) long

FLATTENEDLEAF SPRAY

Xanthocyparis nootkatensisThujopsis dolobrata

Thuja occidentalis Thuja plicata

white patch onunderside of leaf

dense,pyramidalhabit

Hiba ArborvitaeHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Japan

C O N I F E R S

open cones on branchlet

droopingbranches

scalelikeleaves

Also known as false arborvitae, the Hibais one of the five sacred trees of Japan.BARK Red-brown, peeling in strips. LEAF Scalelike, 1⁄8–1⁄4 in (4–7 mm) longand 1⁄16 in (2 mm) wide, shiny, broad patchbeneath. FLOWER Males: cylindrical,

blackish green; females:blue-gray. FRUIT Oval

cone, with 6–8 scales. LEAVESANDCONES

Found in swampy areas, this conical, multi-stemmed tree is grown as anornamental. BARK Red-brown, fissured.LEAF In four ranks, dark green above,yellow-green beneath, apple-scented. FLOWER Males: red-brown, on shoot tips;females: green or purple, on tips ofbranchlets. FRUIT Oval brown cone.

BALD CYPRESSThis large tree grows in the freshwater swamps of the southeastern United States. In its naturalhabitat, oxygen is scarce in the water. Bald cypress(Taxodium distichum) thrives because it pushes upaerial roots from its root system.

The term “angiosperm” is derivedfrom the Greek for “vessel” (angeion)and “seed” (sperma) and refers to thefact that all the trees in this groupproduce seeds, which are enclosed ina “vessel,” known as a carpel, to forma fruit. Although commonly calledflowering plants, the fact that allangiosperms have flowers is not themain distinction between them andthe gymnosperms.

A major difference betweenangiosperms and gymnosperms suchas conifers is the origin of the foodsource for the seed. In angiosperms,two sperm are released from thepollen tube. One fertilizes the egg, the other enters the central cell,which develops into a structureknown as the endosperm. Thisprovides nourishment for the seed

FLOWERING TREESFlowering trees belong to the angiosperm group of plants. They firstappeared about 100 million years ago in the Cretaceous period. Theyare diverse in form and habitat—from spreading oaks in temperateforests to leafless, desert-loving cacti. This diversity, alongside otherfactors, could account for theirundoubted success.

FROM FLOWERS TO FRUITAngiosperms all produce fruit, but some species suchas the Sweet Orange (Citrus sinensis) and have beenselectively cultivated for the sweet edible pulp thatsurrounds the seeds.

parallelveins

MONOCOTYLEDON LEAF

after germination. In gymnosperms,the tissue that surrounds the eggnourishes the seed before it isfertilized. Angiosperm seeds areenclosed in fruits. The fruits can bedry or succulent. Dry fruits take theform of follicles, capsules, or pods.Succulent fruits include berries,

drupes, or pomes. There are three types of

angiosperms: primitiveangiosperms (page112), monocotyledons(page 123), anddicotyledons (page141).

VENATIONThe leaves of angiosperms are veined: those ofmonocotyledons have parallel venation; those ofdicotyledons have a branching network of veins.

branchedveins

DICOTYLEDON LEAF

JACARANDA INBLOSSOMA colorful and often fragrant display of flowersserves the vital purpose ofattracting pollinating insects,birds, or bats.

These angiosperms first appeared in the Cretaceous Period. Primitiveangiosperms are often evergreen andwoody, and may have their oftensimple, leathery leaves arranged in a spiral or alternately, as in nutmeg(Myristica fragrans). Some plants in thisgroup have no vessels in the xylem.Many are aromatic, such aspond apple (Annona glabra)and Winter’s bark(Drimys winteri).

The flowers of the primitiveangiosperms are showy and tend tobe radially symmetrical with petalsand sepals that are difficult todifferentiate (called tepals). Theevolution of flowering plants closelyparalleled that of insects. “Primitive”flowers, like those of magnolia trees,are often pollinated by “primitive”

insects such as beetles.

PRIMITIVE ANGIOSPERMS

large tepals

numerousstamens

PRIMITIVE FLOWER Southern magnolia (Magnoliagrandiflora) flowers are typical

of this group in that they have

tepals and manystamens.

This small group represents the earliest flowering trees.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Illicium verum

boat-shapedseed pods

untoothedmargins

glossy brownseeds

LEAVESFRUIT

Star AniseHEIGHT up to 26 ft (8 m)

TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. China, Vietnam

112

This aromatic tree is valued for the oilobtained from its fruit. This is mainlyused as a culinary spice and hasmedicinal properties. BARK White to gray. LEAF Alternate, lanceolate, glossydark green above, dull paler greenbeneath. FLOWER Pale yellow, with morethan 15 strap-shaped petals. FRUIT Star-shaped, with 5–10 rust-colored seed podscontaining hard seeds.

P R I M I T I V E A N G I O S P E R M S 113

Canella winterana

This tree is named after Captain WilliamWinter, who sailed with the Englishseaman Sir Francis Drake in the 16thcentury. The bark is used to treat digestiveailments. The leaves have a peppery odorwhen crushed. BARK Reddish brown,smooth, aromatic. LEAF Alternate, oval,leathery, up to 8 in (20 cm) long, brightglossy green above, paler beneath.

FLOWER In clusters of up to 10 on branch tips; 5–7white to cream petals, redsepals. FRUIT Small, round,green seed pod, ripening topurple-black, in clusters at the ends of long stalks; black seeds.

green, thick, obovate, up to 8 in (20 cm)long. FLOWER Red to purple and white.FRUIT Bright red, round, fleshy berry, lessthan 3⁄8 in (1 cm) wide.

A salt-tolerant species, wild cinnamon isused as an ornamental for its showyflowers. It has rich, dense foliage, whichprovides pleasant shade. The trunk growsstraight up through the center of thecanopy and develops thin branches thatgrow no more than 4 ft (1.2 m) long. Thearomatic inner bark and leaves are usedin tonics and condiments. The leaves arealso used as a medicinal tea. The berriesare peppery when dried and crushed.BARK Gray-brown. LEAF Opposite, olive

FLOWERING TREE

Wild CinnamonHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. US (Florida)

yellow stamens

purplish buds

FLOWERS

LEAVESANDFRUIT

Drimys winteri

flowers inbranchedclusters

FLOWERS

unripe fruit

whitish greenunderside

Winter’s BarkHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Argentina, Chile

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S114

The spices nutmeg and mace are bothproduced by this tree. Middle Easterntraders brought these products tosouthern Europe in the 6th century. By the 12th century, these spices werewell known throughout Europe. ThePortuguese found nutmeg trees in theMolucca Islands and dominated the trade until the Dutch gained ascendencyin the 17th century. BARK Grayish;exudes yellow juice. LEAF Alternate, oval,pointed, dark green, shiny above, 3⁄4–23⁄4 in(2–7 cm) wide, leaf stalks 3⁄8 in (1 cm)long. FLOWER Pale yellow, waxy, fleshy,and bell-shaped; usually unisexual with

BARK

A VERSATILE SPICE

Nutmeg, a spice with a sweet smell, comes from thehard seeds of the nutmeg fruit. It is used to flavorcakes, puddings, and some drinks.The oil is used to make perfume andto flavor tobacco. The nutmeg alsocontains a thick, yellow fat callednutmeg butter, used to make candles,and is an important ingredient insalves and medicines.Medicinally, nutmeg hasbeen used for thousands ofyears for headaches andfever, and as a digestiveaid and aphrodisiac.

Myristica fragrans

smooth texture

2–6 in (5–15 cm) long

21⁄4–31⁄2 in (6–9 cm)long

FRUIT ANDLEAVES

male and female flowers found ondifferent trees; males, up to 3⁄16–7⁄32 in(5–7 mm) long, are in groups of

one to ten; females, up to 3⁄8 in (1 cm)long are in groups of three.

FRUIT Drupe, which is similar to anapricot, fleshy, yellow, and smooth, with alongitudinal ridge. When ripe, it splits inhalf, revealing a purplish brown oval seed(nutmeg), 3⁄4–11⁄4 in (2–3 cm) longencased in a red covering (mace).

NUTMEGANDMACE

LEAF

NutmegHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Molucca Islands (otherwise known as Spice Islands)

P R I M I T I V E A N G I O S P E R M S 115

ChampakHEIGHT up to 110 ft (33 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, India

Southern MagnoliaHEIGHT up to 90 ft (27 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US coast (from North Carolina to Florida and east to Texas)

TuliptreeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. United States

CROSS-SECTIONOF FRUIT

flower 11⁄2–2 in(4–5 cm) wide

leaf 4–8 in(10–20 cm)long

LEAVES WITHFLOWER

immature fruitreceptacle

leaf 15–8 in(3–20 cm) long

Magnolia champaca Magnolia grandiflora

This tree has a pyramidal crown with astraight trunk. BARK Pale gray-green withwhite grooves or patches. LEAF Alternate,palmately veined, and four-lobed. FLOWER Showy, with six petals, pale greenat the edge and deep orange at the center.FRUIT Conelike group of woody, one-seeded fruit with one wing.

This magnolia is the state flower ofMississippi and Louisiana. Its timber issometimes used for veneers. BARK Brownto gray, thin, smooth, later developingscales. LEAF Alternate, pinnately veined,leathery, dark glossy above, with a rusty,velvety underside. FLOWER Showy,fragrant white flowers, 8–12 in (20–30 cm)wide. FRUIT Bright red, kidney-shapedseeds that hang from a red-brown cone-like structure that is 2–4 in (5–10 cm) long.

LEAVES WITH BUD

Essentially a timber tree, the champak is also grown in India as an ornamental,where its flowers are used for adornment.The aromatic orange blooms appearnearly year-round. Essential oil extractedfrom the flowers is used in expensiveperfumes. BARK Pale gray, smooth, 3⁄4 in(2 cm) thick. LEAF Alternate, lanceolate,glossy above and dull beneath with a3⁄4–11⁄4-in (2–3-cm) leaf stalk. FLOWER Yellow with three sepals,six strap-shaped petals, and anelongated receptacle. There is also a white variety. FRUIT Oval, greenish, with angular seeds.

LEAF

FRUIT

5–10 in(13–25 cm)long

Liriodendron tulipifera

fleshy seedcovering

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S116

The fleshy, creamy fruit of this tree isconsidered a delicacy. BARK Gray-brown,smooth. LEAF Alternate, oval to lanceolate,3–6 in (7.5–15 cm) long. FLOWER Stalked,three green outer petals, three pinkishinner petals. FRUIT Pale green, spottedberry, with black, glossy seeds.

FRUIT

All parts of this tree are used fortraditional remedies. BARK Red-brown.LEAF Alternate, oval to elliptical, pointedat ends. FLOWER Single, three yellow-green outer petals, three pale yellow innerpetals. FRUIT Heart-shaped berry,4–12 in (10–30 cm) long.

Annona cherimola Annona muricata

Annona glabra

LEAVES

4–8 in (10–20 cm) long

glossy darkgreen

21⁄4–8 in (6–20 cm) long

The pond apple is one of the few treesthat is equally at home on riverbanks, in freshwater wetlands, and in brackishcoastal mud. Its fruit and seeds bothfloat—a feature that helps to make it ahighly invasive species in some parts ofthe tropics. BARK Gray and flaky. LEAF Alternate, 3–5 in (7.5–12.5 cm) long,leathery, bright green above and palerbelow, aromatic. FLOWER Solitary, 1 in (2.5 cm) wide, creamy white to pale yellow,with three leathery outer petals and threesmaller inner petals. FRUIT Berry thatlooks like a green apple, broad at the base;aromatic and fleshy when mature,containing about 140 pumpkinlike seeds.

red inner base

SOLITARYFLOWER

RIPE FRUIT3–5 in(7.5–12.5 cm) long

oval to ellipticalleaf

CherimoyaHEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE Deciduous OCCURRENCE Central America

SoursopHEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America, Caribbean, introduced in S.E. Asia

Pond Apple HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE Americas, W. Africa

P R I M I T I V E A N G I O S P E R M S 117

FOLIAGE AND FLOWERS

Valued for its fleshy, nutritious fruit, thistree is also known as papaw. The

fruit has a short shelf-life, but doesnot require toxic chemicals for cultivation because it

contains a natural insecticide.BARK Gray-brown, smooth, with wartlikelenticels. LEAF Alternate, pale green, ovalto kite-shaped, 2–3 in (5–7.5 cm) wide.FLOWER Bell-shaped, 2–3 in (5–7.5 cm)wide, with six petals, appearing slightlybefore or with the leaves. FRUIT Greenberry that resembles a banana, ripeningto yellow and brown.

Also called the perfume tree, the ylang-ylang is famous for the fragrant oil madefrom its flowers. The oil is used in perfumesand in aromatherapy; it is said to have acalming effect. Coco Chanel introducedChanel No. 5, a cologne redolent of thescent of this tree, in 1923. Various partsof the tree are used in traditional medicineto treat malaria and fevers. BARK Palegray. LEAF Alternate, oval, green. FLOWER Fragrant, in dense clusters in leaf axils, with six narrow yellow petals.FRUIT Small, oval, black berry thatresembles a grape; contains 6–12 seeds.

Asimina triloba

Cananga odorata

leaf 5–11 in (12.5–27.5 cm) long

purplish brownpetals

fruit 21⁄4–4 in(6–10 cm) long

FLOWERLEAF

trailing petals

pointed leaftip

YOUNG FRUITWITH LEAVES

FLOWER

RIPE FRUIT

Pawpaw HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

Ylang-ylang HEIGHT up to 70 ft (21 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Indonesia, Malaysia

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S118

Chlorocardium rodiei

This very large and dense forest tree is themost important timber species in Guyanaand has a high commercial value. Its woodis durable when in contact with seawaterand is used for building ships, docks, piers,

and wharves. Since the mid-20th century,the number of trees has declined due tooverexploitation of natural reserves andlimited success in establishing plantations,since the tree fruits only once every 15years. BARK Ash gray, smooth, dense.LEAF Smooth, leathery, 4–6 in (10–15 cm)long. FLOWER Small, whitish. FRUIT Nutwith a large, hard, and brittle pericarp,containing a single large, fleshy seed.

Greenheart HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, Brazil,introduced in Vietnam

FOLIAGE

The Indian willow, also known as the weeping ashoka, is oftenconfused with the sacred ashokatree (Sarca indica). The Indianwillow is a common roadside

tree in India and is widely used as anornamental for its weeping branchinghabit. It can be seen lining the avenue

leading to the Taj Mahal. A popularvariety is Polyalthia longifolia ‘Pendula’,

which has a very narrow, columnarshape. The parts of this tree are valuedfor their antimicrobial properties. BARK Brownish, smooth. LEAF Alternate,lanceolate, up to 8 in (20 cm) long, glossygreen, with wavy margins. FLOWER Star-shaped, pale green. FRUIT Round blackberry, 1 in (2.5 cm) wide.

Polyalthia longifolia

Indian Willow HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m)

TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India

KEEPING THE AIR CLEAN

Indian cities have become increasingly choked withtraffic in recent years. This has greatly increased airpollution, especially the concentration of lead, whichis highly toxic, in the air. The Indian willow isespecially useful because it readily absorbs leadfrom the air, thereby reducing lead pollution. Thismakes it a useful bioindicator, as analysis of theleaves can indicate the levels of atmospheric lead.

wavymargins

immatureberries

UNRIPE FRUIT

slender, glossyleaves

berries in clusters

P R I M I T I V E A N G I O S P E R M S 119

Cinnamomum verum

Cassia, a spice derived from the bark ofthis tree, is used as a flavoring agent,similar to cinnamon, though less prized.It is also used to repel vermin. The oil,which is distilled from the leaves, has astrong, penetrating smell and was valued

Cinnamon is cultivated in southern Indiafor its inner bark, which is used as a spice.Once more valuable than gold, this palebrown, aromatic spice was the mostprofitable spice in the Dutch East IndiaCompany trade. BARK Pale, pinkishbrown. LEAF Opposite, linear-oval, waxy,4–6 in (10–15 cm) long, and 11⁄2–31⁄4 in(4–8 cm) wide, with three parallel veins.FLOWER Yellow-green, in axillary clusters.FRUIT Oval drupe, 3⁄8 in (1 cm) long.

Cinnamomum aromaticum

in biblical times. BARK Gray, smooth. LEAF Long,lanceolate, leathery, reddish when young.FLOWER White, borne in loose umbels.FRUIT Elliptic, aromatic black drupe.

CINNAMONSTICKS

FRUIT

LEAF

thick leafstalks

borne on“cups”

to 1⁄2 in(1.5 cm) thick

LEAF

nearlyparallelveins

BARK

Cinnamon HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Asia

Cassia HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. China

FLOWER Creamyyellow and small,with six segments,hairy, scented. FRUIT Green tored, ribbed drupethat is about 21⁄4 in(6 cm) wide,containing a single large,round seed.

Also called the black walnut, this largetree has a spreading canopy and grows in the lowland and upland rainforests ofnorthern Queensland. Its timber is usedto make furniture and veneers. The seedof the fruit, although poisonous, is animportant traditional food for Aboriginalpeoples. After processing and cooking, itis said to taste like bread. BARK Silver-gray, smooth. LEAF Shiny green, ovate.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S120

Widely planted as an ornamental, thissturdy tree is resistant to fire and airpollution and also acts as an effectivewindbreak. It is easily distinguished by its leaves that smell of camphor whencrushed. The leaves, twigs, and wood are a source of camphor, which has been usedto treat ailments ranging from parasitic

Queensland WalnutHEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE Evergreen OCCURRENCE Australia (N. Queensland)

Endiandra palmerstonii

glossy greenleaves

FOLIAGE

greentingedwith red

YOUNG SHOOT

infections totoothaches. The woodis also prized forits red andyellow stripes. BARK Bright green,tinged with red,smooth, maturing to darkgray-brown, with an uneven surface.LEAF Alternate, oval, up to 5 in (12.5 cm)long, leathery, dark green and glossyabove, green and whitish beneath, with three distinct veins, aromatic.FLOWER Creamy yellow and tiny, in panicles that are smaller than the leaves. FRUIT Numerous, round blackberries, less than 3⁄8 in (1 cm)long, attached to panicles bycuplike green cones.

BARKshallow fissures

TRUNK

buttressedbase

Cinnamomum camphora

wavy margins

LEAVES

Camphor TreeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Japan

P R I M I T I V E A N G I O S P E R M S 121

A fast-growing tree, the avocado was firstcultivated in Central America, but it is nowgrown throughout the tropics. Its egg-shaped or pear-shaped fruits have yellowishflesh, with a buttery texture, which isexceptionally rich in proteins and oils. Inits native habitat, the tree sheds its leavesbriefly during the dry season, when itflowers. BARK Dark gray-brown, smooth.LEAF Alternate, glossy dark green above,whitish below, variable in shape.FLOWER Pale green to yellow-green, three petal-like lobes,with nine stamens; inracemes. FRUIT Yellowto black drupe, speckledwith yellow dots orraised spots.

Avocado HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE S. Mexico

Persea americana

pear-shapeddrupe

round to oval seed

dense foliage

FRUIT-BEARING BRANCHES

The bay laurel is the true laurel of Greekand Roman mythology. Consideredsacred to the god Apollo, it symbolizedvictory and merit. It was an honor to becrowned with a garland of fruiting laurelleaves, and even today, a baccalaureate(baca lauri, Latin for “laurel berry”)signifies achievement. The tree is nowgrown commercially for its aromaticleaves, which are used in cooking. BARK Shiny gray, smooth. LEAF Alternate, shiny dark green,leathery, 3–4 in (7.5–10 cm) long,with wavy margins, pointed tips,tapered base; red leaf stalks.

Bay LaurelHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N. Asia, Mediterranean

FLOWER Males andfemales on separatetrees, in clusters on leafaxils; small, yellow, withsix petals, males withnumerous stamens.FRUIT Black to purple,rounded, fleshy berry, up to 1⁄2 in (1.3 cm) long, on female plants.

berries ripen fromgreen to black

ellipticleaves broadly conical

habit

BRANCH WITHRIPE FRUIT

Laurus nobilis

RIPE FRUIT

MALEFLOWERSyellow

stamens

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S122

Sassafras albidum

leaves are used for thickening soups. Its oil is used for making perfume. BARK Dark gray-brown, thick. LEAF Gray-green above, whitish beneath;juveniles with toothed margins, adultsmitten-shaped or three-lobed. FLOWER Green-yellow, petalless, borne indrooping, few-flowered, axillary racemes;males and females on separate trees.FRUIT Dark blue, single-seeded drupe withpulpy flesh; thick red stalk.

California Laurel HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US (California, Oregon)

This broadly spreading tree has aromaticleaves. The bark, twigs, and leavesprovide food for wildlife, particularlydeer, and can be used to restore depletedsoil. The orange timber is used for making

barrels, buckets, and other items. Teais brewed from its roots and the

LEAVES

BARK

MALEFLOWERS

unlobedjuvenile leaf

deeplyfurrowed

three-lobedadult leaf

Often multi-stemmed, the Californialaurel has a broadly spreading habit andis found in forests and scrub in canyons and valleys. It is valuable for its palebrown timber. It has an attractive finish

and is used as a veneer in furniture,paneling, and cabinetwork. BARK Gray-brown, thin, smooth, becoming reddishbrown, scaly with age. LEAF Alternate,

dark green, leathery, glossy above,peppery aroma when crushed.

FLOWER Yellow-green, 6–10 oneach flowering stem, in leaf axils.

FRUIT Drupe, green at first,ripening to bluish black, up to3⁄4 in (2 cm) wide, on yellow stalk.

FLOWERS AND FOLIAGE

BUDS

unopened flowerbuds

lanceolateleaf

Umbellularia californica

downy youngshoots

yellowanthers

SassafrasHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. United States

Monocotyledons are so called becausetheir seeds only have one cotyledon(seed leaf), which emerges from thesoil during germination. The flowerparts (sepals and petals) are inmultiples of three and the major leafveins are parallel to each other andthe leaf edge. The vascular bundlesare scattered throughout the stem andthe roots are

adventitious (arising from the stem).They do not produce true wood, buthave successfully evolved treelikeforms. Overlapping leaf bases,thickened and enlarged cells, andprop roots are some of the strategiesthey use to support massive frames.Some species of Yucca, Dracaena, andAloe have a thick central trunk, whichmay bear leafy branches. Otherspecies, such as palms, have leavesattached at their base.

M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S 123

PALM TREEPalms have a trunk that supports the leaves directly,without branches. Some species of palm can reachgreat heights.

MONOCOT SEEDLING When a monocotyledon seedgerminates, it sends out a rootand a single seed leaf. Theyoung plant is nourished by thefood reserves (endosperm)within the seed.

GROUPS OF THREEThe petals of the flowers of theyucca tree are arranged in groupsof three, one of the definingcharacters of the monocotyledons.

MONOCOTYLEDONSAbout a quarter of all flowering plants.

root

seedcovering

seed

singleseedleaf

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S124

A treelike perennial, which grows from athick rhizome or underground stem, thistree is now listed as a threatened species.Fire plays an important role in itsregeneration and stimulates flowering; asmany as 100 flowers may bloom after thetree is exposed to fire. It is common forthem to have fire-blackened trunks, whichis why they are often called “blackboys.”The trunk is valued for the resins it yields.Fibers from its stem pith were used tomake cricket balls. BARK Grayish orblackish (from fire) and covered withpersistent leaf bases. LEAF Alternate,long, linear, grasslike, near the top of the“trunk”; bunched together, appearingrather like a skirt; blue to blue-green witha silky, silvery sheen. FLOWER Yellowish,round, papery inflorescences, at the tip ofa stout stalk that resembles a drumstick.FRUIT One-seeded capsule.

Pandanus tectorius

This tree has stout “root props” that growfrom the bottom of the trunk and firmlyanchor the tree in loose soil. They are salt-tolerant and ideal for binding sand andpreventing erosion on seaward dunes.The fruit and root tips are a major foodsource, eaten either raw or cooked. Theleaves are used for thatching and woveninto mats and baskets. Regarded as the

Nature Spirit (Kupua) in ancient Hawaii, thistree has been revered for centuries by Pacificpeople. BARK Prickly, withleaf scars, bearing aerialsupport roots. LEAF Inspirals, pale green, usually3–5 ft (0.9–1.5 m) long and2–23⁄4 in (5–7 cm) wide,with small upturnedspines along the edges.FLOWER Borne on separate

TRUNK WITH ROOT PROPS

trees; males: in clusters, 12 in (30 cm) long,of tiny, fragrant flowers, surrounded bywhite or cream bracts; females: in flowerheads that develop into fruit.FRUIT Resembles a pineapple, consisting ofmany woody segments fused together; canremain on the tree for up to 12 months.

woodysegments FRUIT

Kingia australis

Screwpine HEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Pacific

Black Gin HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. Australia

M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S 125

The branches of this desert speciesrepeatedly divide into two, which

explains its name “dichotoma” (forked).The name “quiver tree” comes from thelightweight branches, which can be easilyhollowed out and were once used by thehunters of the San tribe in southernAfrica as quivers. The tree has a roundedcrown topped with rosettes of leaves. Thebark and fleshy leaves can store water.BARK Pale brown, corky and smooth, withlarge plates that peel off. LEAF Gray-green, narrow, pointed, with triangular-toothed margins. FLOWER Bright yellow,nectar-filled, up to 11⁄4 in (3 cm) long, onbranched spikes. FRUIT Smooth, shinycapsule with narrow seeds.

Grass-trees are unique to the Australianbush. They are very slow-growing andcan survive for many hundreds of years.Some plants may branch and have two ormore heads, unlike the black gin, whichhas only one. The tree flowers in spring,blooming prolifically after a bush-fire.Grass-trees were a staple plant for theAboriginals, providing food, drink, fiber,and materials for making implements andweapons. They are now valued as gardenspecimens. BARK Thick, corky, coveredwith leaf bases. LEAF Long, narrow,green, crowded at the top of the trunk.

Grass-TreeHEIGHT up to 6 ft (2 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania)

Xanthorrhoea australis

ABORIGINAL GLUE

A hard, waterproof resin, extracted from theleaves of the grass-tree, was used byAboriginals in Australia as an adhesive.It was used to glue shafts and tips tospears, which had butt ends madeout of the straightflower stalk.

CRAFTING SPEARS

Aloe dichotoma

FLOWER Very small, clustered together, in tall, straight, cylindrical spikes thatarise from the leaves, with six white orcream petals, and white stamens; theycontain copious amounts of nectar. FRUIT Capsule, with hard, black seeds.

“skirt”ofleaves

spike 93⁄4 ft(3 m) tallspearlike flower

spikes

Quiver TreeHEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m)

TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Namibia,N.W. South Africa

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S126

A popular container plant, ti is believedto have originated from Papua NewGuinea. In Hawaii, its leaves are usedto make hula skirts. BARK Gray, shiny,with horizontal leaf scars. LEAF Spirallyarranged in tufts, at the ends of branches.FLOWER Yellow or red, sweetly scented; inlarge pendent panicles up to 12 in (30 cm)long. FRUIT Small red berries.

This tree, with its stout trunk and densecrown, has been popular since antiquity for medicinal purposes. It gets its namefrom its red resin, once believed to bedragon’s blood. The resin is used as avarnish for violins. BARK Silvery, rough. LEAF Stiff, broad-based spiky leaves, in tuftsat the end of branches. FLOWER Paleyellow, in clusters. FRUIT Yellow berry, to3⁄4 in (2 cm) wide, blackening with age.

This multi-branched tree is well adaptedto its dry habitat. Its prickly leaves protectit from grazing animals, and their waxycoating reduces water loss. BARK Palegray, smooth. LEAF Succulent, long,narrow, deeply grooved. FLOWER Rose-pink or apricot-orange, three-branchedinflorescences. FRUIT Spherical capsule.

Also known as the palm lily, this popularornamental has sweetly scented flowers.It can withstanddrought and cangrow in coastalhabitats. BARK Shallowlyfissured. LEAF Long,strap-shaped, green,in tufts at the ends of branches. FLOWER White, small,in pendent panicles12 in (30 cm) long.FRUIT Small pale lilacto green berries.

Dracaena cinnabari

Aloe bainesii Cordyline australis

LEAF

Ti PlantHEIGHT up to 10 ft (3 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia, tropical Pacific Islands

Cordyline fruticosa

up to 30 in (75 cm)long

pale gray bark

glossy green

cylindricalracemes

leaves in denserosette

YOUNG PLANT

Socotra DragonTreeHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Island of Socotra (Indian Ocean)

Cabbage TreeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New Zealand

Tree Aloe HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Southern Africa

A characteristic plant of the MojaveDesert, this tree favors high desert plains. It relies on the yucca moth forpollination, but can sprout from its roots and stumps to form new plants.BARK Pale brown, covered with deadleaves, becoming irregularly ridged andfurrowed with age. LEAF Strap-shaped,stiff, 6–12 in (15–30 cm) long, with sharp-pointed tips and fine-toothed edges, blue-green. FLOWER Bell-shaped, cream,yellow, or green, about 11⁄2 in (4 cm) long,in upright clusters at ends of branches.FRUIT Fleshy capsule, pale to red-brown,21⁄4–43⁄4 in (6–12 cm) long, 2 in (5 cm)wide, with six segments.

The betel palm has a narrow, upright habit and is popular in many tropicalcountries for its chewable seeds, callednuts. These contain an alkaloid that acts asa stimulant. It is said to aid digestion andcombat intestinal parasites and infections.BARK Dark green, ringed. LEAF Pinnate,5–9 leaves, 30–50 dark green leaflets.FLOWER In horizontal stalks; males at the end and females at base of stalk. FRUIT Red or orange, egg-shaped berry, to 2 in (5 cm) long.

Yucca brevifolia

Arenga pinnataAreca catechu

Sap from this single-stemmed tree is usedto make sugar, vinegar, wine, and alcohol.BARK Black, fibrous, spiny. LEAF 20–25,pinnate, with many upright leaflets, verydark green above, silvery green beneath.FLOWER Yellow and showy, on long stalks.FRUIT Round to oval purple berry, withthree seeds.

UNRIPEFRUIT

leaf to 40 ft (12 m)long

Betel PalmHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

Sugar PalmHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, S.E. Asia

Joshua Tree HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE United States (California,Arizona, Nevada, Utah), Mexico

egg-shapedberry

DRAGON TREEFound only in the Socotran Archipelago, the dragontree (Dracaena cinnabari ) is one of many plant andanimal species unique to these islands, located offthe coast of Somalia. Its characteristic canopy isthought to be typical of early trees.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S130

The Palmyra palm is cultivated for itsedible fruit and for its sap. Palms providean important income for farmers duringthe dry season, when there areno crops in the field. BARK Darkgray-brown, with the remains ofthe bases of leaves, especiallynear the bottom; in oldertrees the upper trunk isgrayer and smoother.LEAF Pointed, palmatelylobed, stiff and greenwith a sheath and a spinyleaf stalk. FLOWER Malesand females separate, bunchedat base of oldest leaves; small,1⁄8 in (3 mm) long, 3⁄16 in (5 mm)wide, with three sepals and three

Palmyra Palm HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, Sri Lanka, S.E. Asia, New Guinea

Borassus flabellifer

petals and eitherthree stamens or three stigmas.FRUIT Rounded,smooth, reddishblack when ripe,contains hard-shelledseeds within soft, fibrous,yellow pulp.

leaf 31⁄4–41⁄4 ft(1–1.3 m) long

SUGARY SAP

Also known as the toddy or wine palm,the Palmyra palmis tapped for its sap, which hasa sugar content of 14 percent.This can be boiled and madeinto syrup. The syrup is thenleft to cool and harden intolumps of sugar. It is alsofermented into palm wine(toddy) or vinegar.

LEAVES

FRUIT

4–43⁄4 in(10–12 cm)wide

COLLECTING SAP

M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S 131

A tall palm with a narrow trunk, the wax palm grows in the cloud forests of the Andes mountains at altitudes of5,000–6,500 ft (1,500–2,000 m). The treeis endangered in Colombia because itshabitat is prime coffee-growing country.BARK Gray and smooth, with finehorizontal leaf scars and a thin coating of wax. LEAF Pinnate, long, dark greenabove and powdery white beneath.FLOWER Males and females on separatetrees, in loose panicles; small andgreenish. FRUIT Bright, orange-reddrupes, clustered together so that theylook like a large bunch of grapes; eachcontains a hard, dark brown seed.

FLOWER Cream-colored, oninflorescences up to 20 ft (6 m) long,produced at theend of the tree’slife and appearingfirst at the highestleaf level, thenlower down.FRUIT Red drupethat is 3⁄4 in (2 cm) wide,containing oneor two dull gray seeds.

This tree is a source of fibers known as kitul. Its sap contains a significantpercentage of sugar and is used to makean alcoholic drink. The seeds containoxalic acid and are toxic if eaten. The fruit also needs to be handled withcare since the juice can burn the skin.BARK Gray, covered with regularly spacedleaf scars. LEAF Bipinnate, 93⁄4 –20 ft (3–6m) long, with wedge-shaped, dark greenleaflets, resemble the lower fin of a fish.

Wax Palm HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America (Colombia, Venezuela)

Jaggery PalmHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka

FLOWERING PLANT

LEAVES

11⁄4–21⁄4 in(3–6 cm) long

Caryota urens

Ceroxylon alpinum

“fishtail” leaflets

hanging inflorescence

132

Cocos nucifera

Widely distributed in the tropics, this tree provides many natural products. Theleaves are used for thatching, the trunk forbuilding supports, the sugary sap makes analcoholic drink, and its white flesh is edible.BARK Gray, marked by leaf scars. LEAF Pinnate, with stiff, strap-shapedleaflets. FLOWER In shoots at leaf axils;males at tip, females at base; both with sixstamens and yellow-orange, lance-shapedpetals. FRUIT Drupe composed of greenouter layer (exocarp) that ripens to gray-brown, fibrous middlelayer (mesocarp), hardinner layer (endocarp),surrounding a seedcomposed of whiteflesh (copra), coconutmilk (endosperm),and an embryo. SPINNING COIR

FRUIT

COIR FROM THE SEED

Mature coconuts weigh 21⁄4–61⁄2 lb (1–3 kg). Each one has afibrous outer layer, up to 31⁄4 in(8 cm ) thick, which helps theseed float and protects it fromdamage. When coconuts areharvested, the fiber, known ascoir, is separated from the nut,before being cleaned andpacked into bales. Coir is usedto make mats and ropes.

mesocarp11⁄2–31⁄4 in(4–8 cm) long

MATURESEED

ridged leaf scars

TRUNK

Coconut HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia, Central and South America, tropical Africa

MONOCOTYLEDONS 133

Copernicia prunifera

The heat-resistant wax harvested from theleaves gives this tree its name, and is a vitalBrazilian export. Each of its approximatelytwo dozen leaves provides about 15 lb (7 kg)of wax. BARK Gray, leaf bases in a spiralpattern. LEAF Fan-shaped, waxy, blue to green, divided into 30–60 segments.FLOWER Brown, on stalk. FRUIT Roundbrownish drupe, 3⁄4–2 in (2–5 cm) wide.

Corypha umbraculifera

The largest of the fan palms, the talipothas a dramatic life history. It blooms only once in its lifetime of 30–80 years,raining down millions of flowers and

fruits, but dies soon afterward. BARK Gray. LEAF Palmate, up to 15 ft(4.5 m) wide, 30–40 in number; therachis extends halfway up the leaf,bearing 110–130 spiny leaflets withsplit, blunt ends. FLOWER Cream,on tall, branched flower stalk.

FRUIT Olivegreen, waxydrupe, with a round seed.

Talipot PalmHEIGHT up to 80 ft (24 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. India, Sri Lanka

LEAVES

LEAF STALKS

deeply divided leaf

divided base

large, fan-shapedleaves

Carnauba Wax Palm HEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Brazil

COCONUT PALMThe slender and delicate-looking Cocos nucifera isdeceptively robust, surviving for up to 100 years. It is able to withstand high winds in the stormy coastalareas in which it grows because of its strongnetwork of roots that anchor it to the soil.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S136

Elaeis guineensis

Found in tropical rainforests, the oil palmproduces the highest oil yield of anyoilseed crop. BARK Gray, ringed with leafscars. LEAF Pinnate, green leaf stalks withsaw-toothed edges, with 100–150 pairs ofgreen leaflets that are 2–4 ft (0.6–1.2 m)long and 11⁄2–2 in (3.5–5 cm) wide.FLOWER Inflorescences, 4–12 in (10–30 cm)long; males: borne on short, furrybranches; females: borne close to thetrunk on short, heavy stalks. FRUIT Plum-like drupes, in large bunches, ripening toblack; fleshy white mesocarp surroundsseeds that are enclosed in fibrous husk. UNRIPE FRUIT

Oil PalmHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa, introduced in S.E. Asia

HARVESTING PALM OIL

Two kinds of oil are extracted from the palm nuts.Palm oil, which has a high unsaturated fat content, is taken from the fleshy, ivory white mesocarp whilethe seeds yield palm kernel oil. Both are used as

cooking oils.

11–17 ft(3.5–5 m) long

fruit to 11⁄2 in(3.5 cm) long

prominentmidrib

PALM FROND

M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S 137

The starch from the sago trunk is a staplefood. Trees are harvested after 12 years.BARK Chestnut brown, patterned with leafbases. LEAF About 24, pinnate, feathery17–26 ft (5–8 m) long; 100–190 leaflets.FLOWER Terminal, branched inflorescence,10 ft (3 m) tall. FRUIT Straw-colored drupe.

The seeds of this palm, the largest in the world, are very rich in fats, oils, andprotein. BARK Gray-brown, prominentleaf scars. LEAF Fan-shaped, palmateveins, fringed edges, 15 ft (4.5 m) wide.FLOWER Male catkins at 31⁄4 ft (1 m) longare the longest known. FRUIT Large, two-lobed drupe, weighing 45 lb (20 kg).

Unusually for a palm, this grassland and desert species has a branching trunk.BARK Gray, smooth lower down, leaf scarshigher up. LEAF Pinnate, stiff, blue-green.FLOWER Long-branched, purple and

yellow inflorescences.FRUIT Oval drupe,

yellow-orangefibrous layersurrounding a hard seedthat is 11⁄2 in(4 cm) wide.

Lodoicea maldivica

Hyphaene thebaica Jubaea chilensis

Doum Palm HEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Coastal N. and E. Africa

Metroxylon sagu

FAN-SHAPED FRONDS

26–30 in (65–75 cm) long

Chilean Wine Palm HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE C. Chile (coastal areas)

Sago Palm HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia (probably originatedin Papua New Guinea)

Found in dry gulliesand ridges with scrub,this tree has the largesttrunk of all the palms.BARK Gray, markedwith leaf scars.LEAF Pinnate, feathery,dull green above, graybelow. FLOWER Purple,small, and numerous,in groups of twomales to every female.FRUIT Round, yellowdrupe, 2 in (5 cm) wide; seed, called“coquito,” is like a tiny coconut.

Double Coconut HEIGHT up to 110 ft (34 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Seychelles

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S138

The date palm grows in many climates,but only sets fruit in warm areas of lowhumidity. All parts of the palm are used,although it is best known for its sugaryfruit. It has great historical, economic,and cultural importance and features inceremonies of Judaism, Christianity, andIslam. BARK Gray-brown, covered withremains of leaf bases in a spiral pattern.LEAF 20–30, pinnate, up to 20 ft (6 m) long,ascending upper leaves, downward-curving lower leaves; sharply pointedleaflets. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees in axillary, pendentclusters up to 4 ft(1.2 m) long; small,whitish, fragrant.FRUIT Oblongdrupe, up to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) long, darkorange when ripe,containing onewoody seed.

FROND

rigid, linearleaflets

DATES IN MILLIONS

Evidence suggests that thedate palm was cultivatedin 4000 BCE. According tothe World Food andAgricultural Organization,of the 90 million trees inthe world, 64 million are inArab countries. Iraq is thetop producer and exporterof dates, followed by SaudiArabia, Egypt, and Algeria. PACKAGED FOR EXPORT

FRUIT

pendulousclusters

Phoenix dactylifera

ascending upperleaves

Date PalmHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Native to N. Africa, but introduced elsewhere

M O N O C O T Y L E D O N S 139

Royal Palm HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Native to Cuba and Honduras,but introduced in Florida

One of the most grown ornamentals ofthe world, this tree has a rounded crown.BARK Brown, thick, with prominent leafscars. LEAF Pinnate, up to 18 ft (5.5 m) long,deep green, shading to yellow at stalk.FLOWER Males and females on separate trees;small, off-white, on stalks up to 61⁄2 ft (2 m)long. FRUIT Orange drupe.

This imposing African palm has the largestleaves of any tree. They are the source ofraffia, a natural fiber. Its flowers are bornein clusters of thousands, on a drooping shoot thatlooks like a large rope. BARK Pale gray orbrown, with leafscars. LEAF Pinnate,to 65 ft (20 m) long. FLOWER Borne on thesame inflorescence;males: on top, large,tubular; females: at bottom, small.FRUIT Oval, scalybrown drupe.

The hardiest palm, this ornamental treeoccurs in mountainous regions that areoften covered with snow in winter, and cansurvive without its leaves. Its trunk tends tobe narrower at the base. BARK Gray orbrown, coarse, becoming smooth with age.LEAF Unevenly divided, split halfway to leafstalk, dark green above, silvery below, 4 ft

(1.2 m) wide. FLOWER Malesand females in branchedclusters on separate

trees. FRUIT Roundto oblong, blue-

black berry.

FLOWERS ANDFRUIT

FROND

BARK

fan-shaped

Raffia PalmHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Madagascar, E. Africa

Trachycarpus fortuneiRoystonea regia

Phoenix canariensis Raphia farinifera

Canary Palm HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Canary Islands

Chusan PalmHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China

LEAVES AND FRUIT

bright yellowflowers

prominentleaf scars

This graceful palm is notable for its salt-resistance and rapid growth. BARK Palegray, smooth. LEAF 15–20, pinnate, brightgreen, with linear leaflets. FLOWER Malesand females on same flowering shoots, bothsmall, white. FRUIT Round drupe, greenripening to purple-black, with small seed.

fruit 3⁄8 in(1.3 cm) wide

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S140

Traveler’s palm is not a true palm and hasbeen described as being part banana andpart palm. In young plants, the trunk isunderground. In mature plants, it emergesabove the ground, elevating the crown. Itgets its common name from the fact thatwhen it rains, water collects in the flowerbracts and leaf folds, providing a drink fortravelers. BARK Green, with distinctiveleaf scar rings. LEAF Up to 13 ft (4 m)long and 10–20 in (25–50 cm) wide, longstalks, arranged symmetrically on thetrunk, like a giant fan. FLOWER Small,numerous, creamy white, held in bractsand borne in clusters 12 in (30 cm) long.FRUIT Brown berry, containing blue seeds.

Washingtonia filifera

Ravenala madagascariensis

FOLIAGE fan-shaped leaves

A native of deserts and semi-arid areas,this tree is also known as the petticoatpalm because its old leaves hang aroundthe trunk like a petticoat. BARK Pale red-brown, smooth. LEAF Palmate, gray-green, with cottonlike threads; darkbrown, shiny leaf base.FLOWER White oryellow, on stalks thatemerge between theleaves. FRUIT Black,spherical, fleshy berryup to 5 in (12.5 cm) wide, containingsmall, glossyred seeds.

deadleaves

BARK

Traveler’s PalmHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Madagascar, widely planted in tropical areas

California Fan PalmHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US (S.E. California, W. Arizona),Mexico (Baja California)

Dicotyledons are so called because the embryo within the seed has twocotyledons (seed leaves). The leaves of dicotyledons have a complicatedbranching network of leaf veins. This iscalled reticulated or net venation. Thedicotyledons have a vast range of flowerforms, but the parts of the flower (petalsand sepals) are mostly arranged in fives.Flowers with parts arranged in fours areless frequent, but an example is beech(Fagus sylvatica). In dicotyledons, the

vascular bundles that containxylem (water-

conducting tissue)and phloem (sugar-

transporting tissue)are arranged in a ring.

Hardwood trees in this

group have xylem that contains cellscalled tracheids and wood vessels, plustightly packed, thick-walled fiber cells.This makes the wood hard. An exampleis ebony (Diospyros ebenum), which haswood so dense that it sinks in water.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 141

petals infives

stamens

ANNUAL RINGS The vascular bundles formed in spring aremuch larger than those formed in summer.

This difference produces “annual rings”seen in a cross-section of the trunk.

FLOWERING IN FIVES Almond (Prunus dulcis) flowers have

five petals. Most dicotyledons have theirflower parts arranged in fives.

annualring

seed leaf

seedcovering

DICOTYLEDON SEEDLING When seeds germinate, theembryonic root emerges from theseed first. The paired seed leavesemerge later.

DICOTYLEDONSMost flowering plants, including trees.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S142

Grevillea robusta

Mostly planted in Australia as a shadetree for coffee and tea plantations at highaltitudes, this tree is valued for its timber.It is cultivated as an ornamental for itsspectacular flowers and feathery foliage.BARK Pale gray. LEAF Alternate, fernlike,6–12 in (15–30 cm) long, gray-greenabove, silvery beneath. FLOWER Brightyellow-orange, stalked; on terminalbottlebrush-like flowering shoots that are31⁄4–6 in (8–15 cm) long. FRUIT Brown-

black, leatheryseed capsules,with one or twoflat, winged seeds.

IMMATURE FRUIT

FLOWER WITH LEAF

long, protrudingstigma

flower 3⁄4–11⁄4 in(2–3 cm) long

capsule to 3⁄4 in(2 cm) long

PATTERNED TIMBER

The timber of the silk oak is immensely valued for itsdecorative, lacelike pattern. Once marketed as

“lacewood,” it was a leading faceveneer. The heartwood is pale pink,darkening to red when dry. The

timber is of medium strengthand easily worked. It is usedfor furniture, packing cases,flooring, and paneling. CABINET

Silk Oak HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia

THE MACADAMIA NUT

Considered one ofthe best-tastingnuts in the world,the macadamianut has a rich oilcontent of 75–80percent. The nutsmature six toseven months after flowering andfall to the ground when ripe. Afterharvesting, they are dehusked,washed, and dried. The shells arecracked for processing; the shelled

kernels are then vacuum-packed and

shipped for sale.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 143

Macadamia integrifolia

Cultivated for its nuts, the macadamia isthe only Australian native plant to begrown as a major food crop. It grows incoastal rainforests and is very productive,flowering and fruiting for 3–12 months ofthe year. Its timber is also useful, and it is

FRESH NUTS

LEAVES, FLOWERS,AND FRUIT

spreadingcrown

nut to 1 in(2.5 cm) wide

mature leaf 4–12 in(10–30 cm) long

whorls ofleaves

glossy greenleaf

also cultivated as an ornamental. Themacadamia nut can be used to make abland salad oil, but it is usually toovaluable as a dessert nut to be used inthis way. BARK Brown, rough, butunfurrowed. LEAF Whorls of three,pale green or bronze when young, later green and oblong, 4 in (10 cm)wide, on leaf stalks about 1⁄2 in (1.5 cm)long, margins may be waxy, with a few spines. FLOWER Small, creamywhite, petalless, borne in groups ofthree to four in a long axis, in racemes.FRUIT Round nut, hard green outerlayer, and hard inner shell that protects the white kernel.

raceme

PACKAGEDNUTS

MacadamiaHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New South Wales, Queensland, E. Australia

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S144

Platanus x hispanica

A handsome ornamental with a spreadingto broadly columnar crown, this tree isplanted in many cities. It is suited tourban environments because its bark hasthe ability to renew itself by peeling off inplates to prevent its pores fromgetting clogged by pollution.BARK Smooth and gray, peeling toreveal yellow or green inner bark.LEAF Alternate, toothed, three,five, or seven pointed lobes cutabout halfway to the base;shiny green above, pale matt greenwith downy hairs beneath. FLOWER Petalless; males and femalesin separate clusters on the sametree; males yellow, femalesreddish. FRUIT Burlike,pendent achenes,covered with brownbristles, greenripening to brown.

BARK

FRUIT

peels inpuzzle-likepieces

up to fourachenes onsingle stalk

6 in (15 cm)wide

AN ACCIDENTAL HYBRID

The London planetree is a cross between P. orientalis(Asian planetree) and P. occidentalis (sycamore). Accordingto one story, the hybrid arose in the garden of the British

botanist John Tradescant. It is more likely, however,that it originated by accident in Spain or France in

the mid-17th century.

PALMATE LEAF

LondonPlanetreeHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 145

Well known as a garden hedge and shrub,this tree prefers lime-rich soil. BARK Palebrown, later cracks into small, gray, corkysquares. LEAF Opposite, borne on squarishstems, elliptic to oblong, notched at tip,dark green above, paler or yellow-greenbeneath, with creamy yellow midveins.

Buxus sempervirens

FOLIAGE

BoxwoodHEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia

Also known as the American planetree,this massive tree has a heavy, spreadingcrown and zigzag branches. Its sphericalfruits are used to make Christmas treeornaments. BARK Thin, mottled brown,green, and white; older stems are gray-brown and scaly. LEAF Alternate, palmatelyveined, oval, with 3–5 lobes, toothed;veins below may be hairy. FLOWER Deepred; males and females in separate dense,spherical heads, about 3⁄8 in (1 cm) wide.FRUIT Achene on 3–6 in (7.5–15 cm) longstalk, with a winged seed.

Platanus occidentalis

FLOWER In small clusters of 5–6 stalklessmales surrounding one short-stalkedfemale; pale yellow, petalless, fragrant.FRUIT Capsule with three split horns;green becoming brown and papery,releasing glossy black seeds.

FRUIT ANDLEAVES

4–8 in (10–20 cm) wide

TOPIARY FAVORITE

Widely used in topiary, the art of clipping trees into ornamental shapes, boxwood makes a beautifulclipped hedge. Its foliage can be easily trimmed to form pyramids, cones, spirals,or roundedshapes.

leaves 43⁄4–10 in(12–25 cm) long

urn-shapedcapsule

POTTEDORNAMENTALS

SycamoreHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

LONDON PLANETREEPlatanus x hispanica is the archetypal city tree; itprovides a pleasing dappled shade and is tolerant of both pollution and vigorous pruning. In a lessrestricted environment, a mature tree can reach a great size, with widely spreading branches.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S148

This tree dominates forests in Surinamand old plantations in east Guyana. It is fairly invasive. BARK Pale gray. LEAF Dark green and glossy, 4–9 in(10–22 cm) long, 11⁄2–21⁄4 in (4–6 cm)

wide, pointed at the tip, with aprominent midvein, many

pairs of side veins, anduntoothed margin.

FLOWER Males andfemales borne on

separate spikes, each21⁄4–4 in (6–10 cm) long.

Found in the desert, the saxaul has a large root system that helps to stabilizesand. Its heavy, durable wood is used incarpentry and is highly valued as fuel.BARK Gray-white. LEAF Triangular, scale-like, pressed to stem, with straw-coloredcusp at tip. FLOWER Pale yellow, solitary,5⁄32–7⁄32 in (4–7 mm) long; males andfemales on the same plant, in scalelikebracts on dwarf side spurs of previousyear’s branches. FRUIT Round, wingednut, 1⁄8 in (2.5 mm) wide.

Moist forests located in valleys and gulchesare the native habitat of this tree. It is an endangered species; fewer than 400mature trees exist. BARK Smooth, grayishbrown. LEAF Elliptic to oval, leathery,

5–16 in (13–40 cm) long.FLOWER Numerous,

borne in panicles9–19 in (22–48 cm)long. FRUIT Notdescribed.

Triplaris weigeltiana

Haloxylon persicumCharpentiera densiflora

LEAVES WITH FRUIT

PapalaHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Hawaii (Kauri)

Males: tiny, cream; females: with threeenlarged red-purple sepals that are about11⁄4 in (3 cm) long and 3⁄16 in (5 mm) wide.FRUIT Dry nut, 3⁄8 in (1 cm) long.

MALE FLOWERS

cream flowersin spikes

leaf 5–16 in(13–40 cm) long

minute flowersgrasslike foliage

FLOWERING BRANCHES

INFLORESCENCE

Long JackHEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

SaxaulHEIGHT up to 22 ft (7 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Asia (Russia to Iran to China)

The saguaro is the world’s largest cactus,and the state flower of Arizona. It growsvery slowly, just over 1 in (2 cm) per year,and its massive columnar stems have a huge capacity for water storage. Theoldest plants are estimated to be 200years old. BARK Smooth, waxy, green.

downward-pointing spinesFLOWERING STEM

LEAF Stout spines, 2 in (5 cm) long, inclusters on the stem’s vertical ribs.

FLOWER Bell-shaped, waxy, fragrant,about 4–43⁄4 in (10–12 cm) long and

31⁄2–43⁄4 in (9–12 cm) wide, in clusters at the ends of stems and branches;numerous stamens surround a tube; onlya few open at a time, and each one lastsonly one night. FRUIT Greenish toreddish, oval, edible berry; contains redpulp and small, black seeds.

NECTAR-FILLED CACTUS

The saguaro flowers every year even if there is norainfall. The creamy-white petals surround a tube.Yellow stamens form a circle at the top of the tube.At the bottom of the tubeis nectar. This, and thecolor of the flowers,attract birds, bats, andinsects that pollinatethe flowers.

OPEN FLOWERS

dense groupof stamens

Carnegiea gigantea

SaguaroHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. US (Sonora desert), Mexico

creamy whitepetals

SAGUAROSaguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) is supremely equippedfor survival in the scorching deserts of the AmericanWest. In particular, its “pleated” trunk and branchesexpand to allow maximum uptake of water duringrare periods of rainfall.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S152

Also known as the Western AustralianChristmas Tree, this evergreen

shrub or small tree is semi-parasitic, getting water and

nutrients from the roots ofgrasses and other plantsup to 500 ft (150 m)

away. Its spectacularflowers bloom for several

months around Christmas.Its thin, long leaves give thetree an untidy appearance.

BARK Rough, gray-brown.LEAF Linear, dark green.

FLOWER In clusters on branchedinflorescences. FRUIT Dry nut with

three broad, leathery wings.

Phytolacca dioica

Also known as ombu or belhambra, thisfast-growing, herbaceous tree has a broadtrunk with high water content. The onlytree to live on the Pampas grasslands inSouth America, it is well adapted tograssland fires and scarcity of water dueto a fire-resistant trunk that can storewater. Its poisonous sap keeps browsinganimals away. This tree is also valued forthe shade it provides. BARK Pale brown,very spongy. LEAF Dark, glossy green,ovate or elliptic. FLOWER Small, greenishwhite, in clusters. FRUIT In clusters on

Nuytsia floribunda

Bella UmbraHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay

FLOWERS

ovateleaf

yellow-orange flowers

stalks like a mass of curled upcaterpillars, green turning crimson when ripe, up to 3⁄8 in (1 cm) wide.

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

flowers in long racemes

Fire TreeHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Western Australia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 153

The katsura tree is valued as a shade or specimen tree. In fall, its leaves have a fragrance of burned sugar orstrawberries. BARK Initially smooth with many pores, becoming darker andsplitting into thin, curling strips with age.LEAF Heart-shaped with bluntly-toothedmargins, 2–31⁄4 in (5–8 cm) long, purplewhen emerging, turning scarlet to yellowin fall. FLOWER Male and female flowerson separate trees, inconspicuous in

Santalum album

This tree is renowned for its oil and wood,which is used for making perfumes, herbalmedicines, and fine furniture. It is a semi-parasitic tree, requiring roots of otherplants to grow successfully. BARK Reddishbrown. LEAF Elliptic-lanceolate, up to11⁄4 in (3 cm) long, on thin stalks. FLOWER Small, in branched cymes. FRUIT Small, dark red, one-seeded drupe.

Cercidiphyllum japonicum

SandalwoodHEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, India, Indonesia,Philippines

dark green,glossy leaves

brownishred flowers

reddish bracts,appearing before theleaves. FRUIT Small (to 3⁄4 in/2cm long) curved seed pods in small clusters, initially red.

LEAVES fall coloration

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

BARK

Katsura TreeHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan

conical torounded habit opposite

arrangement

LEAVES

154

This is an ideal specimen tree with itspest-free nature, noninvasive roots, and superb fall colors. BARK Silver, green, white, and brown when peeling. LEAF Alternate, oblong to oval, wavy totoothed margins, hairy, glossy green insummer, young leaves red-purple.FLOWER Petalless, many deep crimsonstamens, emerge before leaves. FRUIT Dry, pale brown capsule 3⁄8 in(1 cm) wide, contains seeds.

This tree is very popular as anornamental. BARK Grayish brown, smooth.LEAF Opposite; 3–7 leaflets, oblong to oval,toothed, dull green above, pale below.FLOWER White, stalked, about 3⁄8 in (1 cm)long, in drooping panicles. FRUIT Inflated,papery capsule, with edible seeds.

This tree’s resin has been used medicinallyfor over 700 years. BARK Purple-gray,corky. LEAF Alternate, palmate, cut intofive three-lobed sections. FLOWER White,arranged in small, round solitary heads.FRUIT Spiny, globe-shaped capsule.

This tree has a pyramidal shape whenyoung, becoming rounded with age. BARK Pale gray, later deeply fissured. LEAF Alternate, leathery, glossy green.FLOWER Solitary, yellow-green, roundedheads. FRUIT Spiny, spherical, brown.

LABEL TOCOME

LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT

LEAVES AND YOUNG FRUIT

leaf 2–4 3⁄4 in(5–12 cm) long

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Liquidambar orientalis Liquidambar styraciflua

Staphylea pinnataParrotia persica

leaf 3⁄4–5 in(2–12.5 cm)long

FALL LEAVES

palmate leaffruit 1–11⁄4 in(2.3–3 cm) wide

Sweetgum HEIGHT up to 75 ft (23 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. and S. United States

orange, scarlet, or purple coloration

wavy margin

LEAVES

Asian Sweetgum HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Turkey

Ironwood HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Iran

European Bladdernut HEIGHT up to 15 ft (4.5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, W. Asia

155

This tree is widely planted as anornamental. BARK Fibrous, dark gray to brown. LEAF Oval, dull green. FLOWER Bright red stamens around yellowcenters. FRUIT Urn-shaped capsule.

The red-orange dye extracted from theleaves of the henna tree is used for bodyart and as a hair colorant. BARK Grayishbrown. LEAF Opposite pairs, 3⁄8–11⁄4 in

(1–3 cm) wide. FLOWER Four-petaled,red, white, pink, or yellow,

fragrant, in terminal clusters.FRUIT Berry, containing 40–

45 small seeds. FLOWERS

Indian Almond HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia

FRUITLEAVES

greenishbrownfruit

flowers inclusters

leaf 3–9 in(7.5–22.5 cm) long

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

FLOWER In long terminal clusters, 6 in(15 cm) long, males and females on sametree; females greenish white. FRUIT Ovaldrupe, with corky fiber covering a green toyellow husk thatturns reddishwhen ripe; thin,green inner fleshencloses nut that tastes ofalmonds.

Terminalia catappa

Lawsonia inermis Corymbia ficifolia

The spreading, horizontal branches ofthis species make it an ideal shade tree,although it is invasive. Its fruit has manymedicinal uses. BARK Smooth and gray.LEAF In clusters, oblong to oval, 12 in (30 cm)long, 6 in (15 cm) wide, shiny green.

FRUIT

Henna HEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N. Africa, S.W. Asia

drupe 2–3 in(5–7.5 cm) long

leaf 3⁄8–2 in(1.2–5 cm) long

Red Flowering GumHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. Australia

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S156

Also known as the rainbow gum, thekamarere tree is notable for its beautifulmulticolored bark. Its timber is used forpulp. BARK Shades of green, brown, andgray, prickly, peeling. LEAF Lanceolate,untoothed, darker green above, paler green beneath. FLOWER Creamy white, innumerous axillary umbels of7–11. FRUIT Round, dry capsule.

Native to the Cape York peninsula, this is a popular shade tree. Its flowers are animportant food source for bees. BARK Gray-white, smooth, peeling in narrow strips. LEAF Stalked, gray-green, yellowish or redmidvein. FLOWER Umbels with 3–7 stalked,white flowers. FRUIT Semi-spherical, drycapsule, 1⁄4–4 in (6–10 mm) long.

LEAF

Alpine AshHEIGHT up to 260 ft (80 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia, Tasmania

KamarereHEIGHT up to 225 ft (67 m) TYPE Evergreen OCCURRENCE Papua New Guinea

Eucalyptus brassiana

Eucalyptus deglupta

Eucalyptus delegatensis

The alpine ash is a high-altitude, sub-alpine tree that can tolerate extremeenvironmental conditions. It is a fast-growing timber tree and produces high-quality wood. BARK Rough, fibrousbelow, main branches smooth andstringy. LEAF Alternate; adults narrowlylanceolate, stalked, curved with unevenbase, dull green with reddish tint;juveniles gray-green and broader.FLOWER Creamy white, in numerousaxillary umbels of 7–11. FRUIT Goblet-shaped dry capsule, 3⁄8 in (1 cm) long,usually with four valves.

This tree, with its broadly columnar orspreading crown, is widespread in its native range. Its timber is hard, durable,and termite-resistant. Its pollen and nectar make high-quality honey. BARK Smooth, mottled white, gray, brown,or red. LEAF Alternate, gray-green, quitethick, turning oval to lanceolate with age.FLOWER In axillary clusters of 7–11 creamywhite flowers. FRUIT Semi-sphericalcapsule, 7⁄32– 5⁄16 in (7–8 mm)long, 3⁄16–1⁄4 in (5–6 mm)

wide, yellow seeds.

River RedgumHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

LEAF AND FLOWER

faint lateralveins

leaves to 8 in(20 cm) long

long whitestamens

BARKpeeling invertical strips

Cape York RedgumHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (Queensland), Papua New Guinea

Eucalyptus gunnii

BluegumHEIGHT up to 230 ft (70 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

Cider GumHEIGHT up to 120 ft (36 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tasmania

This tree is one of the hardiest species ofEucalyptus. BARK Reddish brown, gray,rough at base. LEAF Adults alternate, gray-green, sickle-shaped,aromatic; juveniles opposite,rounded, silvery blue.FLOWER Creamy white,with numerous stamens.FRUIT Dry, gray capsule.

LEAVES

An extremely tall tree, karri is a richsource of timber and provides shade. BARK Smooth, variously colored, sheddingin flakes. LEAF Opposite,broadly lanceolate, thick.FLOWER Creamy white, inaxillary clusters. FRUIT Dry

round to ovalcapsule, with

a stalk.

KarriHEIGHT up to 260 ft (80 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Western Australia

densecrown

Eucalyptus diversicolor

sickle-shapedleaf

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 157

LEAVES

Eucalyptus globulus

BARK

peeling in flakesBARK

Found in Tasmania, southern Victoria, andNew South Wales, this vigorous, large treeforms dense thickets. It is the Tasmanianfloral emblem. Its four subspecies differmainly in the flower arrangement and theshedding of bark. It has strong, durablewood, which is used as fuel, andits oil is used in perfumes andsoap-making. The bluegum treeis also a rich source of pollen

and nectar for honey. BARK Rough, grayishblue, usually peeling in long ribbons onupper trunk and branches. LEAF Adultsalternate, dark green, 4–12 in (10–30 cm)long, 1–2 in (2.5–5 cm) wide; juvenilessilvery, blue-gray, broad, to 6 in (15 cm)long. FLOWER White, 2 in (5 cm) wide, withnumerous long white stamens; bornesingly, in pairs, or in threes in leaf axils.FRUIT Grayish, woody, prominently ridgedcapsule, 1 in (2.5 cm) wide.

RIVER REDGUMThe most widely distributed of all Eucalyptus species,river redgum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) is tolerant of a wide variety of conditions. It is typically foundalong watercourses, as here in a flooded area closeto the Murribidgee River, South Australia.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S160

Eucalyptus marginata

This tree is well adapted to its dry habitat,which is prone to fire. It has long rootsand develops large underground swellingscalled lignotubers that store carbohydrates,allowing young trees to grow back after a fire. One of Australia’s most importanthardwood trees, it is extensively harvestedfor its durable, dark red timber. As a result,untouched jarrah forest has undergone a sharp decline. BARK Rough, grayishbrown bark, shedding in long strips. LEAF Adults: alternate, shiny dark greenabove and paler beneath, lanceolate, witha narrow, flattened or channeled stalk;juveniles: dull gray-green without stalks.FLOWER White, very fragrant, appearingat the top of the tree in umbels of 7–11.FRUIT Round capsules, that are 1⁄3–1⁄2 in(1–1.5 cm) long, with a flat central disk.

FEAST FOR ALL

The jarrah tree is a rich source of nectar and pollen forbees. Its scented flowers bloom once in two years,attracting bees to pollinate them, and the resultingdark-colored honey is nutritious and fullof flavor. Research has also shownthat jarrah forest honey has anti-bacterial properties and can be used toheal wounds. Nectar from the tree is afood source for insects, birds, andmarsupials as well.

HONEY

TRUNKS vertical fissures

JarrahHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Western Australia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 161

The tallowwood’s low-branching habitand dense, spreading crown make it aneffective windbreak. It is found in wetforests or rainforest margins, usually onslopes. This tall tree has strong, durabletimber that takes a good polish. It is alsoused as an ornamental, for hedging, andas a shade tree. Koalas depend on it forfood and shelter. BARK Soft, flaky, fibrous,brown to yellow-brown, with surface pores.LEAF Alternate, lanceolate, glossy darkgreen, stalked. FLOWER Small, creamywhite, arranged in umbels in groups offive; hermaphroditic (has both male andfemale organs), pollinated by bees. FRUIT Narrow, funnel-shaped capsule.

This important commercial tree growswell in coppices, provides good fuel, andis also a source of food for the koala,insects, and other animals. BARK Rough,fibrous, shedding in strips. LEAF Darkgreen, narrowly lanceolate, curved.FLOWER White, small, in axillary clustersof 7–15. FRUIT Woody capsule.

Long-lived and slow-growing, this tree hasa crooked trunk and twisted branches.BARK Smooth, green, gray, or cream, shedsin ribbons. LEAF Adults: thick,glossy and waxy,linear-lanceolate;juveniles: more oval, dull gray-green. FLOWER White,scented, borne inclusters of 11 or more in leaf axils. FRUIT Semi-spherical or conical capsule.

Eucalyptus pilularis

Eucalyptus pauciflora

Eucalyptus microtheca

Eucalyptus microcorys

A fast-growing, single- or multi-trunkedtree, the coolibah grows well in arid andsemi-arid areas and can be used to controlerosion. Its timber is one of the strongestin the world. BARK Gray brownish, thick,fibrous, rough, does not peel off. LEAF Adults: narrowly lanceolate, 21⁄4–8 in(6–20 cm) long, dull green above andpaler beneath, slightly thick and leathery;juveniles: broader, brighter green. FLOWER White, very small, short-stalked, in branched or compound umbels of 3–7.FRUIT Short-stalked capsule, 11⁄4–2 in(3–5 cm) long, with black seeds.

CoolibahHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (except Victoria and Tasmania)

BlackbuttHEIGHT up to 230 ft (70 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New South Wales andQueensland (coastal plains)

TallowwoodHEIGHT up to 180 ft (55 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (New South Wales,Queensland)

flowerclusters

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

adultleaf

SnowgumHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia

SNOW GUMEucalyptus pauciflora is a highly adaptable tree that thrives in many different situations, includingexposed ridge tops and snowy and wet conditions. It is found primarily in the Snowy Mountains ofsoutheastern Australia.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S164

In Australia, this tree grows on the easterncoast and is planted in parks. However, inFlorida, it can grow into immense forestsand virtually eliminate all other vegetation.BARK Whitish, spongy. LEAF Alternate,

short-stalked, narrowlyelliptic, flat, leathery,with five parallel

veins. FLOWER Small,white, with united

stamens, borne atbranch tips inbrushlike spikes.FRUIT Cylindricalor squarish woodycapsule withseveral seeds.

Known as the Christmas tree because itflowers at Christmas, this coastal tree haslong, hanging roots that enable it to clingto rocky cliffs. BARK Pale gray brown,plated. LEAF Leathery, hairy below, to 4 in(10 cm) long. FLOWER At branch tips in racemes, with small petals and severallong stamens. FRUIT Papery capsule.

This is the tallest hardwood tree in theworld. BARK White or gray, smooth, roughbase. LEAF Alternate, stalked, lanceolate.FLOWER White, small, in axillary clusters.FRUIT Pear-shaped, three-valved capsule.

The Amazon rainforest is this tree’s nativehabitat. BARK Pale brown, thin, andpeeling. LEAF Opposite, oval to lanceolate.FLOWER White, with four curved petals.FRUIT Round berry, with orange-red pulp.

Eucalyptus regnans Eugenia uniflora

Melaleuca quinquenervia

BARK

FLOWERS

TRUNK

peeling in many layers

bark peels in strips FRUIT-BEARING BRANCH

Metrosideros excelsa

glossy deep greenfoliage

dark red drupe

bright red stamens

Mountain Ash HEIGHT up to 300 ft (90 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

Paperbark TreeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia, introduced in US (Florida)

Surinam Cherry HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

Christmas TreeHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New Zealand

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 165

Psidium guajava

smooth, peeling in large flakes, green-gray inner bark. LEAF Opposite,brittle, oval to oblong-elliptic,hairy beneath. FLOWER White,1 in (2.5 cm) wide, with 4–5petals, many white stamens;in groups of 1–4 in leafaxils. FRUIT White-yellow or faintly pink berry, up to 4 in (10 cm) long;granular, sweet-sour, juicy pulp.

PRESERVING PULP

The guava fruit is high invitamin C. Uncooked guavasare used in salads or desserts.The fruit is commonly cooked toeliminate its strong odor. The fruitcan be stewed, canned, jellied, or madeinto paste and “cheese.” Guava juice and guava nectar are popular drinks, while guava syrup can also be used to flavor desserts.

Probably originating in southern Mexico,this tree can be invasive and forms densethickets. In some countries, the fruit formsthe basis of an important industry. Thewood is used for carpentry, fuel wood, andcharcoal. The bark and leaves containtannin, and are also used in traditionalmedicine. BARK Pale reddish brown,

UNRIPE FRUITHALVEDRIPE FRUIT 10–20 pairs of

prominent veins

yellowseeds

GUAVA CHEESE

LEAVES

Guava HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE American tropics, cultivated in warm regions worldwide

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S166

Syzygium aromaticum

The flower buds of the clove tree havebeen used as a spice for thousands of years.One of the earliest references to clovessays that people who visited the Chineseemperor had to place a few in their mouthsto sweeten their breath. The tree has been

pyramidalhabit

DENSE FOLIAGE

CLOVES AND CLOVE OIL

Cloves, the flower buds of the tree, are harvested and dried before theyopen, and are widely used as a spice.The oil extracted from cloves is used incosmetics, confectionery, and herbalmedicine. It also has a mild anesthetic

effect and is usedexternally to treat

toothaches.

CLOVE OIL

introduced throughout the tropics. Today,the main producers of cloves and cloveoil are the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba,off the coast of East Africa. The treeonce played an important part in worldhistory. Wars were fought in Europe andwith the native Moluccan islanders tosecure rights to the lucrative clove trade.In 1816, the Dutch destroyed the trees inorder to raise prices. This led to a bloodynative insurrection, which proved to be adisaster for the Dutch. BARK Grayish andsmooth. LEAF Oblong, up to 6 in (15 cm )

long, fragrant. FLOWER Red and white,bell-shaped, in terminal clusters.

FRUIT One-seeded berry.

LEAVES

FLOWER BUDS

CLOVES

CloveHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Indonesia (Molucca Islands),Philippines

glossysurface

yellowcalyx

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 167

Widely cultivated in warm regions for itsshowy flowers that bloom for most of theyear and its velvety foliage, this tree is apopular ornamental. BARK Pale brown,thin. LEAF Opposite, lanceolate-ovate, dark green, often with red edges, and 3–5prominent veins. FLOWER Purple blossoms,5 in (12.5 cm) wide, with hooked stamens,held in terminal panicles above foliage.FRUIT Dry, hard brown capsule.

Usually shrubby, the coco plum grows in tropical coastal areas and is useful forstabilizing dunes and soil. BARK Gray-brown, with lenticels. LEAF Alternate,leathery, shiny dark green above, palerbeneath, short-stalked. FLOWER Several, in cymes at ends ofbranches, with4–5 white petals.FRUIT White topurple, plumlikedrupe, with spongy, whitish,edible flesh.

The jambolan is a tropical and sub-tropical tree. Juice is extracted from itsfruit, which is eaten both raw and cooked.In the Philippines and Suriname, it is usedto make vinegar and liquor. All parts of the

tree are used in traditionalmedicine. BARK Gray,

smooth; the base isrough and flaking. LEAF Opposite,oblong; pink whenyoung, dark greenwhen mature.FLOWER Rose pink to white, in branched,fragrant clusters atstem tips; 4–5 fusedpetals, many stamens.FRUIT Purple-black,oval berry, up to 2 in (5 cm) long,whitish, juicy pulpwith one seed.

This tropical tree is grown for its ediblefruit, yielding more than 200 lb (100 kg) per tree. BARK Gray, smooth, and mottled.LEAF Opposite, leathery, dark green, soft.FLOWER Fragrant, in clusters of 2–8, with afunnel-like base, topped by five thick greensepals and four (usually pink to dark-red)petals; many stamens. FRUIT Pear-shaped,deep red, white, or pink berry.

Chrysobalanus icaco

Syzygium cumini Syzygium malaccense

FLOWERS IN FULL BLOOM

JambolanHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Indonesia, India

Malaysian AppleHEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, Pacific Islands

Coco PlumHEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US (S. Florida) toN. South America, Africa

Tibouchina urvilleana

TREE IN FLOWER

rounded or ellipticleaves

LEAVES AND FRUIT

fruit up to 11⁄4 in(3 cm) wide

Princess FlowerHEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Brazil

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S168

This tree is useful for land stabilization,particularly in coastal areas, and makes anexcellent park ornamental. BARK Whitishgray, smooth; base develops deep fissureswith age. LEAF Alternate, 3–5 lobes, wavymargins, white when young, turning shinydark green above and white beneath with

age. FLOWER Malesand females borne onseparate trees, petalless,in catkins; males: gray,with crimson redanthers; females:greenish yellow. FRUIT Green capsulewith fluffy seeds.

This tree is a major source of wood pulpfor paper and hardboard. It is also used assupplementary food for cattle. BARK Thin,pale grayish green, base irregularlyfissured when old. LEAF Alternate, darkgreen above, hairy beneath, turning smoothwith age. FLOWER Males and females onseparate trees in cylindrical catkins; maleswith pale red anthers; females green. FRUIT Pear-shaped capsule, hairy seeds.

The mobola tree is a prized fruit tree intropical Africa. BARK Rough, with deepfissures; emits a hissing sound when cut.LEAF Alternate, oblong to elliptic, with arounded or tapering base. FLOWER Yellow-green, in drooping panicles, fragrant.FRUIT Plum-shaped, olive-green drupe.

anno anno

The kepayang tree’s parts are highly toxic,but the seed is edible when thoroughlywashed. BARK Reddish to dark brown,smooth or fissured. LEAF Alternate, spiral,ovate to cordate, dark green above.FLOWER Bright pale green, axillary; male

in clusters; female solitary.FRUIT Brown, berrylike,soft when ripe.

Populus grandidentata

Parinari curatellifolia Pangium edule

TRUNK

Populus alba

MobolaHEIGHT 26–40 ft (8–12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa

ADULT LEAVESspreading habit

coarsely toothedmargins

ovate to roundedleaves

FRUIT

LEAF

fissuredbark

oblong-ovoidfruit

KepayangHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malaysia, Indonesia,Philippines, Papua New Guinea

White PoplarHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, C. and W. Asia, N. Africa

Bigtooth AspenHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. and N.C. United States, S.E. Canada.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 169

This tree was used by American Indiansfor its medicinal properties and to makeglue and soap. Today, its soft wood is usedfor pulp and rough timber. BARK Palegray to brown, smooth; grows darker andfurrowed with age. LEAF Alternate, ovate,shiny dark green above, pale green below;

resinous smell.FLOWER Green,small, petalless;males and femaleson separate trees,in cylindrical,pendent catkins.FRUIT Small,green capsule;seeds with fluffy hairs.

Doronoki wood was used for makingmatchsticks, boxes, and pulp. Today, in Japan, it is used for stabilizing streambanks and sand. BARK Greenish white,turning gray, deeply fissured with age. LEAF Alternate, leathery, elliptic-ovate,toothed margins. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees; green, petalless,in hanging, cylindrical catkins. FRUIT Capsule, with fluffy seeds.

This tree is valued for pulp and paperproduction. BARK Greenish yellow; darkgray, furrowed with age. LEAF Alternate.FLOWER Catkins; males with pale redanthers; females green. FRUIT Capsule.

Populus maximowiczii

Populus x canadensis Populus deltoides

LEAF

Populus balsamifera

Carolina PoplarHEIGHT 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Garden origin

fluffy hairs

roundedcrown

This tree is a hybrid between the easterncottonwood (P. deltoides) and the Lombardypoplar (P. nigra). BARK Pale gray-brown,deeply fissured. LEAF Alternate, dark green,broadly triangular, finely toothed margins.FLOWER Males and females separate,

in drooping, cylindricalcatkins; males with

pale red anthers;females green.

FRUIT Smallcapsule, withhairy seeds.

conspicuousveins

finely toothed margins

FRUIT WITH SEEDS

pointed tip

broadlycolumnarhabit

EasternCottonwoodHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. United States

Balsam PoplarHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

DoronokiHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. Asia, Japan

WHITE POPLARPopulus alba, with its distinctive white trunk anddark markings, is an extremely vigorous tree thatoften outcompetes other species. This tendency can,however, be useful for pioneer planting in areaswhere other trees are less easily established.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S172

This aspen reproduces by means ofvegetative suckers and forms stands ofclones, the largest being a male clone inUtah that occupies 17.2 acres and hasmore than 47,000 stems. BARK Thin,smooth, whitish to pale yellow-brown.LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate, 1–3 in(2–7 cm) long.FLOWER Cylindrical catkins; maleswith pinkishred anthers;females green.FRUIT Smallcapsule.

Like most poplars, the wood of this tree islight. It is used as pulp for high-gradebook and magazine paper. It peels easilyand is used in plywood and cratemanufacture. BARK Ashy gray, deeplydivided into broad, rounded ridges,breaks up in flakes. LEAF Alternate,ovate-lanceolate to triangular, shiny darkgreen above, whitish to rusty beneath.FLOWER Catkins, long, cylindrical; maleswith light purple anthers; females green.FRUIT Small capsule.

The “Mappa burl” veneer is made from the bossed trunk of this tree. BARK Dark gray-brown, deeply furrowed.LEAF Alternate, triangular to ovate, withfinely toothed margins, shiny dark greenabove, pale green beneath. FLOWER In long catkins, males withred anthers; femalesgreen. FRUIT Smallcapsule, fluffy-haired seeds.

The flattened leaf stalks of this tree makethe leaves quiver with a distinctive sound.BARK Smooth, pale gray, diamond-shapedlenticels, becoming darker, rough andridged. LEAF Alternate, round, toothed,shiny dark green above, pale green below.FLOWER In long catkins, males with redanthers; females green. FRUIT Smallcapsule, with fluffy-haired seeds.

Populus nigra Populus tremula

European AspenHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia

Populus tremuloides

LEAF

LEAF

small, greencapsules

Populus trichocarpa

broadly ovate torounded

catkins bearingfluffy-hairedseeds

scallopedmargin

LEAVES

translucentmargins

Quaking AspenHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. North America, W. North America (from Mexico to Alaska)

Black CottonwoodHEIGHT up to 200 ft (60 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. North America

Lombardy Poplar HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 173

This willow was previously cultivated as awaterside tree. BARK Gray-brown, withirregular fissures. LEAF Alternate,lanceolate, toothed, grayish green beneath.FLOWER Cylindrical catkins; males yellow;females green. FRUIT Green capsule.

There are several commercial cultivars of this small, shrubby tree. BARK Olive-gray. LEAF Alternate or sub-opposite,oblanceolate, finely toothed near tip,green to bluish white below, sparselyhairy. FLOWER Cylindrical catkins,petalless; males yellow; females green.FRUIT Small green capsule.

anno anno

Salix purpurea

Salix alba

Salix babylonica

The bark of the willow tree has valuablemedicinal properties. It is a naturalsource of salicin, which is the activeingredient of the analgesic drug aspirin.BARK Gray-brown, deeply fissured. LEAF Alternate, bluish greenbelow with silky hairs. FLOWER In cylindricalcatkins, petalless;males yellow;females green. FRUIT Smallgreen capsule.

LEAVES

lanceolate leaf

White WillowHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa

Weeping WillowHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

Purple OsierHEIGHT up to 17 ft (5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Asia

ASPENPictured here in the Targhee National Forest, Idaho,the golden autumn foliage of the aspen (Populustremula) is one of the hallmark sights of the NorthAmerican fall. However, this species also growswidely in Europe and Asia.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S176

Salix x sepulcralis

Golden WeepingWillowHEIGHT 30–65 ft (9–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Garden origin

A hybrid between S. alba and S. babylonica,this tree has a rounded, spreading crownand drooping shoots. The largest“weeping” willow is ‘Chrysocoma’. BARK Pale gray-brown. LEAF Alternate,margins finely toothed, smooth below orcovered with silky hairs, ending in longtapered points. FLOWER Catkins; borne on separate trees, cylindrical, individualflowers small, petalless; males yellow;females green. FRUIT Small green capsule,with fluffy white seeds. LEAVES

BARK

shallow fissureslanceolate leaf

SACRED WAY, BEIJING

Weeping willows are used as ornamentals worldwideand are associated with death in many cultures. Asymbol of sorrow and mourning, these trees are oftenplanted near graveyards and tombs, as on this roadleading to the Ming Tombs in Beijing. S. babylonica isalso known as the tree of inspiration and enchantment.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 177

The latex of this densely branched tree is extremely toxic. BARK Gray, roughlyfissured. LEAF Oblanceolate on seedlingsand young plants, triangular on oldgrowth. FLOWER Reddish. FRUIT Semi-spherical capsule, with 2–3 cavities.

Also known as the kukui nut or kemiri,this tree has an irregular and whitishcrown. BARK Rough, with lenticels. LEAF Alternate and spiral, ovate, darkgreen. FLOWER Greenish white, males and females on same plant in terminal

panicles. FRUIT Bunches of 3–6 nuts, olive to

yellowish green.

Euphorbia ingens

Aleurites moluccana Baccaurea ramiflora

Euphorbia candelabrum

Tree EuphorbiaHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mozambique, Zimbabwe,South Africa

The fleshy terminal branches of thissucculent tree form a round crown. BARK Gray with rough fissures. LEAF Oblanceolate on seedlings andyoung plants, triangular on old growth.FLOWER Greenish yellow, on the topmostsegment of every branch. FRUIT Semi-spherical capsule, with 2–3 cavities.

The crown of this tree is irregular anddense; the branches are pagoda-like.BARK Grayish brown, smooth or slightlyflaky. LEAF Alternate, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, smooth to sparsely hairy below.FLOWER Yellowish green; males and femalesborne on separate plants in inflorescenceson branches and trunk. FRUIT Droopingclusters of spherical nuts, red to orange-pink, turning purple when ripe; edible,sweet-sour taste.

green stems

fleshy terminalbranches

CandlenutHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Thailand, Malaysia to W. Polynesia and E. Australia

BARK

3–5 lobes

gray-brownto blackish

slightly wavymargins

LEAF

RambaiHEIGHT up to 50–80 ft (15–25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India to S. China, Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Andaman Islands

Candelabra TreeHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. Africa

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S178

Hevea brasiliensis

Rubber trees were widely cultivated inSoutheast Asian plantations for theabundance of white latex in their trunks,which was extracted and processed tomake natural rubber. However, erraticsupplies during World War II led to thedevelopment of synthetic rubber and adecline in the importance of naturalrubber. BARK Grayish to pale brown,smooth, with rings. LEAF Alternate,trifoliate, with smooth, elliptic leaflets. FLOWER Greenish yellow, petalless, bornein axillary panicles; males and females onthe same branch. FRUIT Oval capsule,with three lobes and furrowed seeds.

NATURAL RUBBER

The invention of the pneumatictire gave an impetus to thedevelopment of rubber. It wasalso used for waterproofingfabrics. At first, rubber wasexported from Brazil, but the seeds of the tree weresmuggled to Britain andpromoted across its colonies.Today, Thailand is one ofthe largest producers.

LEAFLETS

RUBBER TAPPING

untoothedmargin

Rubber TreeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical South America, introduced to S.E. Asia

RU N N I N G H E A D 179

Mallotus philippensis

Vernicia fordii

RIPE FRUIT ON BRANCHES

LEAVES

The kamala tree has a short, often fluted trunk, and a dense crown. The red powder that covers the fruit wasformerly collected and used as a naturaldye, producing brilliant yellows andoranges. It is still used in small quantitiesby craft dyers. In India, the fruit is usedin Ayurvedic medicine. BARK Gray-brown and smooth. LEAF Alternate, ovate to lanceolate, on reddish brownbranchlets. FLOWER Greenish, small;males and females on separate trees;males solitary or in spikes; females interminal and axillary spikes or racemes.FRUIT Three-lobed capsule that is covered with orange to reddish granulesand contains black seeds.

This tree usually flowers at night and ispollinated by bats. The fruit is coated by a fibrous husk and the fat from the kernelsprovides oil. Brazilians use the fruit to

Caryocar nuciferum

make liquor. The timber is very durableand is used to build boats. BARK Dull gray, develops deep, vertical cracks. LEAF Opposite, trifoliate, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate leaflets, sometimes slightlytoothed. FLOWER Large, powderpuff-like,2–8, with blood-red petals, several stamens,in racemes. FRUIT Soft, woody, kidney-shaped nuts with edible yellow pulp.

This tree is cultivated for the oil in itsseeds. Tung oil is used in paints,polishes, varnishes, and brakelinings, and is the main ingredientin “teak oil.” BARK Smooth.

LEAF Alternate, ovate, with a heart-shaped base. FLOWER Pink, large;

males and females on the same plant.FRUIT Oval to pear-shaped, green topurple capsulewith 4–5 seeds.

LEAF BASE

two redglands

shallowlobes

Kamala TreeHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Asia, Australia

TungHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. China, Myanmar, N. Vietnam

Souari NutHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S180

Found on sandy and rocky seashores, this tree is also known as the kamani. It has a broad crown, often with gnarled,horizontal branches, and is sometimesplanted as a street tree in coastal areas.

LEAVES WITH FRUIT

MangosteenHEIGHT 20–80 ft (6–25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

Alexandrian Laurel HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, Indonesia, Philippines, PapuaNew Guinea, Malaysia, Pacific Islands

The mangosteen isprobably the mosthighly praised tropical fruit and isusually eaten fresh.Cultivated trees of this speciesare always female, and theyreproduce asexually, producing offspringthat are identical to themselves. Together,they are thought to form a clone that hasdescended from a single parent plant. BARK Dark brown to black, flaking. LEAF Opposite, oblong to elliptic, smoothsurface and margins. FLOWER Solitary orpaired at the tips of the branchlets; large,fleshy petals, yellow-green with reddishedges. FRUIT Dark purple and globoseberry, with the seed enveloped in an ediblewhite structure (arillode).

Garcinia mangostana

Calophyllum inophyllum

BARK Gray-brown to blackish, deeplyfissured, with yellow sap. LEAF Opposite,elliptic to obovate-elliptic. FLOWER Bornein axillary racemes, 4–8 white petals, withnumerous yellow stamens. FRUIT Yellowishgreen, globose drupe.

glossy, deepgreen leafunripe fruit

LEAVES WITH FRUIT

untoothedmargins

spherical fruit

RIPEFRUIT

edible layer

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 181

LEAVES WITHFRUIT

Red MangroveHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US (S. Florida), West Indies,coasts of tropical America, W. Africa

Erythroxylum coca

Rhizophora mangle

The shrublike coca plant has many smallbranchlets, bearing leaves containing thealkaloid cocaine. It is one of the oldestdomesticated shrubs, its cultivation datingas far back as 2,000–3,000 years. In thepast, cocaine was used in tonics andpatent medicines. It is now recognized as

Coca HEIGHT 12–20 ft (3–6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

This species dominates mangrove swampsin the Western Hemisphere. Its bark has been a source of tannin, dyes, andmedicines. BARK Gray to gray-brown,developing scaly ridges. LEAF Opposite,leathery, elliptic to obovate-elliptic.FLOWER Pale yellowish green; four sepalsand four petals. FRUIT Leathery, initiallyconical berry, germinating on parent tree.

untoothed leafmargin

embryonicroot

an addictive drug. BARK Grayish white.LEAF Alternate, oval to elliptical, 11⁄2–23⁄4in (4–7 cm) long. FLOWER Solitary or inclusters in the leaf axils, small, yellowishgreen. FRUIT Red drupe.

COCA LEAVES

The tradition of chewing of coca leaves is deeplyentrenched among the Andean Indians, who use it to

increase physicalenergy and to reducethe perception of pain,hunger, and thirst. Thecoca leaf has greatmythical and mysticalsignificance in theirculture and religionand is a symbol ofAndean Indian identity.

RED MANGROVEThe red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) is welladapted to aquatic conditions, such as those seenhere on the coast of Boipeba Island, Brazil. Stilt rootssupport the plant above the water, while aerial rootsextend to the surface to aid aeration.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S184

Ooray, as this tree is also known, is apopular garden plant. Despite being veryacid, the fruit was prized by early Europeansettlers. It is used to make jams and wines. BARK Brown, corky, and scaly.LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with a terminalleaflet; leaflets leathery, ovate-lanceolate,densely hairy, sharply and irregularlytoothed. FLOWER Borne in panicles ontrunk and leaf axils, reddish brown.FRUIT Dark purple, very similar in shapeand size to a plum, grows in a large cluster.

First used by the Mapuche people ofChile, the bark extract of this tree isutilized as a foaming agent in beveragesand a wetting agent in photography.BARK Gray-brown, finely pustular, turningdarker and tough. LEAF Alternate, ellipticto ovate, margins smooth to toothed.FLOWER White, in terminal flat-toppedclusters. FRUIT Follicle with winged seeds.

This many-branched, bushy tree has abroad crown, with drooping branches.BARK Pale brown, smooth. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, with a terminal leaflet, sometimeshairy. FLOWER In axillary panicles, pale redwith a purple heart. FRUIT Egg-shapedberry, orange-yellow when ripe.

Quillaja saponaria

Averrhoa bilimbi Averrhoa carambola

BARK, FLOWERS AND FRUIT

LEAVES

BilimbiHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, S.E. Asia

Starfruit TreeHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, Florida

Soapbark Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Chile, Peru

Davidson PlumHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (Queensland)

Davidsonia pruriens

FRUIT FLOWERS AND LEAVES

simple, leatheryleaves

Also called the cucumber tree, this treehas a short trunk and erect branches. Thefruit is sour and usually not eaten raw.BARK Pinkish brown, smooth, sometimesslightly flaky. LEAF Alternate, pinnate,crowded at ends of branches, with aterminal leaflet; leaflets are ovate, in 7–19pairs, sometimes hairy. FLOWER In smallpanicles, five petals, yellowish green or purplish, marked with dark purple,fragrant. FRUIT Oval to egg-shaped ornearly cylindrical berry, faintly five-sided,yellowish green to whitish.

5 prominentribs

3–6 pairsof leaflets

185

This erect, spreading tree or shrub in rare cases reaches 56 ft (18 m) in heightand is an exceedingly variable specieswith about ten varieties. It is long-livedand is such a prominent part of theAustralian scrubland that areas in whichit grows are referred to as “mulgacountry” or “mulga lands.” The tree is of economic importance as fodder for grazing animals. BARK Dark gray,fissured. LEAF Straight or slightly curved,highly variable in shape, narrow, blue-green to gray-green, smooth or finelyhairy. FLOWER Golden yellow, in stalkedaxillary, cylindrical spikes. FRUIT Flat,broad pod that is narrowly winged,ripening to brown.

This small tree or thorny shrub is alsocalled golden mimosa. Its flowers are used to produce “Cassie” perfume, which is an ingredient of many cosmeticsand fine perfumes. BARK Dark brown,smooth. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate withlinear to oblong leaflets in 10–25 pairs.FLOWER Mostly bisexual, in axillary,rounded flower heads, with numerousstamens; sweetly scented. FRUIT Sausage-like, brownish black pod.

A broadly conical to spreading tree, thesilver wattle is widely cultivated in theMediterranean region. BARK Smooth,green or blue-green, turning almost black with age. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate, 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long, dividedinto numerous leaflets, about 3⁄16 in (5 mm)long each, untoothed, blue-green, andfinely hairy. FLOWER In panicles of small,rounded clusters; individual flowers aresmall, bright yellow, and have numerousstamens. FRUIT Flattened pod, ripeningfrom green to blue-green to brown.

Acacia aneura

Acacia farnesianaAcacia dealbata

LEAVES ANDFLOWER

Silver WattleHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia, Tasmania

Sweet AcaciaHEIGHT 5–26 ft (1.5–8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical America, parts of Africa, Australia

MulgaHEIGHT 16–33 ft (5–10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

TREE IN FLOWERbright golden yellowflower head

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S186

Although this upright tree grows wild inwoodland, it is also grown commerciallyfor tannin from its bark. BARK Gray-brown,smooth. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate, withlinear to oblong leaflets. FLOWER Inpanicles, creamy white to pale yellow,fragrant. FRUIT Gray, hairy or smoothpod with black seeds. This erect or spreading tree is found in

wet forests. Its wood is used for paneling.BARK Dark gray-black, deeply fissured,somewhat scaly. LEAF Alternate, narrowly elliptic to oblanceolate. FLOWER Cream, sphericalflower heads in short racemes. FRUIT Elongated, twistedpod with black seeds.

One of the hardiest acacias, this invasivetree was introduced into cultivation in1792. It is fast-growingand excellent forscreening purposes,but is short-lived.BARK Gray, fissured.LEAF Straight, linearto elliptic, with 2–4 prominentprimary veins. FLOWER Goldento lemon yellow,arranged incylindrical heads. FRUIT Rough brown pod.

Planted as an exotic, this tree grows wellon poor soil. It is grown for pulp and paperproduction. BARK Gray to dark brown,corrugated or cracked. LEAF Elliptic.FLOWER Greenish white to cream, in loosespikes. FRUIT Pod with black seeds.

Acacia melanoxylon

Acacia longifolia Acacia mangium

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

Acacia mearnsii

roundedflower heads

16–70 pairs of leaflets

leaf 2–6 in(5–15 cm) long

yellow flowerspikes

FLOWERING BRANCHLET

bipinnatejuvenileleaves

undivided adultleaves

LEAVES

Blackwood HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. and S. Australia

Black WattleHEIGHT 16–100 ft (5–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia

Sydney Golden Wattle HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia

Mangium HEIGHT 33–100 ft (10–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia, Aroe Islands, S. Moluccas, S.E. Asia

Acacia nilotica

Also known as the babul, this thorny tree has a flat or rounded crown andspreading branches, with recurved spines.Since the time of the pharaohs of Egypt,large trees of this species have been

LEAVES AND FLOWER HEADS

7–25 pairs of leaflets

exploited for their dark brown wood,which is strong and durable, and nearlytwice as hard as teak. It makes anexcellent fuel wood and good-qualitycharcoal. Being termite-resistant, thetimber is especially suitable for railroadties. BARK Dark red-brown, thin, roughand fissured. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate,often with glands on leaf stalk. FLOWER Globose, scented, in axillaryflower heads. FRUIT Dark brown podthat splits open when ripe, compressedover the seeds.

BRANCHES

long, light grayspines

GUM ARABIC

Babul trees are a source of gum arabic. A piece ofbark is removed and incisions are made in thesurrounding bark with a mallet or hammer. The reddishgum is then extracted and is formed into rounded oroval “tears.” Almost completely soluble and tasteless,it is resistant to insects and water because of itsresins. Although inferior to other forms of gum arabic,it is used commercially in the manufacture ofcandles, inks, matches, and paints. The uses ofgum arabic date back about5,000 years to the ancient Egyptians.

bright yellowflower heads

GUM ARABIC “TEARS”

Prickly Acacia HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Introduced in Arabia and India

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S188

The golden wattle is the official floralemblem of Australia, and its bark is one ofthe richest sources of tannin in the world,although nowadays it is rarely usedcommercially. BARK Dark grayish brown,smooth or finely fissured. LEAF Sickle-shaped to oblanceolate, smooth, withprominent midrib. FLOWER In racemes,

about five flowerheads. FRUIT Flat, linear pod.

similar to gum arabic from A. senegal,is used as a thickener and emulsifier.BARK Rust-red or pale green, smooth,peeling, with a rusty, powdery coating.LEAF Alternate, bipinnate; 10–22 pairs of linear leaflets. FLOWER Bright yellow,in axillary, spherical flower heads. FRUIT Slightly curved, pendent pod.

Acacia pycnantha

Acacia xanthophloea

Acacia seyal

FLOWERS TREE IN FLOWER

Golden Wattle HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Australia

With its spreading branches and opencrown, this acacia grows mainly indepressions and shallow pans whereunderground water is present or surfacewater collects. Early European settlersmistakenly associated it with fever sincepeople living near its swampy habitatcontracted malarial fever. The youngbranches are covered with paired thorns.BARK Lime green to greenish yellow,luminous, slightly flaking, and coatedwith a yellow powdery substance. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate. FLOWER Bornein ball-like clusters on shortened sideshoots at the nodes and toward the endsof branches, bright golden yellow, sweetlyscented. FRUIT Yellow-brown pod.

This tree has an umbrella-shaped crown.Gum talha obtained from this species,

golden yellowflowers

deep green foliage

ShittimHEIGHT 20–50 ft (6–15 m) TYPE Evergreen˛OCCURRENCE N. Tropical Africa (Sahel zone)

Fever TreeHEIGHT 50–80 ft (15–25 m) TYPE SemideciduousOCCURRENCE East Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 189

A popular ornamental in warmclimates, this short-lived tree has anumbrella-shaped crown. BARK Palebrown, smooth. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate. FLOWER In axillaryclusters of about 20. FRUIT Flat,gray-brown pod.

Widely cultivated in the tropics, this treewas found in the wild only once, in 1865.All the trees now in existence are progenyof a cultivated temple plant collected bythe botanist Nathaniel Wallich in 1829. BARK Dark ash gray. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, with 6–8 pairs of leaflets, red topink. FLOWER Five-petaled, bright redwith yellow spots, in pendent racemes.FRUIT Flattened pod.

Albizia julibrissin

Amherstia nobilis

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

FLOWER AND LEAVES

Bauhinia variegata

petal-likebracts

oblongleaves

Widely planted as anornamental tree in warmer regions of theworld, this tree is also called the camel’s-foot tree. It blooms for several months.The bark has been used as a tannin, adye, and an astringent. The flowers canbe eaten as a vegetable. BARK Gray-brown, smooth. LEAF Alternate, cleft intwo lobes, up to one-third of surface,butterfly-shaped. FLOWER In a fewclusters at the tips of branches, appearingwhen the tree is leafless; five petals,clawed, broad, in shades of lavender topurple or white, with a dark purplecentral petal. FRUIT Flat, oblong pod.

flower 3–5 in(7.5–12.5 cm)wide

heart-shapedleaf base

fluffy, pinkishflowers

FLOWERS

leaf 4–6 in(10–15 cm) wide

40–60leaflets

Silk TreeHEIGHT 20–40 ft (4–12 m) TYPE SemideciduousOCCURRENCE Asia, Mediterranean region, introduced in United States

Orchid TreeHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE SemideciduousOCCURRENCE E. Asia (India to China)

Pride of BurmaHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

FEVER TREEThe species name of the graceful fever tree (Acaciaxanthophloea) is derived from the Greek for “yellow”(xanthos) and “bark” (phloios). Its open crown ispopular with nesting birds, and its leaves, flowers,and pods are a useful food source for animals.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S192

The pink shower, as this tree is also known, has a spreading crown. It iscultivated as an ornamental. BARK Gray-brown with black pustules. LEAF Pinnate,alternate, 10–20 pairs of broadly elliptic to ovate-oblong leaflets, shiny above, hairybeneath. FLOWER Pink, dark red, or pinkand white, in racemes from short, leaflessshoots. FRUIT Cylindrical black pod.

Widely cultivated in the tropics, this treehas a narrow crown and slender, drooping

branches. BARK Palebrown, slightly cracked.LEAF Pinnate, alternate.

FLOWER Large, inpendulous racemes.FRUIT Long,cylindrical pod.

Castanospermum australe

Butea monosperma Cassia fistula

Flame of the Forest HEIGHT 33–50 ft (10–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE India, S.E. Asia

Golden Shower HEIGHT 23–65 ft (7–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mainland S.E. Asia,Sri Lanka

Cassia javanica

The flowers of this treeyield a bright orangedye known as “butein.”

BARK Pale brownto grayish.

LEAF Alternate,trifoliate, withovate leaflets.FLOWER In

racemes, brightorange-red,

densely hairy.FRUIT Podwith singleseed near tip. LEAFLET

FRUIT

ovateshape

Commonly cultivated as an ornamental,this tree is valued for its wood, which isone of Australia’s most prized cabinettimbers. BARK Gray to brown, rough withsmall pustules. LEAF Pinnate, with terminalleaflet, and alternate, 9–17 oblong-ellipticleaflets, glossy green above, paler beneath.FLOWER Orange-red and yellow, in axillaryracemes. FRUIT Woody, spongy pod, with3–5 beanlike brown seeds.

cylindricalpod

flowers withyellow petals

Rainbow Shower HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

Black Bean TreeHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 193

Ceratonia siliqua

Unknown in the wild, this tree has beencultivated since ancient times, originallypropagated by the Greeks. Its alternativenames, locust tree and St. John’s bread,were derived from the Bible. St. John theBaptist is said to have sustained himselfon the sweet, pulpy pods of this treewhen wandering in the wilderness. Thepods are used as fodder for livestock andalso as a substitute for cocoa.

BARK Brown, rough. LEAF Alternate,pinnate; 2–5 pairs of oval leaflets

with rounded tips, shiny darkgreen above, paler beneath.FLOWER Green, tinted red,axillary or borne on the

branches and trunk, in smallclusters. FRUIT Oblong,

leathery pod, containing soft,pale brown pulp and 5–15

flattened, hard seeds.UNRIPE PODS LEAVES

CarobHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Uncertain, probably Arabian Peninsula

CARATS FROM CAROB

The Greek name of the carob treeis “keration” from which the word“carat” is derived. Carob podseeds have a uniform andconsistent weight. In theancient world, jewelers,seeking a standardweight measurement forgems, began to use theseeds to assess thevalue of individualstones.

to 12 in(30 cm) long

1–21⁄4 in(2.5–6 cm)long

CAROB PODS

194

According to legend, this is the tree onwhich Judas Iscariot hanged himself. The unopened buds are pickled or usedas a caper substitute. BARK Gray-brown,finely fissured, cracking into smallrectangular plates. LEAF Rounded, with aheart-shaped base, smooth on both sides,palmately veined. FLOWER In clusters on the branches and trunk, appearingbefore the leaves. FRUIT Flat pod,ripening to brown.

Cercis canadensis

LEAVES

LABELLABEL

This popular, small ornamental tree hasseveral cultivars with white flowers,pendulous forms, and one with purpleleaves called ‘Forest Pansy’. AmericanIndians used extracts from the bark androots as medicine. BARK Brown-gray,fissured and scaly plates, sometimesflaking in strips; cinnamon-orange innerbark revealed with age.LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate torounded, with a heart-shapedbase, palmatelyveined, smooth. FLOWER Pink,borne in clusters on old wood. FRUIT Pinkish- red pod that ripens to brown.

Judas TreeHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, W. Asia

Cercis siliquastrum

Eastern RedbudHEIGHT 40–50 ft (12–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. and C. North America

rose-purpleflowers irregular

crown

green whenyoung

alternate leafarrangement

untoothedmargin

YOUNG POD

pointedtip

LEAF

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 195

Small and many-branched, this tree has a knotty trunk. The tree isknown for its edible fruit, which growsdirectly from the trunk, mostly at thebase, instead of from the branches. The nam-nam fruit has a pleasantlysweet-sour taste when ripe. In its unripestate it can be pickled or stewed withsugar. BARK Grayish brown, dappled,scaly. LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with 1–2 pairs of ovate to ovate-lanceolate, smoothleaflets, rarely covered with hairs.FLOWER Cauliflorous (growing directlyfrom knots on the trunk), in compactclusters, with white petals, and pinkishwhite sepals curved back like petals.FRUIT Ovoid to kidney-shaped pod that is hard, rough, and knobby, greenishyellow to brown.

Mopane is an important tree for browsingmammals, including elephants, giraffes,and cattle, and its heavy termite-resistanttimber is often used for furniture. BARK Grayish brown, deeply and verticallyfissured. LEAF Alternate, deeply two-lobed,butterfly-like. FLOWER In small, greensprays. FRUIT Flat, crescent-shaped pod.

anno annoLABEL TOCOME

Colophospermum mopane Colvillea racemosa

LABEL

MopaneHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Southern Africa

Cynometra cauliflora

This plant is cultivated in the tropics as an ornamental. BARK Copper brown, withsmall, corky lenticels. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate, with 15–30 leaflets. FLOWER Ingrapelike cylindrical to conical clusters.FRUIT Two-valved,straight pod.

red and orangeflowers

gray-greenleaves

Colville’s Glory TreeHEIGHT 25–65 ft (8–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Madagascar

Nam-NamHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S196

Dalbergia decipularis

The Brazilian tulipwood usually hasmultiple trunks and grows taller in theforest than in open areas. Its wood isgreatly sought-after for its color andflowerlike fragrance, and has beenexported from Brazil for many decades.

The identity of the wood remained amystery for years, and its scientificdescription was available only in 1966,after a living tree was tracked down inBahia. BARK Red-brown, peeling in narrowstrips. LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with aterminal leaflet; 5–9 oblong-elliptic leaflets, with pointed tips, sometimesdensely hairy beneath. FLOWER Terminaland lateral, white, pealike, in corymblikeinflorescence. FRUIT Elliptical pod.

Brazilian Tulipwood HEIGHT 25–40 ft (8–12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Brazil (Bahia)

Dalbergia melanoxylon

Found in deciduous woodlands and drysavannas, the African blackwood usuallyhas many branches, which bear thickspines at the nodes. Its wood produces

a beautiful musical tone and is used formaking complex musical instruments,especially woodwinds. It is also used to make chess pieces and ornamental boxes. BARK Pale gray, smooth andpapery, sometimes peeling off in strips.LEAF Alternate, pinnate with a terminalleaflet; 7–13 leaflets. FLOWER White topale pink, fragrant, pealike, in axillary or terminal panicles. FRUIT Thin,narrow, papery pod.

BLACKWOOD MUSIC

Clarinets made of Africanblackwood are known fortheir rich, mellow tone. Thefine-grained, dense woodlends itself to the intricatemachining needed for themanufacture of complexwoodwind instruments. Itcan also withstand extremetemperatures.

CLARINET

African Blackwood HEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE E. Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 197

Dalbergia nigra

This tree yields a heavy, hard, dark-colored wood that is streaked with black.It is highly prized as a cabinet timber andis used in the manufacture of guitars andpianos. The tree has been overexploited to the verge of extinction and it is nowillegal to trade in the species. However,some types of guitars are still made fromthe wood, and people can log old stumpsleft in the forest. The strong odor of theheartwood is due to the presence of“nerolidol,” an essential oil.

BARK Red-brown, thin, peeling inlongitudinal plates. LEAF Alternate,pinnate with a terminal leaflet; 11–17oblong leaflets that are softly hairy whenyoung and become smooth with age.FLOWER Violet, fragrant and pealike,borne in lateral flowering shoots. FRUIT Winged pod.

BARK

peeling plates

FINE FURNITURE

Prized for its exotic andbeautifully figured appearance,Brazilian rosewood was afavorite among cabinet-makersof the 18th and 19th centuries.Today, these pieces are highlysought-after by collectors.

REGENCY BRAZILIANROSEWOOD CABINET

Brazilian Rosewood HEIGHT 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Brazil (Bahia to São Paulo)

Delonix regia

Considered one of the most colorful treesin the world for its scarlet-red blossoms,

this fast-growing tree was introducedworldwide by Wenzel Bojer in 1828 froman isolated specimen in northeastMadagascar. The tree is found inconspicuous, spreading groups in forests,on karst limestone and escarpments. BARK Pale gray, smooth but crumblingsurface. LEAF Alternate, pinnate orbipinnate; 10–25 pairs of primary leaflets,each with 15–30 pairs of secondaryleaflets; elliptic to oblong, smooth orcovered with short hairs. FLOWER Inracemes, four spoon-shaped, spreadingpetals, fifth petal larger with yellowishwhite and scarlet markings, the rest scarlet-red. FRUIT Linear, leathery dark brownpod, to 231⁄2 in (60 cm) long.

FLOWERS

blue-gray seeds

petals to 3 in (7.5 cm)

AN ENDANGERED SPECIES

Although widely cultivated as astreet tree the world over for itsspreading branches, dense foliage,and striking flowers, this tree isendangered in the wild. The IUCNRed List classifies the nativeMadagascan population of the treeas globally vulnerable. It isthreatened because it occurs in a charcoal production area.

large, showyflowers

URBAN PLANTING

POD AND SEEDS

RoyalPoincianaHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Madagascar, widely planted

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 199

This tree is tall, with a compact crown.Tonka bean seeds yield coumarin, used togive fragrance to pipe tobacco and soaps.

Its bark is used in shipbuilding.BARK Gray, smooth and flaky,becoming furrowed and corky with

age. LEAF Alternate, pinnate; leafletoblong. FLOWER White, in

axillary spikes. FRUIT Small,one-seeded pod.

SEEDS

The crimson flowers of this short-trunkedtree are pollinated by carpenter bees andhummingbirds. The tree contains alkaloidsand has been used for medicinal purposes.BARK Gray, smooth, sometimes with thorns.LEAF Alternate, with three leaflets, whitishbeneath, often with spines.FLOWER Groups of 1–3 atends of twigs, with fivepetals. FRUIT Large, long,thin brown pods.

Found in coastal forests, this tree has largeflowers that produce vast amounts ofnectar. Its coral-red seeds are used to makenecklaces. BARK Gray-brown, sometimeswith prickles. LEAF Alternate with threebroadly ovate sharp-tipped leaflets up to

7 in (18 cm) long.FLOWER In clusters,pealike. FRUIT Narrowpod; poisonous seeds.

Dipteryx odorata

Erythrina crista-galliErythrina caffra

FRUITING TREE

FLOWERS ANDLEAVES

black, wrinkledbeans

FLOWER

scarlet-orangepetals spreading

crownelliptic to ovate leaflets

pealikecrimsonflowers

oval fruitTonka BeanHEIGHT 80–130 ft (25–40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Orinoco region of Guyana and Venezuela, introduced in West Indies

Coast Coral Tree HEIGHT 30–40 ft (9–12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. Africa, South Africa

Crybaby Tree HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE South America

RU N N I N G H E A D200

Falcataria moluccana

This tree has been introduced into several Southeast Asian countries andother tropical regions. It has a flat,spreading, very wide crown and grows extremely rapidly, even on nutrient-poorsoil. A one-year old tree may reach aheight of more than 20 ft (6 m), while aten-year old tree can reach a height of

nearly 100 ft (30 m). Thesau is often planted as anornamental and forreforestation. It is also usedin coffee-growing areas as ashade tree. BARK Greenishwhite to gray, smooth,sometimes slightly warty.LEAF Alternate, bipinnate,with 15–25 pairs of elliptic, sickle-shaped, smooth leaflets. FLOWER Cream to greenish white, stalkless,numerous, borne in lateral panicles. FRUIT Flat, narrow, thin-walled pod.

LIGHT WOOD

The soft, light wood of the Sau tree is used to makematchsticks and to manufacture pulp and low-densityparticleboard. It is a high quality core material forplywood, pallets and crating, and chopsticks. The wood isalso used for lightweightconstruction, paneling,furniture components, toys,wooden shoes, and musicalinstruments.

MATCHSTICKS

FLOWERS

TRUNK

blackish seeds

POD

yellowish brownmature pod

SauHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. Malaysia, Indonesia(Molucca Islands), Papua New Guinea to Solomon Islands

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 201

The wood of this tree is coarse-grained,heavy, and strong. It is used for fencingand construction. The raw seed is toxic.BARK Dark gray tinged with red, deeplyfissured. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate; 6–14ovate leaflets. FLOWER Whitish, fragrant,in conical panicles; females are threetimes the length of males, on separateplants. FRUIT Red-brown, leathery pod.

Gleditsia triacanthos

The trunk of this tree has large, branchedspines. The wood was formerly prized forbows, timber, and fenceposts. Its pods are filled with a sticky pulp that is sweetand flavorful, but irritating to the throat.American Indians used the pulp as a

Kentucky Coffee TreeHEIGHT 72–105 ft (22–32 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and E. United States

Gymnocladus dioica

Honey LocustHEIGHT 75–150 ft (22–45 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. and C. US

FRUIT

twistedpod

FALLLEAVES

bright greenturns toyellow

LEAF

pointedtips

sweetener and thickening agent, and as amedicine. BARK Dark gray-brown, deeplyfissured. LEAF Alternate, first leaves fromthe spurs on the old wood pinnate, laterleaves on the new shoots bipinnate; 18–28elliptic to ovate, minutely toothed leaflets.FLOWER Pale yellow-green, in narrow

racemes. FRUIT Darkreddish brown pod with seeds embedded in a succulent pulp.

BRANCHLET

leaflet to11⁄2 in (4cm) long

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S202

The kempas tree usually has steepbuttresses up to 10 ft (3 m) long. Its woodmakes an excellent heavy timber and is now increasingly used for parquetflooring. BARK Gray-brown, narrow, finefissures, somewhat flaky. LEAF Alternate,pinnate; 5–9 ovate-elliptic to oblongleaflets with one terminal leaflet; slightlyhairy beneath. FLOWER Small, faintlyscented, borne in terminal panicles;round-tipped white petals greenish at the base. FRUIT Pod.

Also known as laburnum, this tree has anarrow, irregular crown. It is rarelyplanted in public places because it is verypoisonous. BARK Greenishbrown, smooth, becomingshallowly fissured with age.LEAF Alternate, with threeleaflets, dull green above,gray-green beneath, silky.FLOWER In terminal drooping racemes, pealike. FRUIT Linear brown pod.

This massive tree mostly grows in rivervalleys and on hill slopes. It is rarely felled,since its timber is hard, and is more valuedfor the honeycombs in its branches. BARK Gray with a greenish tinge, smooth.LEAF Alternate, pinnate, elliptic, slightlyhairy beneath. FLOWER In many-floweredpanicles at the ends of shoots; fragrant,creamy white petals. FRUIT Winged pod.

Laburnum anagyroides

Koompassia excelsa

TualangHEIGHT up to 260 ft (80 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo

Golden Chain HEIGHT up to 23 ft (7 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and S. Europe

KempasHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo

Koompassia malaccensis

TREE IN FLOWERLEAVES ANDFLOWERS

7–12leaflets

spreadingcrown

LEAVES

ellipticleaflets

goldenyellowflowers

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 203

Leucaena leucocephala

Introduced throughout the tropics andnaturalized in many places, this tree isused in reforestation, erosion control, andsoil improvement projects. It is a prolificseed producer, and can regenerate andspread rapidly. It has a wispy crown. The green parts are used as a fodder and

green manure.The wood is usedto make pulp orsmall poles. BARK Gray-brown,with small, pale brown spots, smooth. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate, with

10–20 pairs of linear to oblong, dull green leaflets that are smooth above, hairy beneath, and fold up at night.FLOWER Borne in solitary or paired,spherical heads. FRUIT Strap-shaped pod.

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

Lead TreeHEIGHT up to 30 ft (9 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Mexico, N. Central America

RIPE PODS

yellowish whitehead

FLOWERS

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S204

This tree bears flowers for a large part of the year and has a low, forked trunk. Usually foundalong the coast, it

The locust tree has a wide crown and a short, crooked trunk. Its seeds are usedto produce fermented thickening flour.BARK Gray, rough, with longitudinalfissures. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate;lanceolate leaflets. FLOWER Bright red,spherical, drooping heads of about 2,000tightly-packed individual flowers; opensat night. FRUIT Long, pale brown pod,with black seeds in a sweet pulp.

This steeply buttressed tree has anumbrella-shaped crown. BARK Reddishbrown, becoming flaky. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate, glandular at base; 20–35 pairsof leaflets. FLOWER Creamy white, long-stalked. FRUIT Large green pod.

FOLIAGE

FRUIT

Parkia biglobosa Parkia speciosa

Peltophorum pterocarpum

has been planted as a shade and street tree in areas with a monsoon climate.BARK Dark brown, vertically furrowed, red inner bark. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate;8–20 pairs of elliptic-oblong leaflets.FLOWER Bright yellow, axillary racemes orterminal panicles; petals are wrinkled, with

a reddish mark at the center. FRUIT Flattened, oblong

to elliptic pod.

spreadingcrown

14–30 pairsof leaflets

pendulouspods

yellowflowers

Locust HEIGHT up to 70 ft (21 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa

Petai HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

Yellow Flamboyant HEIGHT 30–50 ft (9–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical Asia, E. Australia

The algarroba is an important tree in itsnative semi-desert habitat. It is valued forthe shade, fuel, and concentrated forageit provides. The tree is a staple food forcattle in arid regions. The unripe greenpods are bitter and of little value, but theripe pods, which contain sugar, makeexcellent fodder. BARK Gray-brown,sometimes fissured. LEAF Alternate,bipinnate, with 10–30 linear leaflets.FLOWER Greenish white to yellow, up to3⁄16 in (5 mm) long, arranged in axillary,cylindrical spikes or racemes that are2–4 in (5–10 cm) long. FRUIT Broad,straight pod, 4–8 in (10–20 cm) long, flatand yellow when ripe, borne in droopingclusters; contains pale brown seeds,enclosed in a scaly seed coat.

Pericopsis elata

Prosopis chilensis

The afromosia tree has a flat-toppedcrown, with spreading branches. Its trunkis fluted and its buttressed base is bare ofbranches for up to 80–100 ft (25–30 m).It is found in drier areas of semi-deciduous forests. An important timbertree, the afromosia yields a hard, heavy,and dark-colored wood that is streakedwith black. The timber is considered analternative to teak and is often used forboat-building, joinery, flooring, anddecorative veneers. However, the speciesis now endangered in most of its rangebecause of over-exploitation of its timberand minimal regeneration. BARK Creamygray, smooth, peeling off in patches toexpose the soft orange inner bark. LEAF Alternate, pinnate with a terminalleaflet, usually with nine elliptic to ovate,smooth leaflets. FLOWER Cream to greenishwhite, pealike, in slenderterminal panicles. FRUIT Long, flat, winged pod.

rounded crown

buttresses upto 9 3⁄4 ft (3 m)from base

orangeunderbark

Afromosia HEIGHT up to 115 ft (36 m) TYPE Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE W. and C. Africa

Algarroba HEIGHT 10–33 ft (3–10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Bolivia, Peru, Argentina, Chile

RU N N I N G H E A D206

USES OF MESQUITE

The dense hardwood of this tree is excellent forwoodworking and is used for fencing. The bark hasbeen used medicinally for the treatment of eye

problems, skin ulcers, andsore throats, as well as a digestive aid. Theclear sap is used to

make candy and ablack dye isextracted from

the darker sap.

greenish yellowflowers

the most important gum-yielding speciesof North America in the past. The seedsof the pod were ground into flour andprocessed to make bread, which was astaple food for native peoples of the deserts of the southwestern United States. BARK Reddish brown, fissured. LEAF Alternate, bipinnate with 6–17 linearto oblong, smooth leaflets. FLOWER Inaxillary spikes, small, greenish yellow, with inconspicuous, short-lobed petals.FRUIT Long, flat pod, with oblong seeds.

The Aztec name for tree, “mesquite,”gives this tree its common name. A smalltree or shrub with zigzag branches andthorn-like spines, mesquite often formsthickets in sandy, alluvial flats. Like othersemidesert species of the genus Prosopis,the mesquite is used for shade, fuel, andconcentrated forage. In addition, it was

MESQUITE WOOD

FLOWERS

flowerspike

Prosopis glandulosa

FRUITpod 4–12 in(10–30 cm) long

Honey MesquiteHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. United States, Mexico, introduced in Australia, India, Saudi Arabia, S.W. Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 207

Also known as false acacia, this tree has a narrow crown and spiny branches. BARK Gray-brown, furrowed. LEAF Alternate, pinnate with elliptic to ovate leaflets.FLOWER White and pealike, in pendent racemes. FRUIT Drooping podwith red-brown valve.

This tree is found in dry, tropical forests,often on dry, rocky soils. The timber,much sought-after for furniture-making, is also used for producing dyes. In India,the felling of these trees is strictlymonitored, and export is forbidden. BARK Blackish brown, flaking deeply.LEAF Alternate, trifoliate or rarely withfive leaflets. FLOWER Few, in terminalracemes. FRUIT Spherical pod withthickened seed-bearing portion and wavy wings.

Pterocarpus indicus

Robinia pseudoacaciaPterocarpus santalinus

LEAF

BARK

LEAVES WITH FRUIT

seed

smooth leafsurface

Red Sandalwood HEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Asia, S. India

ovate tooblong leafletswith wavymargins

LEAVES

broadly ellipticleaflet

LEAVES AND FRUIT

Also called rosewood, this is the nationaltree of the Philippines. Its trunk is oftentwisted and gnarled, usually buttressed.BARK Yellowish to greenish brown, flakingin thin plates; inner bark yields red sap.

LEAF Alternate, pinnatewith 5–11 leaflets.

FLOWER Borne inaxillary racemes,yellow to orange-yellow, fragrant.FRUIT Circular pod.

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

rectangularflakes

reddishbrowncalyx

7–21leaflets

Angsana HEIGHT 33–165 ft (10–50 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, E. Asia, Pacific Islands

Black Locust HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE United States, Europe

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S208

Samanea saman

Introduced into many tropical regions,such as the West Indies, Sri Lanka, India,and, in 1876, Singapore, this tree iswidely cultivated. Its large, domedcanopy provides plenty of shade, makingit an important roadside and park tree. BARK Dark gray, rough, and deeply

furrowed into thin plates or corky ridges.LEAF Alternate, bipinnate, with 6–16squarish to elliptic leaflets, increasing in size from bottom to top of the tree;shiny above, with fine hairs below.FLOWER Spherical pink flower heads instalked clusters. FRUIT Straight or curvedpod, with a sweet pulp; pods smell ofhoney when broken.

Rain TreeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico, Guatemala,South America (Peru, Bolivia, Brazil)

FLOWER HEADS

broad crown

ring of pinkpetals

CICADA “RAIN”

The common name of this species, “rain tree,” refers to the falling of “honeydew,” a watery waste excretedby cicadas after they suck sap from the tree. Whilefeeding, the cicadas squirt out this liquid. When large numbers of cicadas feedon the canopy, moisture dripsfrom the tree, creating theeffect of a rain shower.

CICADA

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 209

This tree has a short trunk, droopingbranches, and a rounded crown. Theedible sweet and sour pulp in its pods is an important ingredient in manychutneys and sauces. BARK White-gray,rough, with irregular scales. LEAF Alternate, pinnate,without a terminal leaflet;10–20 pairs of elliptic-oblong, usually smoothleaflets. FLOWER Red inbud opening yellow to cream, in racemes at the sides andends of shoots. FRUIT Pod, with a dry outer shell,pulpy inside.

Sophora japonica

Tamarindus indica

Pagoda TreeHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Korea

LEAVES

TamarindHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Africa, India, widely cultivated in other tropical countries

As the name suggests, the pagoda tree was frequently planted in temple gardens.It is of historical significance as an agro-forestry tree recorded as far back as the6th century. It was introduced intowestern horticulture in 1753 and is nowplanted on streets and in parks. BARK Gray-brown, prominently ridged and fissured.LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with a terminalleaflet, dark green above, blue-greenbeneath, softly hairy. FLOWER White,pealike, fragrant, in loose, hangingpanicles at ends of shoots. FRUIT Pod,highly constricted between the seeds andresembling a string of beads.

spreading habitround crown

bud enclosedat leaf base

sharp-pointed,ovate leaflets

5 unequallobes

flower up to 1 in(2.5 cm) long

FLOWER

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S210

This small tree has spiny branches; oldtrees often have fluted trunks. An herbalmedicine for circulatory problems isextracted from its fruit and leaves. BARK Dark orange-brown or pink-brown;cracking into rectangles. LEAF Alternate,smooth, deeply cut into 3–7 lobes, glossy

FRUIT

In the unusual flowering cycle of this tree,the flowers bloom with the onset of winterand the edible fruit ripens by spring. It has adense, rounded, glossy dark green canopy.BARK Dark gray, smooth, and flaking. LEAF Alternate, smooth above, hairybeneath, toothed margins.FLOWER Large, white,fragrant, in terminal

racemes. FRUIT Pear-shaped to oval pome.

Crataegus monogyna

Eriobotrya japonicaCydonia oblonga

FRUITING TREE

The fruit of this small tree is animportant crop in South America and the Mediterranean. BARK Purplish gray-brown, flaking to orange-brown.LEAF Alternate, ovate to oblong, withuntoothed margins. FLOWER Terminal,solitary, large with fivewhitish to pink petals.FRUIT Large, fragrant,pear-shaped pome, downy when young,yellow when ripe.

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

fruit 4 in(10 cm) long

flower 2 in(5 cm) wide

RIPE FRUIT

oblong to obovateleaves

dark green above,paler beneath.FLOWER White,fragrant, in denseclusters on shoots.FRUIT Oval redpome, with one seed.

leaves 2 in(5 cm) long

pinkanthers

FLOWERS

FRUIT

yellow fruit

fruit 1⁄2 in (1.2 cm) wide

Singleseed HawthornHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia

QuinceHEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Caucasus, N. Iran, South America, Mediterranean region

Loquat HEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Japan, India, Australia, South America, California, Mediterranean, South Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 211

This tree is an ancestor of most cultivatedapples and is used as graft stock for many commercial varieties. It is found

in hedgerows and at woodland edges.BARK Gray-brown to purple-brown,peeling in rectangular flakes. LEAF Alternate, elliptic to obovate, with toothed marginsand a rounded leaf base. FLOWER Large, in clusters onshort shoots. FRUIT Spherical,green to yellowish red pome.

Malus trilobata

borne in small clusters at the end of shoots. FRUIT Small, hard, greenor red-green pome, up to 11⁄4 in (3 cm) wide.

This narrowly conical tree grows inevergreen thickets in Asia and Greece.The flowers bloom in early summer. BARK Gray-brown, cracking into numeroussmall, square plates. LEAF Alternate,long-stalked, deeply cut into three lobes,smooth above, hairy beneath; glossydark green turning yellow, red, andpurple in fall. FLOWER White, cup-shaped, with five petals and yellowanthers, appearing from woolly buds,

Malus sylvestris

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

FRUIT

leaves up to 31⁄2 in(9 cm) long

flowers up to11⁄2 in (4 cm) wide

3⁄4–11⁄4 in(2–3 cm) across

pink to white flowers

FLOWERS

Turkish Crab Apple HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.W. Asia, N.E. Greece

Wild Apple HEIGHT 25–40 ft (8–12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Caucasus, N. Iran

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S212

Prunus africana

In Africa the bark of this tree is used as a traditional medicine for chest pain,malaria, and fevers. An extract from thepulverized bark is also an ingredient ofmedications used in the treatment of

prostate gland enlargement, but methodsof extraction, which involve excessivedebarking and felling of trees, arethreatening the species. BARK Dark brownto blackish, tough, resinous, peeling. LEAF Alternate, glossy dark green, ellipticto oblong, smooth surface, finely toothedmargin. FLOWER Small, white to yellowish,in racemes on special shoots. FRUIT Ovaldrupe, red to black when ripe.

Red Stinkwood HEIGHT 10–130 ft (3–40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Africa, Madagascar

The apricot tree, with its rounded crown and open canopy, was originallycultivated in northeastern China over3,000 years ago. The species is nowwidely cultivated for its sweet ediblefruit. Historically, apricots were grownfrom seedlings, and a few improvedcultivars exist. BARK Red-brown, smooth,

Prunus armeniaca

Apricot HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and W. Asia, N. China

and glossy. LEAF Alternate, glossy darkgreen, broadly ovate to rounded withabruptly tapered tip, usually roundedbase and finely toothed margin.

FLOWER Large with five white topink petals, borne singly on

old wood in spring beforethe leaves emerge. FRUIT Spherical, fleshydrupe, yellow-flushedorange-red, with a hard,smooth stone enclosingan edible white seed.

LEAVES AND FRUIT

FRUIT

orange-redflesh

leaf to 4 in(10 cm) long

single stone

APRICOT PRODUCTS

Jam and preserves are made from the sweet cookedpulp of the apricot fruit. TheRomans introduced apricots toEurope in 70–60 BCE, andEuropean settlers brought thetree to North America. Turkey isthe world’s largest producer of apricots. JAM

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 213

Also called Myrobalan plum, this tree hasa rounded crown. It is commonly used asa rootstock for grafting domestic plumsand is often planted as an ornamental.‘Pissardii’, its best-known cultivar, has

Also known as wild cherry, sweet cherrywood has been used for veneer, and alsofor furniture-making, particularly inFrance. The roots of this tree can causeproblems for nearby buildings. Thedouble-flowered cultivar ‘Plena’ is apopular ornamental tree. BARK Red-brown, peeling in horizontal bands.LEAF Alternate, elliptic to oblong orobovate, dull green above,covered with soft hairs below.FLOWER Large, white,borne in clusters onshort shoots beforethe leaves emerge.FRUIT Spherical,bitter or sweet,edible red drupe.

Prunus cerasifera

Prunus avium

FLOWERS

Cherry Plum HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

FLOWERS

LEAVES AND FRUIT

red berry

leaf to 6 in(15 cm)long

pink flowers and purple leaves; ‘Nigra’ is the selection from this cultivar that is usually grown today. BARK Purple-brown, thinly scaly, with horizontalorange-brown lenticels, becoming fissured with age. LEAF Alternate, ovateto elliptic or obovate with toothedmargins, smooth above, covered with soft hairs below. FLOWER White, rarelypink, borne singly or in clusters, beforethe leaves. FRUIT Spherical, red or yellow, plumlike drupe.

Sweet CherryHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia, NorthAmerica

APRICOT FLOWERStamens of the apricot (Prunus armeniaca) flower as revealed by a scanning electron micrograph. Eachstamen is made up of a green filament with a redanther at its tip, which releases pollen. The pollen iscarried by insects to the female parts of the flower.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S216

This tree was cultivated from wildpopulations growing around the Caspianand Black seas. It has a broadly roundedcrown. BARK Purple-brown, rough, scaly.LEAF Alternate, elliptic to ovate, withtoothed margins. FLOWER In clusters of3–5. FRUIT Spherical, sour-tasting drupe.

Many cultivars of this tree are grown forits culinary plum. Its crown is broad andspreading. BARK Gray-brown, fissuredwith age. LEAF Alternate, elliptic toobovate, toothed margins. FLOWER Inclusters on short shoots, five white petals.FRUIT Ovoid drupe, yellow, red, or purple,

sweet or sharp taste.

Prunus cerasus Prunus x domestica

Sour CherryHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Garden origin

PlumHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Garden origin

leaves2–5 in(5–12 cm)long

FRUITBRANCH WITHFLOWERS

red to blackdrupe

large whiteflowers

Cultivated for over 1,500 years for itsvariously colored blossoms, this Japanese apricot has more than 300cultivars. It has a rounded crown. BARK Gray to greenish. LEAF Alternate,ovate, hairy, sharply toothed margins. FLOWER Large, white to pink to red, andfragrant; borne singly or in pairs on oldwood. FRUIT Spherical to ovoid drupe,fleshy, yellow, barely edible.

Japanese ApricotHEIGHT 20–33 ft (6–10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan

Cherry LaurelHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Europe, S.W. Asia

LEAVES AND FRUIT

dark green leaf

This large, common shrub is found inparks and woodland. BARK Dark gray-brown, smooth. LEAF Alternate, obovate.FLOWER Small,white andfragrant, bornein racemes. FRUIT Purple-blackconical drupe.

Prunus mume

Prunus laurocerasus

LEAVES

berrylikefruit

wide, spreadinghabit

3 in (7.5 cm)long

FRUIT

dull greensurface

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 217

Prunus dulcis

lanceolate to narrowly elliptic, smooth,finely toothed margin, dark green.FLOWER Borne on lateral spurs before theleaves, solitary or in pairs, large, pink towhitish. FRUIT Oval,compressed drupe, velvetyoutside, dry and leatheryflesh enclosing a smooth,pitted stone with anedible kernel.

Sweet AlmondHEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and W. Asia, North Africa

Widely cultivated since ancient times for its green, edible fruit and as anornamental, the almond thrives in theUnited States, which today is by far thelargest producer of almonds in the world,producing 75 percent of the world’s

crop. The tree has aspreading crown andsmooth green or red-flushed shoots. BARK Dark gray, crackinginto small pieces. LEAF Alternate, ovate-

HISTORY OF THE ALMOND

Explorers ate almonds while traveling onthe “Silk Road” between Asia and theMediterranean. Before long, almondtrees flourished in the Mediterranean,especially in Spain and Italy. Thealmond tree was brought to Californiafrom Spain in the mid-1700s byFranciscan priests. ALMONDS

flesh splitsopen as fruitripens

LEAVES AND FRUIT

leaf to 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long

flower to 2 in(5 cm) wide

FLOWERS

Winter-FloweringCherryHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Japan

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S218

drooping racemes

Also known as sloe, this many-branchedand thicket-forming tree has spinybranches. BARK Dark blackish brown. LEAF Alternate, elliptic-ovate to obovate,toothed. FLOWER Single or in pairs, white,small. FRUIT Spherical, smooth drupe.

This tree has a rounded crownand upright branches. Onepopular cultivar, ‘Autumnalis’,flowers throughout mild winters,when its branches are bare of leaves. BARK Gray-brown, smooth, with horizontallenticels. LEAF Alternate, elliptic to ovate. FLOWER Pale pink to white, notchedpetals, in clusters of 2–4 on short shoots.FRUIT Spherical, fleshy black drupe.

This Asian cherry has several cultivars. Inspring, many of them produce dazzlingsemi-double flowers. BARK Purple-brownor grayish. LEAF Alternate, ovate-oblong toobovate. FLOWER Pink to white, in clustersof 2–5. FRUIT Fleshy, purple-red to black drupe.

Prunus subhirtella

Prunus padus Prunus serrulata

LEAVES

LEAF

Flowering CherryHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan, Korea

Prunus spinosa

RIPE FRUIT

11⁄2 in (4 cm)long

blue-blackberry

bronze-greenyoung leaf

deep greenmature leaf

sharply toothedmargin

The conical crown of this tree becomesrounded with age. BARK Gray-brown,smooth. LEAF Elliptic to obovate, finelytoothed. FLOWER White, fragrant. FRUIT Spherical black drupe.

notched petals

European BirdCherryHEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Asia to Japan

BlackthornHEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa, N. Asia

FLOWERS

alternate leaves

sometimes white. FRUIT Large, sphericaldrupe, with velvety or smooth skin; sweet,fleshy, white or orange-yellow pulp, witha deeply pitted stone and a white seed.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 219

Prunus persica

Cultivated since ancient times, this treehas many different varieties, with differingshapes, flowers, and fruit. The tree’s shapecan be bushy or weeping, and its flowerssingle- or double-petaled. Peaches typicallyhave downy-skinned fruit, with yellow orwhite flesh. However, in nectarines, thefruit’s skin is smooth—a differencecontrolled by a single gene. BARK Darkgray, becoming fissured with age. LEAF Alternate, narrowly elliptic tolanceolate, with finely toothed margins. FLOWER Borne singly or in pairs, pink,

ORIGINS OF THE PEACH

Peaches were probably the first fruit crop domesticatedin China about 4,000 years ago. The tree wasintroduced to Persia (Iran) by way of the ancient silktrading routes. Greeks and Romans spread the peachthroughout Europe and England in 300–400 BCE.Peaches then came to North America with the

explorers of the16th and 17th

centuries.

31⁄4 in (8 cm)wide

red-flushedskin

PEACHTREE INBLOOM

pitted stone

11⁄2 in (4 cm)wide

FRUIT AND SEED FLOWERS

PeachHEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

FLOWERING CHERRYIn Japan, which is famous for its flowering cherrytrees (Prunus serrulata), the brief blossom season inMarch–April is a time of celebration, marked byparties, or “hanami,” held in the shade of the trees.This tree is popular worldwide as an ornamental.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S222

Prunus x yedoensis

Also known as the flowering cherry, thisfast-growing Japanese hybrid is one ofthe favorite cultivated cherry trees ofJapan. With its broadly spreading crown,arching branches, and spectacular displayof early spring flowers, it is now a verypopular ornamental tree throughout theworld, especially as an avenue tree. It wasplanted on United States soil for the firsttime in 1912, when the people of Japanpresented the tree as a gift of friendship.BARK Purple-gray, with thick bands ofcorky lenticels. LEAF Alternate, elliptic to obovate, 21⁄2 in (6 cm) wide, withtapered tips and sharply toothed margins;they are pale green and downy whenyoung, particularly on the underside,

LEAVES ANDUNRIPE FRUIT

reddish browntwig

fruit to 1⁄2 in(1.2 cm) wide

CHERRY PLANTING

Mass planting (originally of P. serrula) on riversides waspopularized by the Shogun rulers of Japan. Initiated byYoshimune Tokugawa (1716–45),the planting of cherry trees was backed by the slogan thatcherries can purify river water.

JAPANESE PAINTING

notchedpetal tips

flower to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) wide

the surface becoming smooth and glossywith age. FLOWER Pale pink, fading tonearly white, with five large petals,numerous, borne in small clusters on side spurs in early spring, beforethe young leaves emerge. FRUIT Fleshy, sphericaldrupe, red at first, ripening to black.

leaf to 141⁄2 in (1 cm) long

Yoshino Cherry HEIGHT up to 50 ft (16 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Japan, of garden origin

FLOWERING BRANCH

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 223

Pyrus communis

A broadly conical to columnar tree, the pear is a hybrid of several Europeanspecies. Along with its cultivars, it iswidely grown for its edible fruit. In itswild form, it has a spiny habit whenyoung. It is usually found in woodlandsand scrub. BARK Dark gray, cracking into rectangular plates. LEAF Alternate,ovate to elliptic, glossy deep green.

FLOWER Five white petals with deep pink anthers, in clusters

on short shoots. FRUIT Fleshy,yellowish green pome.

FRUIT-BEARINGBRANCHES

LEAVES

toothed margins

CULTIVATED PEARS

The original pear fruit were small, hard, gritty,sour, and astringent, and may have resembledthe stewing pears that survive today. There are over 5,000 cultivated varieties of pears, of which 10–25 are commercially grown. In the US, 75 percent of the pearscultivated are “Bartletts,” which is the same as the British “Williams”pear, and of which there are greenish yellow and red varieties.

to 4 in(10 cm) long RED PEAR

WILLIAMSPEAR

Pear HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation(grown in gardens and orchards);occasionally naturalized in Europe

RIPE FRUIT

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S224

This tree was brought into cultivation inChina 3,000 years ago. BARK Dark gray to purplish brown. LEAF Alternate, ovateto ovate-oblong, bristle-toothed margins.FLOWER White, borne in clusters of 6–9.FRUIT Brown to yellow, rounded pome.

Pyrus pyrifolia

Sorbus aucupariaSorbus aria

This spreading tree has slender, pendentshoots and willow-like leaves. It isconsidered one of the best cultivatedornamental pears. BARK Pale gray-brown.LEAF Alternate, lanceolate. FLOWER Large,white, on short shoots. FRUIT Yellow-brown pome, hairy; later smooth.

Pyrus salicifolia

LEAVES

FLOWERS ANDLEAVES

The dried berries of this tree are usedmainly in the food and beverage industries.BARK Gray, smooth. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, with 9–15 elliptic to lanceolateleaflets. FLOWER White, in flat clusters.FRUIT Orange-red pome.

RIPE FRUIT

This tree is found on well-drained chalkand limestone. BARK Gray, cracking withage. LEAF Alternate, ovate to elliptic-oblong, covered with hairs when young,pale green above, whitish hairs beneath.FLOWER In flattened terminal clusters,with five white petals. FRUIT Red-orange,spherical to egg-shaped pome.

reddishnewleaves

pointedtips

FLOWERS

tapering tips

in clustersUNRIPE FRUIT

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

fivepetals

Chinese PearHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and W. China

Willow Pear HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. Asia

Whitebeam HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe

European Mountain Ash HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. Africa, W. Asia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 225

This broadly columnar tree, once grownfor its fruit, is now becoming rare. BARK Dark brown, scaly. LEAF Alternate,pinnate; oblong to lanceolate leaflets,

smooth above, hairy beneath.FLOWER White, in large

clusters. FRUIT Yellow-green pome.

The wood, used in carpentry, of thisbroadly columnar tree is quite dense dueto its slow-growing nature. BARK Darkbrown, scaly. LEAF Alternate, deeplylobed at base. FLOWER White,in flattened clusters. FRUIT Small, brown,rounded pome.

Ziziphus jujuba

Sorbus domestica Sorbus torminalis

LEAVES

BARK

Hovenia dulcis

BARKLEAVES ANDFLOWERS

FRUIT WITH LEAVESFLOWERS

The fruit stalks of this tree are ediblewhile the fruit itself is not. BARK Smooth,gray when young, paler and furrowing with age. LEAF Alternate, toothed, long-stalked. FLOWER Cream to greenish white,small. FRUIT Purple-black, fleshy drupe.

irregularlycracked

cracking inscaly plates

triangular-ovate lobes

open flowerclusters

berrylikepome

This tree has been cultivated in China for more than 4,000 years. It has a broadcrown and drooping branches. The sweetfruit can be dried or candied. BARK Grayto dull black, rough. LEAF Alternate,smooth or slightly hairy on the veins below.

FLOWER Yellowish green,small, in axillary cymes.FRUIT Purple-red, egg-shaped, fleshy drupe.

finely toothedmargins

3 main veins

pyramidalclusters

ovalcrown

Whitty Pear HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, N. Africa, S.W. Asia

Wild Service Tree HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa, S.W. Asia

Raisin Tree HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan, Korea

Jujube HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, N. Africa, W. Asia, China, S. United States

226

This fast-growing species produces softwood used to make tea chests andmatchsticks. BARK Dark or gray-brown,shallowly furrowed. LEAF In flat sprays,

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Trema micrantha

made from the fruit,which is dried and then pounded in awooden mortar to separate the stones.The meal is mixed with water and formed into cakes that resemble sweetgingerbread. The common name of thistree should not be confused with varioustypes of water lilies. BARK Pale ash gray.LEAF Alternate, ovate to oblong, smooth,with slightly toothed margins and threelateral veins. FLOWER Small, with yellowpetals, in axillary clusters. FRUIT Yellow to reddish brown, rounded drupe, withsweet, edible flesh.

stalklessleaves

FOLIAGE

A sprawling shrubby tree, the lotus haszigzag branches that are armed withspines. It is well adapted to drought andhot climates. It is thought to be the sourceof the famous sweet fruit from which theancient lotus-eaters of North Africa tooktheir name. It was believed that once thefruit was eaten or liqueur made from itwas consumed, travelers gave up all desireto return to their native lands. The fruit,which is rich in vitamins and in sugar, iseaten fresh, pickled or dried, or made intoconfectionery. Its mealy flesh can also bemade into a fermented drink. In theArabian Peninsula, a kind of bread is

ovate, toothed, pale green above, white-hairy beneath. FLOWER Petalless, greenishwhite calyx, in clusters. FRUIT Sphericalorange drupe.

alternate leaves

Guacimilla HEIGHT 8–33 ft (2.5–10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE US (Florida), Mexico, WestIndies, Central and South America

Ziziphus lotus

LEAVES

LotusHEIGHT up to 7 ft (2 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, N. Africa

227

The wych elm has a broad crown andshort trunk. Its wood is very durable in wetconditions and was popular for troughs,cribs, and coffins. It is still used for theconstruction of breakwaters for coastaldefenses and harbors. BARK Gray, smooth.LEAF Alternate, elliptic to oblong-obovate,

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

Ulmus americana

Ulmus glabra

coarse and uneven atbases, double-toothedmargins, dark green and roughly hairyabove, usually downy beneath. FLOWER Tiny, withreddish anthers,petalless, indense, axillaryclusters. FRUIT Smoothnutlet surrounded by amembranous wing.

This tree’s wood, as with other elms, ishard to split and was used for wheel hubs.American Indians used a decoction of thebark medicinally. BARK Ash gray, deeply

fissured, with scaly ridges.LEAF Alternate, ovate-

oblong to elliptic,downy beneath.FLOWER Reddish,tiny, petalless, inaxillary clusters on

long, drooping stalks.FRUIT Nutlet, notched

at top, with hairy margin.

LEAFprominent veins

FLOWERCLUSTERS

FLOWERING SHOOT

red anthers

slender zig-zag twigs

American Elm HEIGHT 100–120 ft (30–36 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. US, S.E. Canada

Wych Elm HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. and C. Europe, W. Asia

double-toothedmargins

LEAF

228

Ulmus procera

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Regarded by some as a variety of Ulmusminor—Ulmus minor var. vulgaris—theEnglish elm was probably introduced into Britain by the Romans, who used this tree to train grapevines. It has abroad, columnar habit, strong branches,

and shoots that can become corky whenthe tree is a few years old. Thiselm reproduces by means ofsuckers that grow extensively

around its base.

DUTCH ELM DISEASE

Dutch elm disease, which was first identified in theNetherlands, is a yeastlike fungus that is spread byelm bark beetles. It was first recorded in Britain in1927, but the devastating infection that killed 12million English Elm trees in the 1970s was the resultof an aggressive form ofthe disease that camefrom North America.

BARK Gray-brown, smooth when young, becoming fissured with age.

LEAF Alternate, very variable in shape, elliptic to obovate, with an unequal base; darkgreen and rough to the touchabove, hairy beneath. FLOWER Reddish, petalless, indense clusters. FRUIT Nutlet,slightly notched, smooth,

surrounded by a narrowmembranous wing. Nearly

all the seeds are infertile.

LEAVES

double-toothedmargin

FLOWERCLUSTERS

ELM BARK BEETLE

English Elm HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. Europe

flowers open onbare shoots

The wood of this tree is valued for makingfurniture, lacquer-ware, and trays. It grows on moist soil near streams.BARK Smooth, gray, flaking with age.LEAF Alternate, ovate to ovate-oblong or elliptic, dark green withscattered hairs above, smooth orslightly hairy below,sharply toothed.FLOWER Green, small,petalless; males and females in separateclusters. FRUIT Smallspherical drupe.

229

This tree has a broadly columnar tospreading crown. BARK Gray, smooth.LEAF Alternate, narrowly oval, sharplytoothed, dark green and scaly above,gray-green and softly hairy beneath.FLOWER Greenish, tiny, petalless, long-stalked, open singly or in small clusters.

FRUIT Ovoid purple-brown toblackish drupe.

Broadly columnar in shape, this fast-growing tree is sometimes planted as a windbreak in North America.BARK Grayish brown, deeply furrowed. LEAF Alternate, ellipticto elliptic-lanceolate.FLOWER Red, verysmall, petalless, in denseclusters. FRUIT Winged,slightly notched nutlet.

Celtis occidentalis

Ulmus pumila Zelkova serrata

Celtis australis

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

JapaneseZelkovaHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Korea, Japan

CommonHackberry HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. and N.C. United States

Although the fruit of this tree is not veryfleshy, it was used by American Indians toflavor food. BARK Smooth, dark brown,scaly with age. LEAF Alternate, ovate toovate-oblong, sharply toothed near the tip.FLOWER Greenish, small, petalless, singly orin small clusters. FRUIT Berrylike, orange-red to purple, edible drupe.

LEAVES

to 6 in(15 cm) long

broadly columnarcrown

sharply toothed margins

LEAVES

LEAVES

to 43⁄4 in (12 cm) long

Siberian Elm HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. China, E. Siberia, Korea

Nettle Tree HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa

230

Artocarpus altilis

Widely cultivated for its edible fruit, thebreadfruit tree has a straight trunk and a wide crown with large, spreadingbranches. BARK Gray, smooth; exudessticky white latex. LEAF Alternate, large,with 5–11 lobes, pointed tips, glossybright green above, stiff hairs beneath,with prominent yellowish nerves; stipulesare large and conical, leaving scarsencircling the stem at the nodes whenthey fall off. FLOWER Males and females

borne on the same tree,inconspicuous, grouped in

fleshy inflorescences;males: yellowishbrown, densely

set on a drooping,cylindrical to club-

shaped spike; females:upright, in a roundedto oval prickly headwhich develops into acompound fruit.

Breadfruit HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE Evergreen/Deciduous OCCURRENCE New Guinea, Pacific Islands

STARCH STAPLE

This food pounder from Tahiti,known as a poi, was used to grindbreadfruit pulp. Captain JamesCook wrote of this process in hisjournal: ”Of breadfruit they maketwo or three dishes by beating it with a stone pestle till it makesa paste, mixingwater or cocoanut liquor orboth with it, addingripe plantains...”

FRUIT Spherical to oblong syncarp, oftenwith a warty or spiny surface, 4–12 in(10–30 cm) wide, borne singly or inclusters of two or three at the ends ofbranches; white, starchy when unripe,usually fragrant when ripe, few seeds, sometimes seedless.

POUNDER

FRUIT

yellow-green fruit

wartysurface

FOLIAGE leaves in spirals

MALE FLOWER cylindrical spike

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 231

Artocarpus heterophyllus

The fruit of thistree is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. It can be eatenfresh, dried as confectionery, or canned.The pulp is used to flavor beverages andice cream. The seeds can be roasted andused as table nuts. BARK Blackish brown,thick; exudes white latex. LEAF Alternate,elliptic to obovate. FLOWER Males andfemales borne on the same tree; males:on new wood among the leaves, small,ellipsoidal, and covered with pollen whenmature; females: larger than the males,borne on short stalks on the stem andbranches. FRUIT Yellowish brownsyncarp, up to 110 lb (50 kg) in weight,covered with conical warts, waxy, golden

yellow, aromatic pulp;30–500 oval seeds,surrounded by a thick,gelatinous jacket.

Antiaris toxicaria

JackfruitHEIGHT 33–65 ft (10–20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, known only incultivation

YOUNG BARK

LEAVESAND FRUIT

waxysurface

unripe fruit

green coloration

The upas tree has a conical crown and itstrunk is sometimes buttressed. The latex istoxic and contains cardiac glycosides,which can cause heart failure. It has been widely used by some tribal peoplesin north India and Borneo to poisonarrowheads. BARK Yellowish to grayishwhite, smooth, usually with lenticels;exudes creamy white, watery latex; it hasa fibrous inner bark. LEAF Alternate,oblong-elliptic to obovate, hairy, sometimestoothed. FLOWER Males and females onthe same tree; males: fleshy, green, withrounded heads; females: solitary in apear-shaped receptacle. FRUIT Purple-redpear-shaped drupe, ripening to black,immersed in a fleshy receptacle.

BARK

Upas Tree HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India to S. China, Malaysia, Africa

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S232

Broussonetia papyrifera

The name “paper mulberry” comes fromthe fine fiber that this tree yields from itsinner bark, which is used to make paperand Polynesian tapa cloth (used forceremonial purposes, clothing, andbedding). The tree has a broadlyspreading habit and bristly shoots. BARK Dark gray-brown, smooth; exudeswhite latex. LEAF Alternate, ovate toelliptic-ovate, purplish at first, turningmatt green; hairy and scaly above,densely hairy beneath, unlobed or with3–5 lobes on young trees, with scalloped

WASHI AND TAPA

In China, bark fibers of the paper mulberry were used tomake paper and bark cloth from 105 CE, and continues tobe used in the making of some lampshades. By the 6thcentury, classic washi paper-making had reached Japan.Early Polynesian voyagers took the tree and the skills ofmaking bark-cloth with them to the Pacific, and it is herethat tapa cloth-making reached its highest art.

LEAVES

red ripeningfruit

FRUIT

to toothed margins. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees; males: white, indrooping, cylindrical catkins; females:green, in dense, spherical heads. FRUIT Spherical syncarp in clusters, thefleshy part turning orange-red.

female flowerswith purplestigmas

leaf to 8 in(20 cm) long

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

PAPER-MAKING

Paper MulberryHEIGHT 33–65 ft (10–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 233

Ficus benghalensis

This spreading tree is a strangling fig, withmassive pillar roots that have growndownward from another tree. In thisspecies, the branches root themselves (a process known as layering) over a largearea. It is because of this characteristicand its longevity that the banyan is asymbol of immortality and an integralpart of the myths and legends of India. It is also the national tree of India. TheEnglish name comes from “banians,” the Hindu merchants who often set upmarkets in the shade of the tree. BARK Pale brown to gray, smooth; exudeswhite latex. LEAF Alternate, ovate, withheart-shaped base, smooth and leathery,untoothed. FLOWER Males and females on the same tree; tiny, enclosed ina fig receptacle.FRUIT Figlike;small, round,rose-red.

Indian BanyanHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India

RIPE FRUITTRUNK

LEAVESleaf 5–10 in(12.5–25 cm) long

fruit to 1⁄2 in(1.5 cm) wide

THE LARGEST BANYAN TREE

Beginning life as a seedling in the crown of a datepalm in 1782, this Banyan tree in the Indian BotanicalGardens at Howrah, Kolkata (Calcutta), is now reputedto be the world’s largest, covering some 4 acres(1.6 hectares), appearing like a small forest in itself.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S234

This tree has been cultivated forthousands of years for itsedible fruit. Its remainshave been found atNeolithic sites datingback to 5000 BCE. TheArab expansion in the6th–8th centuriesbrought new andbetter cultivars to theMediterranean region.Today, there are about 700 known cultivars. BARK Grayish brown,smooth and porous.LEAF Alternate, ovateto round with heart-

Ficus carica

Ficus benjamina

A strangling fig that often grows intoa large spreading tree, the weepingfig usually has many hanging aerialroots, some of which develop into

independent trunks. While it remains small as a houseplant,

in the wild it develops a dense,spreading crown. There are several

ornamental cultivars, and it is popular for bonsai. BARK Pale brown to grayishwhite; exudes white latex. LEAF Alternate,ovate to elliptic, smooth and leathery.FLOWER Tiny, enclosed in a fig receptacle;males near the opening, females beneath.FRUIT Round,stalkless fig,red withwhite dots.

LEAF ANDFRUIT

red fruit

shaped base, 3–5 deep lobes, toothed orwavy margins, rough above, softly hairybeneath. FLOWER Tiny, fleshy, numerous,enclosed in a hollow fig receptacle; maleson the inner walls near the small opening

at the top, females beneath.FRUIT Reddish purple, pear-shaped to globose fig.

divided intodeep lobes

LEAF

long stalk

leaf to 15 in(3 cm) long

Weeping Fig HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India to S. China, S.E. Asia, N. Australia, Pacific Islands

Common Fig HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE Deciduous OCCURRENCE W. Asia, introduced in Mediterranean region

235

One of Australia’s largest figs, this massivestrangler has a deeply buttressed trunk.When mature, its crown can be up to165 ft (50 m) wide, sometimes supportedby prop roots. BARK Gray-brown, smooth;exudes white latex. LEAF Alternate, darkgreen above, golden brown beneath.FLOWER Tiny, enclosed in a fig receptacle;males near the opening, females beneath.FRUIT Globose fig, purple when ripe.

Often grown as a houseplant, thisstrangling fig can attain an impressive sizein the wild. It has numerous, slender aerialroots on its trunk and main branches. It iswidely planted as an ornamental and streettree. There are several cultivars, includingones with variegated leaves. BARK Palegray, smooth. LEAF Alternate, smooth andleathery, glossy dark green, with pink topurplish stipules. FLOWER Tiny, enclosed

in a fig receptacle; males near theopening, females beneath.

FRUIT Oblong,stalkless fig,turning yellowwhen ripe.

Ficus macrophylla

HOUSEPLANTFOLIAGE

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

Ficus elastica

variegated leaves

LEAVES AND FIGS

white dotson ripe fig

ovate to ellipticleaves

Indian Rubber Tree HEIGHT 65–100 ft (20–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia

Moreton Bay Fig HEIGHT 50–180 ft (15–55 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia

MORETON BAY FIGThe enormous buttress roots of this fig species (Ficusmacrophylla) make it suitable only for parks and largeopen spaces. The scale of the root system is matchedby the width of its spreading crown. The examplesseen here are located in Hawaii.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S238

Ficus religiosa

Also known as bodhi tree or pipal, thistree has a broad crown and a fluted orribbed trunk. It is said to be the tree under which the Buddha meditated for six years and achieved enlightenment. The daughter of the Indian king Ashoka

took a shoot of the Buddha’stree to Sri Lanka in the 3rdcentury BCE. It was plantedat the Mahavihara monastery,where it still flourishes today.BARK Gray, smooth, or withshallow longitudinal fissures.

LEAF Alternate,ovate, with

slightly wavy

margins. FLOWER Red, minute; males andfemales on the same tree, enclosed in afig receptacle. FRUIT Fig; greenish yellow,

turning red, rounded and flat-topped, stalkless, in pairs.

LEAVES

broadcrown

SACRED TREE

The bo-tree is sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists. Itis widely cultivated, particularly near Buddhist temples,and worship of the tree is considered homage to theHindu Trinity of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.

long, pointedtip

BUDDHIST TEMPLE

Bo-Tree HEIGHT 50–115 ft (15–35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and E. India

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 239

Like its many relatives, this rainforest fig isa parasite that uses other trees for support.It begins life high in the forest canopy, as aseed dispersed by birds. Initially, the youngfig takes root among mosses and deadleaves, but as it grows, it sends out longroots that snake their way to the ground.Over a period of years, these rootssurround the host tree’s trunk, preventingfurther growth. Eventually, the host treedies and rots away, leaving the fig standingin its place. BARK Pale brown to grayish white. LEAF Alternate, elliptic to ovate-oblong.FLOWER Males and females in a fig receptacle; males near the opening, femalesbeneath. FRUIT Yellowish to orange-red fig, with minute hairs.

Ficus sycomorus

TRUNK

In its native habitat, the sycamore fig isfound primarily in savanna areas alongriverbanks, where the soil remains humideven during the hot and dry summer.Cultivated today in Egypt, Israel, andSyria, it was introduced to Egypt duringthe First Dynasty (3000 BCE). In theabsence of its pollinators,

Strangler Fig HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

Ficus sumatrana

short and buttressed

tiny insects called the chalcidoid wasps,the Egyptians worked out a way to causethe fruit to develop without fertilization.The wood of the tree was frequently used for the construction of coffins(sarcophagi). BARK Greenish yellow tocreamy brown, smooth. LEAF Alternate,ovate to elliptic, rough to the touch,heart-shaped base, slightly wavy margin.FLOWER Males and females borne on thesame tree, enclosed in a fig receptacle,minute; males near the opening of the fig,females below. FRUIT Green fig, turningyellowish to reddish when ripe.

spreading crown

aerial root

smoothtexture

STRANGLERCLASPING HOST

Sycamore FigHEIGHT 26–100 ft (8–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa, Arabian Peninsula

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S240

Also known as the African teak, the irokohas a straight and cylindrical trunk, usuallywith short buttresses. It is one of the mostimportant timber trees of Africa, oftenused as a teak substitute. East Africa oncewas a major source, but the tree has beenlogged out in the region. West Africa,despite overexploitation, remains animportant supplier. The timber is usedmainly for construction. BARK Gray tobrown-black, rough; exudes white latex.LEAF Alternate, elliptic, 4–8 in (10–20 cm)long. FLOWER Males and females onseparate trees; males: white, borne onslender, pendent, catkinlike spikes; females: greenish, in shortcylindrical spikes. FRUIT Wrinkled,fleshy, caterpillar-like syncarp, green, 2–3 in(5–7.5 cm) long, 1 in (2.5 cm) thick.

Maclura pomifera

Osage OrangeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. and C. United States

IROKO WOOD

Often used as a hedge plant outside itsnative habitat, this tree was cultivatedextensively by American Indians for itsroots and durable wood, which was used

for making weapons anda yellow dye. It has a

short trunk and an irregular to roundedcrown. BARK Orange-brown, scaly ridgeswith irregular furrows, with milky sap. LEAF Alternate, ovate to oblong-lanceolate, smooth surface, glossy darkgreen above, turning yellow in fall.FLOWER Males and females on separatetrees, both small and inconspicuous;males: in short, terminal racemes;females: in flower heads. FRUIT Cluster of green to orangesyncarps.

untoothedmargins

Iroko HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m ) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa

Milicia excelsa

LEAVES FRUIT FLOWERS

to 14 in (10 cm)wide

yellow-greenflowersclusters up to

3⁄8 in (1 cm) long

brown to dark -brown wood

pointedtip

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 241

Morus alba

In about 550 CE, two monks smuggled silk-worm eggs and seeds of the white mulberry,the food plant of silkworms, out of China.This led to the start of the European silkindustry, breaking the monopoly of the“Silk Road” trade from Asia. Usually, thetree has a spreading round crown, but thereare cultivars with pyramidal and pendulousforms, large or cut-leaved forms, andseveral non-fruiting varieties used forlandscaping. BARK Pale brown to gray,smooth; later develops scaly ridges.

LEAVES AND FRUIT

Black Mulberry HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m ) TYPE Deciduous

OCCURRENCE Native to W. Iran, cultivated in China, W. Asia, Europe

White MulberryHEIGHT up to 45 ft (14 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Native to C. and N. China, cultivated in Asia, Europe, United States

Since antiquity, this tree has beenpopular in southern Europe for itsedible fruit. BARK Orange-brown,

ridged, fissured. LEAF Alternate,broadly ovate, roughly hairyabove, smooth beneath. FLOWER Small, green; males

in pendent racemes; females inclusters. FRUIT Fleshy syncarps in

clusters, purple-red when ripe.

leaf to 8 in(20 cm) long

fruit to 1 in(2.5 cm) long

LEAF Alternate, toothed, ovate to rounded,smooth above, hairy below. FLOWER Small,green; males: in pendent, spikelikeinflorescences; females: in compact clusters.FRUIT In clusters, stalked, fleshy, ediblesyncarps, purple-red when ripe.

LEAVES ANDFRUIT

toothed leafmargin

spreadingcrown

fruit to 1 in(2.5 cm) long

Morus nigra

242

In the rainforests, Aztec ants inhabit thehollow stems of this tree. BARK Gray-brown, smooth, ringed. LEAF Alternate,rounded, dark green, rough above, densewhite hairs beneath. FLOWER Yellowishgreen, small, in drooping, catkinlike spikes.FRUIT Long, thin, pencil-like pod, fleshy.

The stinging hairs on the leaves of this treecontain a virulent poison. BARK Yellowishgray, ringed. LEAF Alternate, with toothedmargins. FLOWER Yellowish green, small.FRUIT Small achene, on a fleshy stalk.

Umbrella Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE Africa (Guinea to Zaire, Angola, andeastward to Uganda)

Musanga cecropioides

Gympie Stinger HEIGHT 33–130 ft (10–40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. Australia (New South Walesand Queensland)

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Cecropia peltata Dendrocnide excelsa

pendulousbranches

thick trunk

LEAVES

Fast-growing and invasive, the umbrellatree has a straight trunk, conspicuousroots, and a spreading crown. Its lightwood is used to make floats and rafts.BARK Gray to brownish green, smoothwith large lenticels. LEAF Alternate,12–15 oblanceolate leaflets radiatingfrom stalk tip, grayish-white feltlike hairbelow. FLOWER Axillary, males inbranched clusters; females in compactheads on long stalks. FRUIT Yellowish

green, oval, succulent.

lobed leaves BRANCHES

Dendrosicyos socotranus

Sometimes cultivated as a succulent, thistree is found among coastal vegetation.BARK Pallid dirty white. LEAF Alternate,ovate to round, five-lobed, tendrils absent.FLOWER Yellow, borne on the same plantin axillary clusters. FRUIT Orange,cylindricalberry with a beaked tip.

LEAVES

heart-shapedbase

Trumpet Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Evergreen/Deciduous OCCURRENCE C. and N. South America, West Indies, naturalized in parts of Africa

Cucumber TreeHEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Yemen (Socotra Island)

243

Decimated by chestnut blight,this species is now rarein the wild. BARK Darkgrayish brown, scaly. LEAF Alternate. FLOWER Males in longspikes; females on spikes or at the base.FRUIT Spiny husk, with 2–3 nuts.

The Antarctic beech was introduced intocultivation in 1830. BARK Gray, scaly.

LEAF Alternate, ovate,often heart-shaped,sometimes shallowly lobed.

FLOWER Malesand females ingroups of 1–4.FRUIT Husk(cupule) with three nuts.

The timber of this tree is used for generalconstruction. BARK Black, rough, andfurrowed. LEAF Alternate, elliptic-oblong,dark green, smooth above, grayish whitehairs below. FLOWER Males and females in groups of 1–4. FRUIT Husk (cupule),

containing 2–3 nuts.

Nothofagus antarctica

Nothofagus solanderi

Antarctic Beech HEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE South America (Chile)

Black BeechHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE New Zealand

Nothofagus cunninghamii

AmericanChestnutHEIGHT 16–33 ft (5–10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. United States

FOLIAGE

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

short pointon leaf tip

Castanea dentata

lanceolate-oblongFRUIT

A large rainforest tree, this species canalso grow as a shrub at high altitudes.BARK Dark, scaly. LEAF Alternate, small,ovate, bluntly toothed margin, basetapered to blunt. FLOWER Males andfemales in groups of 1–4. FRUIT Husk(cupule), usually containing three nuts.

Myrtle Beech HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (Victoria, Tasmania)

fruithusk

LEAVES

wavy leaf margin

BRANCHLET WITH FRUIT

D I C O T Y L E D O N S244

Castanea sativa

the late 19th century. This led to a rapidreduction of the chestnut forests. Alcoholcan be made from the fruit; chestnut beeris still produced in Corsica. Today, Chinaand Korea supply 55 percent of the annualproduction of chestnuts. BARK Gray,smooth, becoming fissured and spirallytwisted. LEAF Alternate, oblong-lanceolate,dull dark green above, paler and hairybelow. FLOWER Small, creamy yellow, inpendulous, spikelike catkins. FRUIT Spiny

husk, enclosing 2–3 nuts.

FAVORED NUTS

Before potatoes were introduced,chestnuts were the basic food of the poor in much of southernEurope. Today, throughout most of Europe, cultivated chestnuts

are a delicacy.Roasted chestnuts

are a wintertimefavorite on both sides of the Atlantic.

FLOWERS

LEAVES

coarse, bristly teeth

The European chestnut has been cultivatedfor 3,000 years. In some parts of Europe,the fruit formed an important food sourceand item of exchange because it could beground into flour. The expansion of thetanning industry, which uses its bark,

coincided with the “inkdisease” that infected

European trees in

male and female flowersclustered on same spike

green husks

FRUIT

European Chestnut HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, naturalized elsewhere

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 245

The Japanese beech is considered to bethe finest beech species for bonsai becauseof its small, neat foliage and thin, delicatetwigs. Like the European beech, the barkturns white with age. BARK Gray, smooth.LEAF Alternate, ovate to elliptic, with wavy margins. FLOWER Males in catkins;females inconspicuous in leaf axils. FRUIT Husk with long bristles, splittinginto four to reveal the nut.

The American beech produces abundantfruit every 3–5 years. BARK Blue-gray,smooth. LEAF Alternate, ovate-oblong,9–14 lateral veins, dark green, withcoarsely toothed margin. FLOWER Males indrooping clusters; tinyfemales in the leafaxils. FRUIT Nut,enclosed by husk.

The chinkapin is often shrubby andforms dense thickets. BARK Reddishbrown, platelike scales. LEAF Alternate,elliptic-oblong, sharply toothed, gray hairsbelow. FLOWER Yellowish; males in erectspikes; females solitary, short-stalked.FRUIT Nut surrounded by a spiny husk.

This broadly conical tree is often used as an ornamental. BARK Dark red-brown,with scales and ridges. LEAF Alternate,leathery, lanceolate, dark greenabove, golden yellow below.FLOWER Creamy white; male catkinson erect spikes;female stalkless.FRUIT Nutlets,about 1–3,surroundedby a spinyhusk, whichripens in two years. LEAVES, FLOWERS,

AND FRUIT

Fagus grandifolia

Castanea pumila Chrysolepis chrysophylla

FLOWERING SHOOT

FOLIAGE

Chinkapin HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. United States

Giant Chinkapin HEIGHT 50–100 ft (15–30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. United States

American Beech HEIGHT 70–80 ft (20–24 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. United States

Japanese Beech HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Japan

Fagus crenata

flowers incatkins

yellow-green leaf

glossy green leaves

FALL FOLIAGE female flower

maleflower

Fagus sylvatica

A slow-growing tree with a majestic,spreading crown, the European beechcasts a deep shade when it is in full leaf. Its fine-grained timber is used forfurniture and parquet floors. There aremany cultivars—pendulous, columnar,

and cut-leaved—which may havegreen, purple, orvariegated leaves.BARK Smooth, blue-gray. LEAF Alternate,ovate to elliptic, withsilky hairs, marginswith rounded teeth,5–9 lateral veins.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S246

European BeechHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, excluding the north

FLOWER Yellow males in pendulousclusters; green females, inconspicuous, in leaf axils. FRUIT Woody husk that haslong, straight bristles and splits into fourto reveal one or two edible nuts.

FRUIT

glossy darkgreen

to 2–4 in (5–10 cm) long

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 247

Long, frilly, threadlike stipules, whichsurround the buds, characterize this oak.BARK Dark brown, furrowed.LEAF Alternate, oval or oblong, 4–9 pairs of lobes.FLOWER Males in yellow-greencatkins; femalesunstalked. FRUIT Acorn.

This widespread American oak gets itsname from its spectacular fall colors. BARK Pale gray-brown with irregular ridges.LEAF Alternate, elliptic, dark green above,triangular-toothed lobes. FLOWER Malesin slender catkins; females on short hairystalks. FRUIT Acorn enclosed up to one-half in a glossy cup.

Quercus cerris

Quercus coccinea

Scarlet OakHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

EuropeanTurkey OakHEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and S. Europe

The wood of the White Oak is used for furniture, flooring, and veneers. BARK Pale gray, divided into narrow, flatscales. LEAF Alternate, oblong to ovatelobes, hairy when young. FLOWER Yellow-green males in catkins; bright red,unstalked females. FRUIT Rounded acornthat matures in thefirst season.

scalycup

This spreading, extremely hardy tree is considered an excellent species forcultivation. BARK Gray to blackish, scaly, divided into small squares. LEAF Alternate, ovate to lanceolate, glossydark green above, whitish down beneaththat turns gray with age. FLOWER Malesin catkins; females on short, downy stalks.FRUIT Acorn enclosed in a scaly cup.

Quercus alba

Quercus ilex

untoothedlobes

ACORN LEAVES

FALL LEAVES

White OakHEIGHT 80–100 ft (25–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. North America

rounded crown

variable leaflobing LEAVES

Holly OakHEIGHT 65–90 ft (20–27 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. Europe

BEECH The graceful beech (Fagus sylvatica) is sometimesnamed “the Lady of the Woods.” Beech woods are a rich habitat for many animals who feed on beechnuts, including squirrels and wild boar. This beechforest is located in Hertfordshire, England.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S250

The downy oakhas a broadlyspreading crown.Its young shoots

and leaves arehairy. BARK Gray-

brown, deeplyfurrowed. LEAF Alternate,

obovate, deeply cut into 4–8 pairs oflobes, dark gray-green above, paler gray-green, with velvety hairs beneath.FLOWER Males in drooping catkins;females inconspicuous, on short stalks.FRUIT Ovoid acorn, up to 11⁄2 in (4 cm)long, one-third to one-half enclosed in a cup covered with dense, overlapping,downy scales; ripens in the tree’s first year.

Also called durmast oak, this tree is oftenfound on light, poor soils. BARK Fissured,gray-brown. LEAF Alternate,obovate, smooth beneath,with an acute base, distinctlystalked. FLOWER Males in catkins; females on short stalks. FRUIT Ovoidacorns, instalklessclusters.

Early settlers in North America used thewood of this tree to make shingles, whichexplains its common name. BARK Gray-brown, ridged, with brownish red scales.LEAF Alternate, oblong-lanceolate toobovate, glossy green above, with brown

hairs beneath.FLOWER Males ingolden yellowcatkins; females onshort, stout stalks. FRUIT Acorn, one-third to one-halfcovered by cup. The acorn cups of this tree have a high

content of tannin and were formerly inhigh demand, with Turkey being theleading exporter. BARK Dark, fissured.LEAF Alternate, elliptic to oblong, with3–7 pairs of triangular, bristle-tippedlobes; smooth above, densely woollybeneath. FLOWER Males in catkins;females on short stalks. FRUIT Acorns, upto 2 in (5 cm) wide, with elongated scales.

Quercus petraea

Quercus imbricaria Quercus macrolepis

Shingle Oak HEIGHT 65–100 ft (20–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. to N.E. United States

Valonia Oak HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe to W. Asia

Sessile Oak HEIGHT 80–130 ft (25–40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

Downy Oak HEIGHT 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, W. Asia

Quercus pubescens

ACORN

up to 4 in(10 cm) long

shallowlobes

overlappingred-brownscales

LEAVES

roundedlobes

LEAVES

LEAVES

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 251

Quercus robur

Also known as pedunculate oak, this treehas a spreading habit and smooth shoots.Oak forests were once a valuable resourcefor industrial and naval activities. Its bark isalso used in the tanning industry. A famousheritage tree in Britain is “The Major” inSherwood Forest, which is estimated to be800 years old; legend has it that RobinHood hid in this tree. BARK Grayish brown,vertically ridged. LEAF Alternate, obovate,with 5–9 lobes, dark green above, blue-green beneath. FLOWER Males in droopingcatkins; females inconspicuous, on shortstalks. FRUIT Ovoid, long-stalked acorns,one-third to one-half enclosed in a cup,initially green, ripening to brown in first year.

English Oak HEIGHT 80–130 ft (25–40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa

MATURE ACORNBARK

young acorn

UNRIPE ACORNS

SHIPBUILDING

From Viking longboats to Lord Nelson’sflagship, HMS Victory, oak has a longhistory in shipbuilding. Some 6,000oak trees were used to build theVictory. Trees planted in1802 are now being usedto repair the same ship.

overlappingscales on cup

fissured surface

lobedleaves

LONGBOAT

SESSILE OAKQuercus petraea is the species from which Frenchoak wine barrels are usually made. These trees cangrow up to 130 ft (40 m) tall and may live for up to1,000 years, although in a woodland setting such asthis, they may not reach such great stature or age.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S254

Often planted as a shade tree, this oak isalso grown in avenues for its reddish toyellow-brown fall foliage. BARK Darkbrown tinged with red, divided intoplates. LEAF Alternate, elliptic, mattgreen. FLOWER Males in catkins; femaleson short stalks. FRUIT Large acorns.

The black oak has a broadly spreadinghabit. Its bark was formerly used in thetanning industry and to prepare a yellowdye. BARK Dark brown to black, with ascaly surface. LEAF Alternate, ovate tooblong, 3–4 pairs of triangular-toothedlobes, glossy above, slightly hairy belowwith tufts of rusty hairs in the vein axils.FLOWER Males in slender catkins; femaleson short, hairy stalks. FRUIT Ovoidacorns, enclosed halfwayin the cup, maturing in the second year.

MATURE BARK

Quercus rubra

Quercus macrocarpaQuercus velutina

LEAVES

LEAF

The acorns of this broadly spreading treeare larger than those of any other NorthAmerican oak. BARK Gray, rough, deeplyfurrowed. LEAF Obovate, deeply cut intoround-ended lobes, broader toward thebase, glossy green and smooth above,paler and hairy beneath. FLOWER Males in yellow, drooping catkins; femalesinconspicuous, borne separately on thesame plant. FRUIT Acorn, enclosed in a cup that is rimmed with a fringe of scales.

LEAVESwidely spacedlobes

in shallowcup

ACORNS

ridged andfurrowed

large terminaltooth

bristle-tipped lobes

Red OakHEIGHT 60–80 ft (18–25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

Black OakHEIGHT 70–80 ft (20–25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and N.E. North America

Bur OakHEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 255

Quercus suber

Cork forests form an environmentallyfriendly ecosystem, rich in wildlife. Thesebroadly spreading trees grow on hills inopen woodland. The cork is harvestedevery 9–12 years. Bottle corks account for 15 percent of production by weightbut 65 percent of value of a $3 billionindustry. Stripping the bark, from whichcork is produced, does not damage theliving tissue of the plant, which grows a new outer layer within a few years.BARK Thick, furrowed, and corky, withprominent ridges. LEAF Alternate, ovate to oblong, toothed margins, covered with minute gray felt beneath.FLOWER Males: borne in slender catkins;females: inconspicuous, on short downystalks, borne separately on the sameplant. FRUIT Acorn, enclosed halfway inthe cup, covered by elongated gray-brown scales, matures in the first season.

BARK

LEAVES

pale gray-brown

dark greenabove

21⁄4 in (7 cm)long

CORKY OLD WHISTLER

The oldest cork oak is the “Whistler” (so called becauseof the numerous songbirds nesting in its canopy), whichwas planted in 1783 and last harvested in 2000. Locatedin the Alentejo region of Portugal, it has been producingcork every nine years since 1820. The average Cork Oak produces enough for4,000 corks per harvest;the Whistlerproduces about100,000 corks.

CORK

Cork OakHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Mediterranean, especially Portugal

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S256

The leaves of this tree are aromatic whencrushed. Early European settlers wouldboil the fruit and skim off the wax, whichcould then be used to make candles.BARK Smooth, pale gray. LEAF Alternate,oblanceolate, usually coarsely toothedabove center; dark glands above, brightorange glands beneath. FLOWER Males

and females on separate trees,both in short, spikelike

catkins. FRUIT Spherical,pale green drupe.

LEAVES BRANCH WITHFRUIT

Introduced into Hawaii by Portugueselaborers who made wine from the fruit, this tree has since become a seriousinvasive weed, although it is not invasivein its native habitat. BARK Smooth,brownish gray. LEAF Alternate,oblanceolate, smooth surface but dottedwith tiny glands, margins untoothed orirregularly and bluntly toothed towardthe tip. FLOWER Males and females onseparate trees in short, spikelike catkins. FRUIT Fleshy, glistening drupe.

Morella cerifera

Alnus crispaMorella faya

yellow-greenleaves

FRUIT

Fire TreeHEIGHT up to 26 ft (8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Azores, Canary Islands, Madeira Islands, naturalized in Hawaii

Green AlderHEIGHT 10–26 ft (3–8 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

Wax MyrtleHEIGHT 20–40 ft (6–12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. United States

LEAVES AND FRUIT

fruit coated withpale bluish wax

The bark of the green alder has someastringent qualities and has been usedmedicinally by American Indians. The aromatic young leaves are slightlysticky to the touch. BARK Reddish tograyish brown, smooth or slightly grooved.LEAF Alternate, ovate to broadly elliptic,toothed margins, smooth or slightlyhairy beneath. FLOWER Males: paleyellowish green, in pendulous catkins;females: red, solitary, and small. FRUIT Woody, winged, conelike.

dark red toblack drupe

11⁄2–41⁄4 in(4–11 cm) long

long stalks

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 257

Alnus glutinosa

European AlderHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia, N. Africa

Also known as the black alder, this water-loving tree is commonly seen alongwatersides and riverbanks, where itprovides both erosion control andornamental appeal. It has a straight trunkand a narrow crown. Its wood has beenused extensively in constructing buildingsnear water because it does not rot whenwet. It was also popular with clog-makersin Britain. Since the alder grows onrelatively infertile soils, it is also used forsite reclamation. BARK Smooth on youngtrees, becoming dark grayish black,fissured, and scaly. LEAF Alternate,usually obovate, green beneath, withcoarsely double-toothed margins;smooth or with tufts of hairs in thevein axils; 5–10 pairs of lateralveins; young leaves and twigssticky. FLOWER Males and femaleson same tree; males: reddishbrown, in drooping catkins;females: red, solitary.FRUIT Woody, oval,conelike.

LEAVES AND FRUIT

unripe fruit

leaf 11⁄2–31⁄2 in(4–9 cm) long

male catkinsin clusters

VENICE ON PILINGS

Built on islands in a lagoonof the Adriatic Sea betweenthe 9th and 16th centuries,most of Venice is supportedon pilings. These slender,sharpened poles were madefrom alder wood, which isideal for the job because ofits durability in water. Thefoundations of buildings inVenice consisted of oakwood planks and layers ofmarble placed over pilings.

FLOWERS

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S258

The word “birch” is thought to have beenderived from the Sanskrit word bhurga,“tree whose bark is used to write upon.”The oldest surviving manuscripts, fromBuddhist monasteries, date back2,000 years. BARK Yellowishred-brown, peeling. LEAF Alternate, ovate tobroadly elliptic, double-toothed margins. FLOWER Males andfemales borne onthe same tree incatkins; males:yellow, drooping,females: green,upright. FRUIT Wingednutlets bornein an oval,upright, conelikestructure.

This broadly spreading tree can be found in moist woods or on mountains. BARK Divided by fissures into large plates,does not peel. LEAF Alternate, sharplytoothed margins, smooth or slightly hairybelow; seven or more lateral veins.FLOWER Borne on the same tree, in

catkins; males: yellow, drooping,females: green, upright, ovoid.

FRUIT Winged nutlets borne in anoval, upright, conelike structure.

About 75 percent of birch lumber comesfrom the yellow birch. BARK Silveryyellow-brown, peeling into ribbonlikestrips. LEAF Alternate, ovate to oblong,double-toothed margins. FLOWER Borneon the same tree in catkins; males: yellow,drooping, females: reddish green, upright,cone-like. FRUIT Winged nutlets.

BARK

Betula lenta Betula utilis

Alnus incana Betula alleghaniensis

LEAVES

MALEFLOWERS

largecatkins

reddishbrown

pointedtip

Also called black alder, this tree is found on flood plains and in mountain valleys.BARK Yellowish gray, smooth. LEAF Ovate,alternate, slightly lobed, double-toothed

margins. FLOWER Borne separatelyon the same plant;

males: reddish,in catkins,females: solitary,red, upright.

FRUIT Woody,conelike.

LEAVES, FLOWERS,AND FRUIT

peels horizontally

male catkins

fruit

conical tocolumnarcrown

BARK

Gray AlderHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. and N.E. Europe, North America, W. Asia

Yellow BirchHEIGHT 80–100 ft (25–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and E. North America

Sweet BirchHEIGHT 65–80 ft (20–25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

Himalayan BirchHEIGHT 55–115 ft (17–35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Himalayas

A short-lived pioneer species, the Europeanwhite birch has a distinctive penduloushabit. BARK Smooth, pale yellow-brown,becoming white with age and developingdark, rough cracks. LEAF Alternate, ovateto triangular with coarsely double-toothedmargins. FLOWER Borne in catkins on thesame tree; males: yellow,drooping, females: green,upright, later pendulous,cylindrical. FRUIT Wingednutlets borne in catkins.

Betulus papyrifera

A fast-growing conical tree, the paperbirch has resinous bark that is imperviousto water and was used to make canoesand roofing for wigwams. BARK Creamy-white, peeling in thin layers to expose a pinkish orange layer beneath. LEAF Alternate, margins coarsely double-toothed, dark green above, often hairy onveins beneath. FLOWER Borne separatelyon the same tree, in drooping catkins;

males: yellow, females: green.FRUIT Winged nutlets.

LEAVES ANDFEMALE CATKINS BARK

Betula pendula

numerous horizontallenticels

green, droopingcatkins

ovateleaves

double-toothedmargins LEAVES AND FLOWER

femalecatkin

Paper Birch HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. to W. North America

European White BirchHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. and N. Asia

260

Also called the blue beech, this tree has a fluted trunk. BARK Smooth, pale gray-brown, sometimes with dark horizontal

bands. LEAF Alternate, ovate tooblong, 7–15 pairs of lateral veins,dark green above, downy on veinsbelow, usually turning orange-red

in fall. FLOWER In pendulouscatkins on the same plant; males:

yellowish, axillary, females: green, at tipsof shoots. FRUIT Nutlet at thebase of a green, three-lobedbract, usually toothed,with 5–7 veins.

beneath, usually turning yellow in fall.FLOWER In pendulous catkins on the sameplant; males axillary, females at tips ofshoots. FRUIT Nutlet at the base of agreen, three-lobed bract, with 3–5 veins.

This tree has a fluted trunk and a broadlyspreading habit. It is commonly planted ashedging or as a street tree. Its cultivars arethe columnar ‘Fastigiata’, the pendulous‘Pendula’, and ‘Variegata’ and ‘Purpurea’,which have variegated or purple leaves.BARK Smooth, gray, becoming slightlyfissured with age. LEAF Alternate, ovateto oblong, double-toothed, 7–15 pairs oflateral veins, dark green above, downy

FLOWERING SHOOT

green femalecatkins

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

Carpinus betulus

Carpinus caroliniana

EuropeanHornbeamHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, S.W. Asia

yellow-brownmale catkins

double-toothed margin

LEAF

American HornbeamHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America, Mexico

261

This shrubby, spreading tree often formsthickets. It has multiple stems and is knownfor its edible nuts, also called filberts. Ithas many cultivars, such as ‘Contorta’,the interesting horticultural corkscrewhazel cultivar, which has markedlytwisted branches. There are also threerare cultivars—‘Aurea’, a yellow-leavedform, the cut-leaved ‘Heterophylla’, andthe weeping ‘Pendula’. BARK Smooth,copper brown, sometimes peeling inthin strips. LEAF Alternate, darkgreen, rounded to broadly obovate,double-toothed. FLOWER Males andfemales on the same plant; males: inlong catkins, females: small, bud-like, with red stigmas. FRUIT Nutsurrounded by a bractlike huskonly slightly longer than the nut.

LEAVESNUTS

to 4 in (10 cm) long

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

Corylus avellana

HAZEL COPPICES

The shoots of the hazelnut are often coppiced or cut back toencourage thick growth of itsbranches. They were onceused to make hoops forbarrels; they are still usedto make woven fences,thatching spars, andhedges. The remainswere bundled as“faggots” for fuel.

COPPICING

MALE FLOWERS

HazelnutHEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe

deeply lobedhusk pale yellow catkins

The wood of this tree is very hard andtough and has been used for handles,levers, and mallets. BARK Gray-brown,smooth when young, becoming verticallyfissured and scaly. LEAF Alternate, ovate,with double-toothed margins, sparselyhairy on both sides, 12–15 pairs of lateralveins, usually turning yellow in fall.FLOWER Males and females on the sameplant in pendulous catkins; males: yellow,axillary; females: green, at tips of shoots,tiny. FRUIT Drooping, conelike structureconsisting of a nut within a creamy,bladderlike husk.

262

Widely planted as an ornamental in parksand gardens, this hazel is also useful as astreet tree. It has a compact and conicalhead. It rarely sets fruit in northernlatitudes. BARK Dark gray, corky, deeplyfurrowed. LEAF Alternate, ovate to broadlyovate, rarely obovate, double-toothedmargins, dark green, usually turningyellow in fall. FLOWER Males and femaleson the same plant, appearing before theleaves; males: in long, drooping, paleyellow catkins; females: small, budlike,with red stigmas. FRUIT Edible nutsurrounded by a bractlike husk, dividedalmost to the baseinto linearsegments.

Corylus maxima

Ostrya carpinifoliaCorylus colurna

FRUIT AND LEAVES

Turkish Hazel HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, W. Asia

Hop Hornbeam HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, W. Asia

Giant Filbert HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, W. Asia

This often shrublike tree usually has severalmain stems and a spreading habit. It isoften grown in orchards (sometimes known as “plats”) for its edible cobnuts. BARK Gray-brown, smooth, with horizontallenticels. LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate to obovate, double-toothed, dark green,usually turning yellow in fall. FLOWER Males: in long, drooping yellowcatkins; females: small, budlike, withred stigmas. FRUIT Softly hairy nutwith a notched tip, in a husk.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

to 43⁄4 in(12 cm) long

pale brownshell

FLOWERS

LEAF

RIPE FRUIT

bractlike husk

male catkin to 31⁄4 in(8 cm) long

FLOWERS

male catkinto 4 in(10 cm) long

LEAVES

to 6 in (15 cm)long

UNRIPE FRUIT

263

Casuarina equisetifolia

Beefwood HEIGHT 20–115 ft (6–35 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia,Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Polynesia,N. and N.E. Australia

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

STABILIZED SAND DUNES

Beefwood roots contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria,which enable it to flourish in soils that are too poorfor other trees. As a result, it can be used to stabilizedunes and to control soil erosion. In exposed areas, itcan also be used as windbreaks to protect crops.

Found on coastlines, thistree is sometimes invasive.

Its stems resemblehorsetails and the wood

is an excellent sourceof fuel and charcoal.

BARK Gray-brownto black, scaly,becoming fissured.LEAF Scalelike, tiny,4–10 in each whorl,borne on greenstems. FLOWER Males

and females on the

same tree; males: incylindrical spikes at tips of twigs; females: inred-brown heads alongbranches. FRUIT Small,round, conelike nutlet, withwinged seeds. LEAVES

femaleflowers

maleflowers

FLOWERS

264

Carya illinoinensis

Pecan HEIGHT 100–180 ft (30–55 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. North America

CENTENNIAL NUTS

In 1846, an African American slave gardener from Louisianasuccessfully grafted a superiorwild pecan to seedling pecanstocks. This increased the tree’sproductivity significantly and led to the development of the varietycalled “Centennial,” from which the 500 currentvarieties originate.

Commercial cultivation of the pecan treebegan by the end of the 19th century. It is now widely grown on plantations in theUS, especially Texas, which has chosen it as its state tree. There are over 500

cultivars. BARK Palegray-brown tingedwith red, furrowedand deeply ridged,

scaly surface.

LEAF FRUIT

green husk

LEAF Alternate, pinnate; 9–17 lanceolate,coarsely toothed leaflets. FLOWER Smalland petalless; males in axillary pendulouscatkins; females stalkless, in terminalspikes. FRUIT Reddish brown, ovoid-oblong, thin-shelled nut containinggrooved, edible seeds.

PECANS

yellow-green male catkinsFLOWERS

slightly curvedat tips

This shade-intolerant tree secretes asubstance that prevents vegetation fromgrowing around it. Its timber is used forcabinets and veneers. BARK Dark gray-brown to blackish, with deep, scaly ridges.

LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with 11–19ovate-lanceolate, coarsely toothedleaflets. FLOWER Small, petalless;males in axillary catkins;females stalkless, in few-

flowered spikes.FRUIT Spherical,ribbed nut, solitaryor in pairs.

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 265

LEAVES WITHCATKINS

Butternut HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. and C. North America

LEAVES

Black Walnut HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

FRUIT

Juglans cinerea

Juglans nigra

unequal, roundedbase

yellow-greenmale catkins

Formerly used for paneling, butternut isseldom planted as an ornamental. In thewild, it is highly prone to butternut canker,a virulent fungal disease. BARK Gray,

deeply fissured, with small scales on

the ridges. LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with 11–17 oblong-lanceolate, coarselytoothed leaflets, hairy on both sides.FLOWER Small, petalless; males in axillaryhanging catkins; females stalkless, in few-flowered spikes. FRUIT Egg-shaped nutsin clusters of 3–5, with sweet, oily seeds.

pointed tipsgreen husk

pointedgreen husk

FRUIT

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S266

Juglans regia

form an industrial abrasive, and walnutoil extracted from the kernel is used as asalad oil. BARK Pale silvery gray, smooth,eventually becoming deeply fissured withage. LEAF Alternate, pinnate; 5–9 ovateto elliptic or obovate leaflets, withunequal, rounded bases. FLOWER Malesand females on the same plant, bothsmall and petalless; males: in axillarypendulous catkins, females: stalkless, onfew-flowered spikes. FRUIT Round nutborne singly or in pairs, up to 2 in (5 cm)long, with an edible, sweet kernel.

The cultivation of the walnut dates back to 7000 BCE. It was introduced intoEurope from Persia by the Romans. Thefirst US plantations were established in1867, and the main area of cultivation isnow California. All parts of the fruit areutilized: the cracked shells are ground to

Pterocarya fraxinifolia

MATURE FRUIT

FRUIT ANDLEAFLETSMALE FLOWERS catkins to 4 in (10 cm) long

BARK

The wingnut has a very wide crown and grows best in moist soil near water.BARK Pale gray, smooth, becoming deeplyfurrowed with age. LEAF Alternate,pinnate; ovate to oblong-lanceolate,unstalked leaflets; sharply toothed.

FLOWER Males and females on the sameplant, both small and petalless; males inaxillary pendulous catkins, females invery long, pendulous catkins. FRUIT Nutwith two wings.

winged fruitin hangingcatkin

deep, interlacingridges

11–25 leaflets

smooth, hardhusk

green husk ofunripe fruit

leaflet to 18 in(45 cm) long

LEAVESAND FRUIT

English Walnut HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, Himalayas to China

Wingnut HEIGHT 65–100 ft (20–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. Asia, Caucasus

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 267

Carica papaya

A fast-growing tree with hollow stems, thepapaya is widely cultivated throughout thetropics for its fruit. The unripe fruit, stems,and leaves produce a latex that containsthe enzyme papain. This is used as adietary supplement to aid digestion andas a meat tenderizer. BARK Greenish togray-brown, smooth, with prominent leafscars, and thin milky sap. LEAF Alternate,clustered at the stem tip, palmatelydivided into 7–11 lobes. FLOWER Malesand females on separate trees, with pale

yellow or pink petals; males in pendentpanicles, females solitary or in few-flowered clusters. FRUIT Large ovoid-oblong, fleshy berry, with yellowishorange pulp and black seeds.

UNRIPE FRUIT

LEAF

fruit weighs upto 22 lb (10 kg)

LUSCIOUS FRUIT

The papaya fruit hasorange, yellow, or pinkcreamy, sweet fleshsurrounding soft edibleblack seeds. In its nativerange, much of thedelicate, perishablefruit is grown in homegardens and sold inlocal markets for freshconsumption, with littleentering international trade. The fruit needs to be harvested with care—scratchingits skin releases latex, which stains the fruit.

FRESH PAPAYA

7–13 veins

stalkless maleflowers

deeply dividedlobes

FLOWERS

DRIED FRUIT

Papaya HEIGHT 6–33 ft (2–10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE West Indies, N. South America

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S268

Vasconcellea x heilbornii

leaf scars. LEAF Alternate, clustered atthe stem tip, rounded, palmate, deeplydivided and toothed, with 5–7 lobes, 1–7veins and a long stalk. FLOWER Solitary,each on a pendulous stalk, with yellowishgreen petals, forming on the trunk duringits growth phase. FRUIT Large torpedo-shaped green berry, yellow when ripe,borne on the stem;thin, edible skin,creamy flesh.

Also known as mountain papaya, this fast-growing treelike giant herb is thought tobe a hybrid between two Andean papayas,V. pubescens and V. stipulata. BARK Greenishto gray-brown, smooth, with prominent

Babaco HEIGHT 3–7 ft (1–2 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE Ecuador, known only in cultivation

European colonists in India used the rootof this slender tree as a substitute forhorseradish (not advisable as it containstoxic alkaloids), hence the common name.Widely cultivated in the tropics, its leaves,rich in vitamins and minerals, are used asa vegetable supplement. However, the

immature green fruit is the mostvalued part of the

plant and is prepared in a fashion similarto green beans. Oil derived from the seedshas been used for cooking, for lubrication,and in cosmetics. BARK Pale, smooth to slightly corky. LEAF Alternate, three-pinnate, with a terminal leaflet; leafletsovate to elliptic or oblong, untoothed,finely hairy when young, turning smooth

later. FLOWER White to cream, bornein large axillary, spreading

panicles. FRUIT Long,pendulous capsule.

LEAFLETSin 4–6pairs

droopingbranches

FRUIT

beanlikecapsules

Moringa oleifera

Horseradish Tree HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.W. India

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 269

Historically used for making body paintand fabric dye, this bushy tree is now usedmainly as a food colorant for dairy

products. BARK Pale todark brown, later fissured.LEAF Alternate, in spirals,ovate, with a heart-shaped to blunt base. FLOWER Large terminal

panicles, 5–7 obovatepetals, usually pinkish.FRUIT Flattened, ellipsoidalcapsule, with bristles,bright red when mature.

Often planted as a street tree, the simul is a blaze of color when in flower. BARK Grayish white. LEAF Alternate,palmate; 5–7 oblong-lanceolate, smoothleaflets. FLOWER Solitary, terminal, large,brilliant scarlet, with numerous stamens.FRUIT Woody capsule; seeds surroundedby fluffy hairs.

Mostly found in dry monsoon areas, thissmall tree is also known as the buttercuptree. It is cultivated within its region forits abundant single yellow flowers, but itis uncommon outside its natural habitat.BARK Creamy gray and smooth. LEAF Alternate, palmate, with 3–5 dividedlobes, softly hairy below, wavy margins.FLOWER Large, borne in terminalinflorescences on bare branches, withnumerous stamens. FRUIT Large opencapsule, with woolly seeds.

Bixa orellana

Bombax ceibaCochlospermum religiosum

Silk Cotton Tree HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE India, Myanmar, Thailand

Simul HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Sri Lanka, China, Malaysia, Australia

Annatto HEIGHT 10–33 ft (3–10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical South America,S.E. Asia

FRUIT

orange-redstamens

yellow petals

FLOWERSAND FRUIT

seeds inred-orangepulp

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S270

The baobab, which can live for over 1,000years, is a focus for myth: it is said that adevil uprooted the tree and replanted itupside down; spirits are linked with itsnight-opening flowers (the tree is pollinatedby bats). The baobab has edible leaves,seeds, and pulp, and the inner bark is usedto make rope. The massive trunk storeswater, which can be tapped for drinking.BARK Grayish brown, tinged mauve,smooth. LEAF Alternate, digitate, with 5–7elliptic-oblong to ovate leaflets that arehairy below when young. FLOWER Axillary,solitary, large, sweet-scented, with waxyand crinkled white to cream petals,numerous stamens. FRUIT Ovoid browncapsule, velvety hairy outside; black seeds.

Considered one of the most spectaculartrees of Australia, this tree has brightcoral-red flowers. BARK Gray, fissured or wrinkled. LEAF Alternate or whorled,ovate to lanceolate, sometimes with 3–5 lobes, especially in juvenile foliage.FLOWER Petalless, in large terminalpanicles on leafless branches. FRUIT Dry,boat-shaped, woody follicle.

The short trunk of this tree is enlargedand bottle-shaped, enabling it to storewater. BARK Grayish brown, smooth.LEAF Alternate, with 3–7 elliptic to ovateor obovate leaflets. FLOWER Axillary,solitary, large, with oblong to spoon-shaped petals, white to cream, numerousstamens. FRUIT Brown capsule, velvetyhairy surface, with kidney-shaped seeds.

spreading branches

Adansonia digitata

Brachychiton acerifoliusAdansonia gregorii

Boab HEIGHT 16–50 ft (5–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. Australia (Kimberley region)

Flame Tree HEIGHT 115 ft (35 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. Australia

Baobab HEIGHT 33–80 ft (10–25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 271

The durian is famous—or notorious—for its fruits: though a delicacy, theyare banned in hotels and on publictransit because of their overpoweringsmell. BARK Gray to reddish brown,

flaking irregularly. LEAF Alternate,smooth above, covered with hairs and

silvery scales beneath. FLOWER In axillaryclusters, with five yellowish white petalsand five pale golden sepals. FRUIT Greento yellow, spherical capsule; seeds coveredwith creamy sweet flesh.

Ceiba speciosa

FLOWER Deep pink, 23⁄4–41⁄4 in (7–11 cm)long, with a streaked white to yellow base and oblong to spoon-shaped petals.FRUIT Large, woody, pear-shaped capsule;seeds in a mass of silky hairs.

Locally cultivated in South Americabefore the arrival of the Europeans, thistree is characterized by a spiny, swollentrunk that can store water, and its greenavocado-like fruit, which releases cotton-like fibers when ripe. This tree is oftenplanted in the southern US as a streettree for its display of spectacular deeppink flowers. BARK Yellowish green, spiny,particularly when young. LEAF Alternate,digitate, with 5–7 narrowly elliptic leaflets.

Durian HEIGHT 100–130 ft (30–40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Sumatra, Borneo, cultivated elsewhere in S.E. Asia

Durio zibethinus

FLOWER

elliptic tolanceolate leaf

LEAVES

large, glossyseeds

pyramidal spines

purple streaks onflower base

RIPE FRUIT

Floss Silk Tree HEIGHT 50–75 ft (15–22 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE South America (Brazil,N.E. Argentina), planted elsewhere in the tropics

BAOBABBaobabs rise above the Madagascan forest canopy.These majestic trees are a characteristic feature ofthis island’s landscape. Several baobab species havebeen identified, but Adansonia grandidieri is perhapsthe best known.

RU N N I N G H E A D274

Ceiba pentandra

Kapok HEIGHT 60–230 ft (18–70 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE South America, Africa

FLOWERS

bell-shapedflowers

buttressed. The broad, pagoda-shapedcrown is formed by superimposedbranches arranged in groups of three.Kapok flowers, which bloom in the dryseason from December to January, have a fetid, milky smell that attracts bats. Theseeds, leaves, bark, and resin are used forvarious medicinal purposes. The tree isnow cultivated in Southeast Asia andAfrica. BARK Pale gray; with conicalspines when young. LEAF Alternate, long-stalked, palmate, with 5–11 oblong-lanceolate leaflets. FLOWER Pink oroff-white, in axillary clusters of 2–15.FRUIT Capsule; seeds embedded in a massof woolly hairs (floss).

KAPOK FLOSS

The kapok was formerly cultivated for the floss of itsfruit, mainly in Sri Lanka, Java, and the Philippines. Theharvested fruit was opened and the seeds separatedfrom the kapok floss, which was dried and then baled. This fiber has been used to stuff mattresses and as

buoyancy material in life jackets. The oilfrom the seeds was used

for soap-making.

FRUIT POD

One of the tallest trees of the Amazonforests, kapok was held sacred by theancient Mayas and many other nativeAmerican tribes, probably because of itsstature. Its base has pronounced exposedroots and is sometimes

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 275

This tree has widely spreading, horizontalbranches and is common in secondaryforests. BARK Gray to gray-brown, rough.LEAF Alternate, in flattened rows, ovate to lanceolate, toothed. FLOWER In axillarypanicles, with five greenish yellow petals. FRUIT Globose green capsule; black andhoney-scented when ripe.

Usuallypyramidal inshape, this tree iscultivated as anornamental street orpark tree in many warm, temperate, or subtropical climates. The hairs of thefruit can cause itching. BARK Grayish,fissured lengthwise. LEAF Alternate, ovate to elliptic, densely scaly below. FLOWER Pink to rose-lilac, axillary, solitary.FRUIT Capsule lined with hairs.

Guazuma ulmifolia

Ochroma pyramidale

Lagunaria patersonia

LEAVES AND FRUIT

Norfolk Island Hibiscus HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

Balsa HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical South America, West Indies

Bastard Cedar HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

LEAVESANDFLOWERS

FLOWER

forkedstyles

curvingpetals

FLOWER

5 petals

ovate tocircular

flossy fruitcovering

This tree has a straight trunk and asparsely branched, spreading crown. Itproduces the lightest commercial wood in the world. Its flowers are pollinated by bats. BARK Grayish brown, smooth,porous. LEAF Alternate, rough, shallowlylobed and covered with reddish hairs.FLOWER Axillary, solitary; white to yellowishpetals, numerous stamens. FRUIT Capsulethat looks like a rabbit’s foot.

leaf to 4 in (10 cm)long

orange orgolden anthers

KAPOK The spreading roots of a kapok tree (Ceibapentandra) invade temple ruins at Angkor, Cambodia.Originally a native of South America, the kapok wassacred to the Mayans, who believed that the souls of the dead ascended to heaven via its branches.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S278

Pachira aquatica

spreadinghabit

Also known as the Guyana chestnut, thistree has branches in whorls, particularlywhen young. It is found along estuariesand lakesides and can be used as a hedge

Shaving-Brush Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Mexico, Centraland South America

Often the dominant tree in the moist woodswhere it grows, American basswood has abroadly columnar to rounded crown. It issometimes planted as a street tree. Itsbark was widely used by AmericanIndians for making rope and baskets.BARK Brownish gray, deeply fissuredwith scaly ridges. LEAF Alternate,broadly ovate, coarsely toothed, with aheart-shaped base. FLOWER Pale yellow-green, in axillary or terminal, stalkedclusters of up to ten fragrant flowers.

FRUIT Woody, roundeddrupe, four-ribbed,

covered with gray-brown hairs.

Tilia americana

or for general planting. Its seeds, whichresemble the European chestnut in flavor,can be toasted and ground to prepare a hot-chocolate-like beverage. BARK Gray, slightly cracked lengthwise.LEAF Alternate, palmate, with 4–7 smooth,elliptic to oblong-lanceolate leaflets.FLOWER Axillary, solitary, yellow to creamywhite petals, turning back to revealnumerous stamens,clustered in groups of about 15. FRUIT Large, egg-shaped capsule, withedible seeds.

FLOWERS petals 8–12 in(20–30 cm) long

FRUIT

yellowish brown capsule

pink -tippedstamens

LEAF FLOWERS

American BasswoodHEIGHT 80–130 ft (25–40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 279

This tall tree has a somewhat pyramidalcrown. Its wood is soft and can be workedwith ease. BARK Gray-brown, smoothwhen young; dark gray, ridged atmaturity. LEAF Alternate, ovate torounded, glossy green above, waxy beneath, with sharply toothed margins.FLOWER Axillary or terminal, stalkedclusters of up to ten flowers, pale green bracts at base, fragrant.FRUIT Woody,spherical nutlikedrupe, smooth.

pale yellow-greenflowers

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

The common linden is rare as a naturalhybrid and is usually cultivated. Its trunkoften has burs, usually with numeroussuckers at the base. This is the commonlyplanted “lime tree” in European parks and

streets. BARK Gray-brown, smooth when young; dark gray, ridged at maturity.LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate, glossygreen above, tufts of hairs beneath.FLOWER Pale yellow-green, with palegreen bracts at base, fragrant, inaxillary or terminal, stalked clusters of up to ten. FRUIT Woody, roundednutlike drupe, faintly ribbed,covered with gray-brown hairs.

Tilia cordata

Tilia x europaea

LEAVES WITHFRUIT

Common Linden HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe

Little-Leaf LindenHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

nutlets

toothed leafedges

broadly columnarhabit

280 RU N N I N G H E A D

This species accounts for almost half thetimber produced in West Africa. Its trunk is

Triplochiton scleroxylon

Tilia tomentosa

The flowers of this tree are inconspicuousbut exceptionally fragrant. They are usedto make linden tea (tisane), which helps toinduce sweating and to counter colds andfevers. The flowers are picked when fullyfragrant and then dried. This and otherTilia species are popular with beekeepersfor honey production. BARK Gray, with a network of shallow ridges and furrows.LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate to rounded,slightly lobed, green and slightly hairyabove, covered with silvery hairs beneath.FLOWER Pale yellow-green, with a palegreen bract beneath, in axillary orterminal, stalked clusters of up to ten.FRUIT Egg-shaped, warty nutlike drupe.

Silver Linden HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Europe, S.W. Asia

straight, but sometimes fluted in old trees.BARK Gray to orange-brown, becomingscaly. LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate totriangular, lobed to about one-third ofthe length, with 5–7 lobes. FLOWER Inshort panicles, somewhat saucer-shaped,with white petals that are red-purple at thebase. FRUIT Up to five winged carpels.

sharply toothedleaf margins

broadlycolumnarcrown

silveryundersideof leaf

Obeche HEIGHT up to 215 ft (65 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical W. Africa (from Guinea to Cameroon)

pendulousfruit

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 281

Theobroma cacao

Cultivated in tropical regions for itsseeds—the cocoa “beans” used to makecocoa and chocolate—this tree has a low,spreading crown. The seeds of the fruitpod are scooped out, fermented, anddried, and then shipped to chocolate-producing countries for shelling, roasting,and processing. BARK Dark brown, rough,fissured. LEAF Alternate, large, elliptic tooblong, pendulous. FLOWER Pink to white,with petals that are hood-shaped at thebase and spreading sepals; borne singly orin groups on the trunk and branches atthe same time as the fruit. FRUIT Ovoid-

Cocoa HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE Evergreen to semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE S. Mexico, CentralAmerica, cultivated in W. Africa

“BITTER WATER”

The word “chocolate”derives from the Mayanxocolatl, which means“bitter water.” ChristopherColumbus brought cocoa beans to Europe fromAmerica, but it was only in 1875 that milkchocolate was inventedby Swiss chemist Henri Nestlé.

oblong, yellow to reddish purple pod, five-celled, furrowed, with numerousreddish brown seeds embedded in awhitish, sweetish,buttery pulp.

LEAVES

UNRIPE FRUIT

TRUNK untoothedmargin

wrinkled pod

small whiteflowers ontrunk

COCOA POD

CHOCOLATE

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S282

Mainly grown for its strong timber, thistree is also planted as an ornamental andshade tree. BARK Dark brown or black,cracks into small pieces. LEAF Alternate,4–8 in (10–20 cm) long, tapering at the tip. FLOWER Small, with five pinkish to white petals, hairy on both sides, inbranched terminal or axillary panicles. FRUIT Single-seeded, round nut.

Hopea odorata

Thingwa HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia

The heavy, durable timber of this treeused to be the best-known in Malaysia.BARK Grayish, flaky. LEAF Leathery,lanceolate to crescent-shaped, with anunequal base, tip tapers to a long, bluntpoint. FLOWER Pale greenish yellow with15 stamens, borne in terminal or axillarypanicles. FRUIT Oblong to cylindrical,shiny nut, with a short point at the tip.

Neobalanocarpus heimii

Chengal HEIGHT up to 110 ft (33 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Thailand, Malaysia

Muntingia calabura

with sticky, glandular red hairs. The sweetberries can be eaten fresh or made intojam. The bark can be made into ropes,and the flowers are used in traditionalmedicine. BARK Pale brownish gray,smooth, fibrous. LEAF Alternate, ovate-lanceolate, dark green above, covered with

sticky hairs beneath thatradiate from the center;asymmetrical base, threeveins. FLOWER White,borne in axillary groupsof 1–5. FRUIT Dull redfleshy berry, withnumerous tiny seeds.

Also known as the Jamaican cherry, thistree was introduced into Asia during thetime of the Spanish Empire and wastransported on the Acapulco–Manilagalleon route. It has an umbrella-shapedcrown and widely spreading, horizontal,drooping branches. Its twigs are covered

Jam-Tree HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico, Caribbean, South America, introduced in S.E. Asia

UNRIPEFRUIT

LEAVES

SOLITARY FLOWER

5 petals

prominent yellowstamens

toothedmargin

3⁄8–1⁄2 in(1–1.25 cm)wide

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 283

Shorea robusta

MORE THAN TIMBER

Like many tropical tree species, the sal is used for farmore than timber. The seeds of the tree are used foroil, and the oilcake is used to feed livestock. Theleaves can also be used for cattle feed. The tree yieldsa white, aromatic resin when tapped, which is burned

as incense during religiousceremonies. It is also

used for caulking boatsand ships and inpaints and varnishes.The resin hasmedicinal uses.

This tree has a straight, cylindrical trunk. Younger trees have a pointed habit,which becomes more rounded with age.Although an evergreen, the tree shedsnearly all its leaves in dry areas, betweenFebruary and April. Sal provides verygood-quality, durable timber, which ismuch sought-after for construction,especially for purposes that requirestrength with flexibility, such as railroadties and house- and bridge-building. Thetree is revered by Buddhists—it is said that the Buddha meditated in a grove of sal trees. BARK Dark brown, withdeep longitudinal furrows in maturetrees. LEAF Tough, shiny leaves,4–10 in (10–25 cm) long with arounded base, oval-oblong inshape, ending in a bluntpoint, 10–12 pairs ofsecondary veins. FLOWER Yellowish, innerpetals orange, calyx andpetals are covered withwhite down on theoutside; borne in largeaxillary or terminal,racemose panicles.FRUIT Winged nut;seeds may germinateon the tree.

conspicuous flowers

FLOWERINGBRANCHES

LEAF HARVEST

glossyfoliage

Sal HEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE Evergreen OCCURRENCE Myanmar, India, Nepal

A gigantic tree, often with a trunk over61⁄2 ft (2 m) wide, kapur is an importantsource of timber and camphor. BARK Reddish, flaky. LEAF Dark green,waxy, leathery, triangular to heart-shaped. FLOWER In panicles, white petals in rosette,about 30 stamens. FRUIT Smooth nut.

Shorea albida

This tree occurs on peat swamps, thelargest trees growing at the edges and thesmallest in the center. The intermediatetrees are an important source of red

Dryobalanops aromaticaShorea javanica

This tree is grown in plantations insouthern Sumatra. The timber is valuedfor plywood production, which is its mostimportant use. The tree is also used for its high-quality, clear resin—known as“damar.” The damar trees begin theirproduction of resin after 20 years,yielding it for about 30 years before dyingsome time between 50 and 60 years ofage. On average, a tree will yield some100 lb (50 kg) per year. In dry areas, it sheds nearly all its leaves betweenFebruary and April. Its branchlets are covered with a tawny down. BARK Reddish, rough. LEAF Oblong-elliptic to ovate, tip tapers to a long blunt point, leathery; 19–25 pairs of veryslender, secondary veins, midrib slenderabove. FLOWER In terminal or axillary,single-branched panicles up to 51⁄2 in(14 cm) long, about three flowers, eachwith white petals and 15 stamens, on abranchlet. FRUIT Egg-shaped nut up to1⁄2 in (1.4 cm) long and 3⁄8 in (1 cm) wide,covered in tawny-brown down, with aprominent point at tip.

DamarHEIGHT up to 110 ft (33 m) TYPE Semi-evergreen OCCURRENCE Sumatra

meranti timber. BARK Grayish, deeplyfissured. LEAF Oblong-elliptic, tip tapersto a long point, leathery; 16–20 pairs ofslender, secondary veins. FLOWER Bornein terminal or axillary, doubly branchedpanicles up to 7 in (18 cm) long;branchlets carry up to three flowers, with cream petals and 20–25 stamens.FRUIT Egg-shaped nuts, 3⁄8 in (1.2 cm)long, covered in grayish-buff hairs.

glossy green foliage

AlanHEIGHT 130 ft (40 m) TYPE Evergreen OCCURRENCE N.W. Borneo

Kapur HEIGHT up to 110 ft (33 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malaya, Borneo, Sumatra

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 285

Aquilaria malaccensis Gonystylus bancanus

This tree yields the world’s most valuableincense. Its bark produces strong fibers that are used for making rope and cloth.BARK Whitish, smooth, cracking irregularly.LEAF Elliptic-oblong to oblong-lanceolate,with pointed tip. FLOWER Green to yellow,in groups of 1–3 umbels, each with aboutten flowers. FRUIT Hairy, spherical capsule.

The ramin grows in freshwater swampsand seasonally flooding forests. It is highlyvalued for its timber. BARK Dark brown,shallowly fissured. LEAF Alternate, oftenfolded, leathery, elliptic, oblong, orrounded. FLOWER In clusters, covered with yellowish down, with 13–20 petals. FRUIT Rough, spherical capsule.

RaminHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malaysia, Indonesia

Also called the Manitoba maple, this treegrows along the banks of streams andlakes and on swampy ground. Its wood is soft and weak and has been used as an inferior timber. In Europe, it is often used for windbreaks and street plantings.BARK Pale to light brown, scaly, furrowedwith age. LEAF Opposite, pinnate with3–7 ovate leaflets. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees; yellow-green,in drooping clusters. FRUIT Winged keys,arranged in pairs.

The hedge maple occurs in broad-leavedwoodlands and is common in hedgerows.In rare cases, it can grow up to 90 ft(28 m). In Europe, it is sometimes plantedas a shade or street tree. BARK Gray-brown, scaly or fissured. LEAF Opposite,palmate, 3–5 lobes; the stalk yields sap.FLOWER Green, in small, erect clusters.FRUIT Wingedkeys, arrangedin pairs.

Acer negundoAcer campestre

leaves dividedhalfway

winged fruit

FRUIT

winged keys

LEAVESAND FRUIT

AgarwoodHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia

Hedge MapleHEIGHT 20–33 ft (6–10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa,W. Asia

Box Elder HEIGHT 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. Canada, E. US

Acer palmatum

Long cultivated in Japan, the Japanesemaple was introduced into Europe in1820. This tree has a graceful andspreading habit and slender shoots thatend in small, paired buds. It is commonlyplanted in gardens for its fall colors. BARK Gray-brown,with pale andlongitudinal

stripes, which are variable in somecultivars. LEAF Opposite, palmate, with 5–9, deep, taper-pointed lobes.FLOWER Small, purple, arranged in smalland upright clusters. FRUIT Winged keys, arranged in pairs.

red, wingedfruit

MEDLEY OF COLORS

The Japanese maple has more than 500 cultivars.They differ in the depth of division of the leaf lobes—these are themselves dissected sometimes, ornarrowly linear—and in the leaf color, which rangesfrom green to purple to golden or variegated. There is also a dwarf group, which is popular for bonsai.

LEAVES ANDFRUIT

finely pointedleaf lobes

Japanese MapleHEIGHT 26–40 ft (8–12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Japan, China, Korea

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 287

The sycamore maple is an invasive maple with a broad, spreading crown,colonizing open areas. Control of invasive populations is possible by selecting only male trees. BARK Gray-brown, smooth, flakinginto irregular plates in older trees.LEAF Opposite, palmate, with fivedeep, coarsely toothed lobes, heart-shaped at the base, dark green above,paler beneath. FLOWER Green,arranged in small pendulousclusters from the slendershoots. FRUIT Winged keys, arranged in pairs, up to 1 in (2.5 cm) long.

Growing in diverse habitats and climates,the red maple is one of the species thataccount for the striking red fall colors ofNorth American forests. BARK Pale grayand smooth, with plate-like scales onmature trees. LEAF Opposite, with threeshallow and sharply toothed lobes. FLOWER Dull yellowish red to bright yellow,on long-stalked clusters, appearing beforethe leaves. FRUIT Winged keys, in pairs.

Acer pseudoplatanus

Acer rubrum

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

FALL FOLIAGE

red-brownshoots

pointed, toothedlobes

pendulous flowers

leaf to 3–6 in(7.5–15 cm)wide

FRUITclusteredwinged fruit

Sycamore Maple HEIGHT 65–100 ft (20–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, N. Africa,W. Asia

Red Maple HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America (N.E. United States, S.E. Canada)

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S288

Acer saccharum

This large, fast-growing tree providesabundant shade and beautiful fall foliage,and is an excellent tree for parks andlarge yards. It is an important timber tree,as well as the source of maple syrup andsugar. It takes about 40 gallons ofsap to make one gallon of syrup.BARK Gray-brown, smooth orslightly fissured, becoming darker,deeply furrowed, and scaly onolder trees. LEAF Opposite, with 3–5shallow lobes and conspicuous veins,deep matt green, turning yellow toorange or red in fall. FLOWER Small,

greenish yellow, in unstalkedclusters hanging from long

stems, appearingwith or slightlybefore the leaves;

males and females on the same tree orseparate trees. FRUIT Winged keysarranged in pairs, 1 in (2.5 cm) long, in clusters, turning brown when maturein fall.

LEAF

Sugar MapleHEIGHT 100–120 ft (30–36 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N.E. US, S.E. Canada

BARK

SWEET SYRUP

In the past, gashes were made in the bark of the tree and thesap collected in birch buckets,poured into hollowed out treestumps, and then evaporated byadding hot stones, to makemaple syrup. Today, the sap istapped directly through plastictubing that runs into a central

storage tank.

PANCAKESWITHSYRUP

FRUIT

FLOWERCLUSTERS

fruit to1 in(2.5 cm)long

flower to 3⁄16 in(5 mm) long

leaf to 5 in(13 cm) long

deep fissures

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 289

If not prepared correctly, the fruit of theackee is highly poisonous. The nationalfruit of Jamaica, it is named afterCaptain Bligh, who collected samples in Jamaica and sent them to London’sKew Gardens. BARK Gray, smooth toslightly rough. LEAF Alternate, pinnatewith 3–5 pairs of elliptic leaflets, noterminal leaflet, smooth above, hairy

Aesculus hippocastanum

RIPE FRUIT

below, with toothed margins. FLOWER Incolumnar, upright panicles, with 4–5creamy white petals veined pink to red atthe base. FRUIT Green, spherical capsule,with glossy brown seeds.

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

The common name of this tree is derivedfrom the horseshoe-shaped leaf scars thatcan be seen below the sticky terminal buds.The large seeds (sometimes known asconkers) are inedible. BARK Dark brown,flaking into plates. LEAF Opposite,digitate, with 5–7 obovate leaflets, each with a narrow triangularbase, sparsely hairy

AckeeHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa

Blighia sapida

Horse Chestnut HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Native to the Balkans,naturalized throughout Europe

unstalkedleafletssmooth

seed

spinyhusk

LEAF

below. FLOWER White, fragrant, borne inracemes. FRUIT Leathery to fleshy three-valved capsule, opening to reveal threedark brown, poisonous seeds; large white,fleshy, edible aril, which is attached to thefruit by a red or pink membrane.

red tinged with yellow

dense spreadingbranches

FRUIT

JAPANESE MAPLEA favorite among horticulturists and gardendesigners, the Japanese maple (Acer palmatum) isvalued for its delicate foliage and brilliant fall colors.The subspecies shown here, A. palmatum dissectum,is a variety with deeply divided leaves.

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S292

Planted as an ornamental for its yellowflowers, bladderlike fruit, and yellow fallcolor, this tree has a broadly spreadingcrown. In China, the flowers have beenused as a yellow dye and are acomponent in a traditional medicine. BARK Gray-brown,fissured into scaly ridges.LEAF Alternate, ovate toovate-oblong, smoothabove, with irregularlytoothed margins. FLOWER Numerous,small, yellow with red center,in terminalpanicles.FRUIT Bladder-like capsule,green, tingedred, ripening to brown.

Dimocarpus longan

Although the longan is a tropical fruit thatis best eaten fresh, there is a considerablecanning industry for the fruit because theyretain their flavor better than the lycheeor rambutan. The fruit can be dried,either whole or after removal of the outerskin, and is used to prepare a refreshingdrink. The seeds are high in saponin (asoaplike compound) and can be used forshampoos. BARK Smooth, becomingslightly flaky. LEAF Alternate, pinnate,without a terminal leaflet; 4–10 elliptic to

Koelreuteria paniculata

ovate-oblong, untoothed leaflets, glossygreen above, gray-green beneath,minutely hairy. FLOWER Yellow-brown,smooth to densely woolly, borne in aterminal inflorescence. FRUIT Smooth towarty, spherical to oval fleshy drupe, witha sticky, translucent white aril.

FRUIT

UNRIPE FRUIT

triangular, 3-sidedcapsule

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

dense, dark greenfoliage

drooping clustersof yellow-brownfruit

7–14leaflets

conicalpanicle

Longan HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. China, S.E. Asia

Golden Rain HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 293

Litchi chinensis

Nephelium lappaceum

The lychee tree was cultivated as early as1500 BCE. The crop has spread veryslowly to new areas due to its exacting

FRUIT

TRUNK AND BRANCHES

The rambutan thrives in the humidtropics, and its fruit is usually eatenfresh locally. Thailand is one of themajor producers of the fruit,followed by Malaysia, Indonesia,and the Philippines. Young shootsare used to make green dye for silkalready dyed yellow. BARK Gray tobrown, smooth, with white flecks. LEAF Alternate, pinnate; 2–4 pairs ofovate to obovate, untoothed leaflets.FLOWER Yellowish green to white, small,petalless, in clusters; males and femaleson separate trees. FRUIT Oval tospherical, strawberry red, rosepink, or yellowish capsule;translucent white to pinkish,fleshy edible aril.

climatic requirements. It can be grown in many areas but fails to set fruit unlessthe conditions are ideal. Today, freshlychees are available in European markets; the canned product has longbeen exported. BARK Gray, smooth. LEAF Alternate, pinnate without aterminal leaflet; leaflets in 2–4 pairs,elliptic- to ovate-lanceolate, glossy deepgreen above, waxy beneath. FLOWER Bornein large branched, terminal clusters,numerous, petalless, with golden, hairycalyx. FRUIT Showy, spherical to ovate,fleshy capsule in loose, pendent clusters;usually reddish when mature; seedscovered with a fleshy, edible aril.

glossy, deepgreen leaflets

to 2 in (5 cm)long

loose, pendentclusters of fruit

FRUIT ANDLEAVES

LycheeHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. China to N. Vietnam, cultivated in N. Thailand, Australia, India, Madagascar, Mauritius, Réunion, South Africa

Rambutan HEIGHT 33–80 ft (10–25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Cultivated in S.E. Asia from Sri Lanka to Papua New Guinea

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S294

Boswellia sacra

FRUIT

TREE

SACRED FRAGRANCE

Frankincense was burned inreligious rites in ancient Egypt andRome and in Jewish tabernacles;it is still used in Catholic andCoptic churches. At the height oftrade, some 3,000 tons were usedannually. Today, world productionis about 500 tons.

egg-shapeddrupe

white toreddish bark

flowers inracemes

FLOWERINGBRANCHES

FRUIT

leaf clusters atends of branches

A small tree with a trunk that is oftenbranched at the base, the frankincense tree is known for its aromatic resin, whichis used as incense. Historically, it wasworth its weight in gold, and mostfamously it was one of the gifts offered toChrist by the three Magi, who carried it,along with gold and myrrh, to Bethlehem.In ancient Egypt, the first female pharaoh,Queen Hatshepsut, found livingfrankincense trees in the Land of Punt(now Somalia) and planted them in thegrounds of the Temple of Karnak. BARK Papery, peeling. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, with a terminal leaflet; 6–8 pairsof obovate-oblong leaflets, hairy aboveand below, margins with small roundedteeth. FLOWER Small, white to pink, borne

in axillary racemes at the ends of branches. FRUIT Small

green drupe.

FRANKINCENSERESIN

Frankincense HEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Arabian Peninsula

RU N N I N G H E A D

Bursera simaruba

MATURE BARK

Found in coastal mangroves, this tree, also known as the tourist tree, has a thick trunk and massive, spreadingbranches. Commonly used as a livingfence, it has been planted as a street treein coastal towns and as an ornamental.The trunk yields resin and the bark,formerly used as a medicine for gout, is used to make glue, varnish, and incense.BARK Reddish brown to copper-colored,smooth. LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with a terminal leaflet; 3–7 ovate-oblongleaflets, dark green above, paler below.FLOWER Cream, males and females borneon separate trees in terminal and lateralnarrow clusters; males about twice as long as the females.FRUIT Red, three-sided, angular drupe-like capsule, splittinginto three valves torelease the bony seeds.

Myrrh HEIGHT 6–12 ft (2–4 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Arabian

Peninsula, Horn of Africa

Gumbo Limbo HEIGHT 16–65 ft (5–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE United States (S. Florida), West Indies, Mexico to Venezuela

These small trees or shrubs have knottedand spiny branches. Myrrh resin camefrom Arabia along the “incense road” inlong camel trains to Egypt, Rome, and

farther west. About 10,000 camelloads were transported annually on

this trade route. Myrrh was used as an incense, for embalming, and as a

medicine. It is still used in Chinesetraditional medicine. BARK Green to palebrown, peeling, papery; exudes a grayishresin. LEAF Alternate, trifoliate, with a well-developed, obovate to elliptic terminalleaflet; small, poorly developed lateralleaflets. FLOWER Yellow-green to white,borne at the ends of short lateral branches. FRUIT Smooth drupe, containing a hard stone.

Commiphora myrrha

peeling in papery flakes

spinybranches

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S296

Found in swamp forests, this tree has adense crown and its trunk is sometimesbuttressed. It yields a reddish timber witha beautiful grain, but this is rarely utilizedbecause felling and processing of thewood can cause allergic reactions. Theseeds can be eaten after being roasted.BARK Pale brown, becoming grayish withage; exudes black, resinous, irritant sap.LEAF Alternate, leathery, elliptic to oblongor oblanceolate. FLOWER White, fragrant,

in axillary panicles.FRUIT Spherical,pinkish brown,fleshy drupe.

Renghas HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea

Gluta renghas

CashewHEIGHT 15–40 ft (4–12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N.E. Brazil, introduced in India, S.E. Asia, Africa

FLOWERS

BARK

The cashew tree is widely cultivated inthe tropics for its nut. The Portuguesebrought the cashew nut to India fromBrazil in the 16th century, from where itwas introduced to Africa. Vietnam hasemerged as its leading producer today.BARK Gray to brown, smooth, fissuredwith age; exudes sap that turns black on exposure. LEAF Alternate, obovate

to obovate-oblong,untoothed margin.

scaly surface

pink streaks

Anacardium occidentale

kidney-shapednuts

prominent veins

FLOWER Borne in aterminal panicle, withyellow-green to pinkishpetals. FRUIT Nut at the endof a fleshy, fruitlike stalk.

recurved petals

elongatedstyle

LEAVES

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 297

Harpephyllum caffrum

Mango HEIGHT 33–150 ft (10–45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

The name of this tree is derived from itsplace of origin, Kaffraria, now part ofEastern Cape, South Africa. It has asmall, compact, and roundish crown. An ornamental shade tree, it is planted as a street tree in South African townsand cities. Its fruit is used to make jamsand jellies, and can also be fermentedinto a wine. BARK Silvery white to brown,with raised ridges or cracked segments.LEAF Alternate, pinnate; 4–8 pairs ofsickle-shaped leaflets, with wavy oruntoothed margins. FLOWER Whitishgreen, males and females on separate trees,borne in panicles near ends of branches.FRUIT Plumlike drupe, red when ripe, edible, with a sour taste.

Mangoes have been in cultivation forover a thousand years. There are over1,000 cultivars, with some 500 of these in India alone. They are divided into two types: the Indian type with a singleembryo per seed, and those with multipleembryos, mostly from Southeast Asia. In India, the unripe fruit is made intopickles and chutney. It is also dried andpowdered to be used as a spice or as ameat tenderizer. BARK Grayish brown,smooth or with thin fissures, becomingdarker, rough, scaly or furrowed with age.LEAF Alternate, leathery, usually narrowlyelliptic to lanceolate, often with wavymargins. FLOWER Greenish yellow, in

terminal panicles. FRUIT Fleshy, often fibrous

drupe, sometimes with aturpentine flavor.

Kaffir PlumHEIGHT 20–50 ft (6–15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. and E. Africa

LEAF ROSETTE

yellow toorange flesh

Mangifera indica

yellowishgreen toreddishskin

RIPE FRUIT

densecrown

glossygreenabove

slenderstalks

LEAVES

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S298

Probably the earliest known cultivatedtree, possibly dating back to 6,000 BCE, the pistachio is a small tree, known for its edible nutlike fruit. It is said that theQueen of Sheba reserved the harvestof the best pistachio trees for herself, and carried pistachios as a gift for KingSolomon in 950 BCE. BARK Gray-brownto russet, smooth, becoming rough.LEAF Alternate, trifoliate or pinnate witha terminal leaflet; 1–3 pairs of large, hairy, ovate to broadlylanceolate leaflets. FLOWER Malesand females borne on separatetrees; small, petalless, greenishbrown, in panicles.FRUIT Edible, one-seeded drupe.

Pistacia lentiscus

scaly plates. LEAF Alternate, pinnate;4–10 oblong-lanceolate leaflets. FLOWER Males and females on separatetrees, yellowish white with redstamens and stigmas. FRUIT Spherical, bright reddrupe, ripening to black.

Also known as Chios mastic, this low,spreading tree usually has a crookedtrunk. Only one variety (Pistacia lentiscusvar. chia), grown on the Greek island ofChios, yields mastic resin, the originalchewing resin used as a breath freshener.The resin is also used in water pipes,coffee, Turkish delight, and for medicinalpurposes. BARK Pale gray-brown, turnsdark gray-brown and rough, with large

PistachioHEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey

Pistacia vera

Mastic HEIGHT 8–12 ft (2.4–3.6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mediterranean region

LEAVES,FLOWERS,AND FRUIT FLOWER CLUSTER

flower to 11⁄4 in(3 cm) long

fruit inclusters

TREE IN BLOSSOM

leaflet 2–4 in(5–10 cm) long

LEAVESANDFRUIT

LEAFLETS

PISTACHIO NUTS

to 11⁄4 in(3 cm) long

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 299

A spreading rainforest tree, the Burdekinplum tree is known for its fleshy fruit.Marketed as “bush tucker,” the fruit tendsto be exceedingly acid and needs to be

The sour fruit of thistree is stewed and usedin preserves, pickles, andsambal. It tastes of applesand pineapples, and has apungent, resinous aroma.BARK Grayish to reddishbrown, becoming fissured.LEAF Alternate, pinnate with a terminalleaflet; leaflets elliptic to obovate-oblong,with smooth or scalloped margins.FLOWER Cream to white, small, interminal panicles; males and females onsame tree. FRUIT Oval, thick-skinneddrupes in clusters, containing yellow pulp.

Widely cultivated in dry subtropical areas,this tree has slender, drooping branches. Itis often invasive in open wasteland. Its fruitwas once used to make pink peppercorns.BARK Gray and smooth when young,turning yellowish brown, rough, and scaly.LEAF Alternate, pinnate with a terminalleaflet; leaflets lanceolate to linear-

lanceolate, smooth to slightly toothed.FLOWER Yellowishwhite, small; males and females onseparate trees, inaxillary clusters at the tips of branches.FRUIT Lavender topink drupes.

Pleiogynium timoriense

Spondias dulcisSchinus molle

UNRIPE FRUIT

Pepper TreeHEIGHT 15–50 ft (5–15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

Ambarella HEIGHT 20–60 ft (6–18 m) TYPE Deciduous/Evergreen OCCURRENCE Pacific Islands, S.E. Asia,introduced in West Indies

Burdekin Plum HEIGHT 65–120 ft (20–36 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE Pacific Islands, Papua NewGuinea, Australia

stored for several days to become soft andmellow. It is usually stewed or made intojams and jellies. BARK Dark gray or gray-brown, fissured, flaky. LEAF Alternate,pinnate with a terminal leaflet, glossy darkgreen. FLOWER Greenish yellow, small, inmany-flowered, axillary panicles; malesand females on separate trees. FRUIT Egg-shaped, edible drupe, dark purple whenripe, with a large single seed.

LEAVES AND FRUIT

small, spherical fruit

NEW LEAVES

9–25leaflets

19–41 leaflets

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S300

Considered an endangered tree, only onespecies of the corkwood can be found inscattered coastal and riverine floodplains ofMissouri, Arkansas (where it is locallycommon), Florida, Texas, and in Georgiaalong the Altamaha River. This tree has

Ailanthus altissima

FOLIAGE AND FLOWERS

Leitneria floridana

This fast-growing tree has a roundedcrown. Philip Miller (1691–1771), anoted English gardener, was the first to raise it from seeds sent to London from China. BARK Gray, finely fissured,becoming darker and rougher with age.LEAF Alternate, pinnate with a terminalleaflet, dark green; leaflets 13–31, ovate,finely hairy, untoothed or with 1–3 teeth at the base, bearing glands. FLOWER Small, greenish, males and

females usually on separate trees, bornein terminal panicles; males with a fetidscent. FRUIT Flattened winged seed up to11⁄2 in (4 cm) long, green at first, turningyellow-brown tinged with red.

spreading branches and a loose, opencrown. BARK Dark gray, tinged withbrown, divided by shallow fissures. LEAF Alternate, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, bright green above, coveredwith soft hairs beneath, on reddish stems.FLOWER Inconspicuous catkins onseparate plants; both male and femalecatkins cylindrical; females upright andshorter. FRUIT Oblong, compressed, one-seeded, dry drupe.

AN ORNAMENTAL WEED

Following its discovery by theWest, this tree was plantedwidely in Europe. It was notedthat silkworms produced a high-quality thread when fed on itsleaves instead of the mulberry’s.In 1784, it was introduced into the United States by WilliamHamilton. A century later,biologists realized that it hadinvaded and colonized largewaste areas in the southern US.

LEAVES ANDFRUIT

notch near baseof leaflets

wingedfruit

Tree of Heaven HEIGHT 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. China, widely cultivated

Corkwood HEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. United States

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 301

Azadirachta indica

The people of India have long beenaware of the medical properties ofthe neem. These are recorded in earlySanskrit writings and are embedded inAyurvedic medicine. Neem research was part of the upsurge of nationalisticsentiment started by Mahatma Gandhi.Often referred to as “the

village pharmacy” tree, the neem’s partsare used to treat diseases caused by fungi,viruses, and bacteria. Traditionally, neemseeds were used as an insect repellent andneem cake was spread on the soil as afertilizer. BARK Red-brown to grayish,becoming fissured and flaky with age.LEAF Alternate, pinnate with or without a terminal leaflet; 4–7 pairs of sickle-shaped to lanceolate leaflets, with sharplytoothed margins; two pairs of glands atbase of leaf stalk. FLOWER Borne inaxillary inflorescences, white, petals softlyhairy on both sides, sweetly scented.

FRUIT Single-seeded drupe, turningyellow when ripe.

SEED

UNRIPEFRUIT

NATURAL INSECTICIDE

Extracted from the kernel of theneem fruit, neem oil hasvaluable pesticidal and medicinalproperties. Research has identifieda compound in neem oil that works asan antifeedant, suggesting that the oilcould have a great future as a selective, non-toxic insecticide. Its use as an environmentally safealternative to synthetic insecticides and pesticidesnow draws interest from industrialized countries. Theoil is also used in medicinal products for an array ofblood, digestive, skin, and immune system disorders. 3⁄8– 3⁄4 in

(1.2–2 cm) long

fleshycovering

to 3⁄8 in (1 cm)long

NEEM OIL

Neem HEIGHT up to 50 ft (16 m) TYPE Evergreen/Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE N.W. India, Myanmar, cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa

LEAVES

The Spanish cedar is a fast-growingspecies, usually with a rounded crown. It is an important avenue and shade tree in its native region and in Africa,where it is cultivated. It is also used as a shade tree in coffee and cocoaplantations. The wood of the tree has a strong aromatic odor and is resistant to insects. It is an important timber forfurniture-making, especially for themanufacture of chests, and wardrobes.BARK Gray to brown, thick, becomingrough and furrowed. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, without a terminal leaflet.

Cedrela odorata

CEDAR WOOD FOR CIGAR BOXES

Cigars were originally packed in chests containingabout 10,000 cigars. The bankers H. Upmann startedshipping cigars in cedar boxes for their directors inLondon. They continued to use this packaging whenthey changed to the cigar business, and it becamestandard for all major brands, because cedar woodhelps to prevent cigars from drying out. Today, thewood is specially grown for the purpose.

FLOWER Numerous, borne in terminalpanicles, small, with yellow-greenstaminal tube. FRUIT Woody capsule, with winged seeds.

10–30 leaflets

CEDAR-LINED CIGAR BOX

Spanish CedarHEIGHT 40–100 ft (12–30 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE West Indies,South America

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 303

The yinma has a fluted and buttressedtrunk and its timber is valued for makingfurniture. BARK Dark brown, fissured.LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with ovate tooblong leaflets. FLOWER Fragrant, creamygreen to yellowish white, in axillaryclusters. FRUIT Woody capsule.

A common rainforest tree, the Australianrosewood is also planted as an ornamentalin large parks, including the SydneyBotanical Gardens. It was named afterCharles Fraser, who was the firstsuperintendent of the Gardens. Largeand fast-growing, the tree has a dense,leafy, spreading crown and a large,buttressed trunk. It needs moist soil tothrive. The wood is reddish and has adelicate perfume that is similar to roses. It has been used for carving, furniture,and cabinet-making. BARK Pale brown to yellowish gray, scaly. LEAF Alternate,pinnate without a terminal leaflet; 4–12 elliptic to obovate leaflets. FLOWER Cream to white, fragrant, in terminal and lateral panicles. FRUIT Cream tinged with pink, four-celled capsule, containing one or twoseeds with a reddish aril.

Khaya senegalensis

Chukrasia tabularisDysoxylum fraserianum

Australian Rosewood HEIGHT 40–80 ft (12–25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (New South Wales, Queensland)

This tree is also called the Africanmahogany. It was one of the first Africanmahoganies to be exported to Europe, buttoday, due to its relatively small size andlow weight, it is seldom exported. Thebark contains compounds that are used for medicinal and veterinary purposes. BARK Gray, scaly. LEAF Alternate, pinnate;pale green leaflets. FLOWER In drooping,axillary panicles, creamy petals andstaminal tube, with red disk. FRUIT Four-

valved, woodycapsule withwinged seeds.

BARK

LEAVES

knobblysurface

6–12 leaflets

TRUNK

bark exudesred sap

Yinma HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia.

Bisselon HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Africa

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S304

Lansium domesticum

The langsat is a complexand variable species withwild and cultivatedforms. There are two major varieties:langsat, slender trees bearing ovalfruit, and duku,spreading treesbearing roundedfruit. BARK Palereddish brown orwith fawn blotches,slightly furrowed andscaly. LEAF Alternate,

pinnate with a terminalleaflet; 2–4 pairs of

ovate-elliptic to oblongleaflets, slightly hairybeneath. FLOWER Borne inracemes on the branches or

trunk, with greenish yellow petals andstaminal tube. FRUIT Oval or globoseberry, pale yellow to brown, skin sometimes exuding latex.

Besides being valued for its fruit, this low-branched species is prized for its timber.

BARK Pale. LEAF Spirally arranged, withthree elliptic to oval leaflets, 8–10 in(20–25 cm) long, blunt at the base.

FLOWER Borne in stalked panicles, withfive greenish, yellowish, or pinkishyellow petals. FRUIT Oval to rounddrupe, containing milkyfluid, 3–5 brown seeds in whitetranslucent pulp.

This well-known timber tree is found inlowland rainforest, but is also grown onplantations. BARK Smooth, with largeirregular flaking pieces. LEAF Pinnate,without terminal leaflet; leaflets elliptic insix pairs, rounded or shortly pointed at thebase. FLOWER Greenish white, with foursepals and petals, borne in large panicles.FRUIT Black or purplish black pendulouscapsule, containing winged seeds.

Santol HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Cambodia, Laos, Malaya,(naturalized in Malaysia, Indonesia, MoluccaIslands, Mauritius, Philippines, India)

Sandoricum koetjape

Lovoa trichilioides

Nigerian Golden WalnutHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. to S.W. Africa

SEED

FLOWER PANICLES

pointed tip

LEAFLET

FRUIT

1–2 in (2.5–5 cm)wide

wrinkled base of fruit

seed 3⁄4 in(2 cm) long

Langsat HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, Borneo

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 305

Melia azedarach

Widely cultivated in tropical areas, thistree has a fluted trunk when mature.Forms of the chinaberry have been incultivation for some 2,500 years. Thereare two groups of cultivars: the Chinesegroup, which has larger fruit, and theIndian cultivars. BARK Gray-brown,smooth, with lenticels, becoming lightlyfissured. LEAF Alternate, usuallybipinnate, with a terminal leaflet; 7–11ovate to elliptic leaflets, dark green above,pale green, often sparsely hairy beneath.FLOWER Borne in axillary clusters, withwhite to lilac petals and staminal tube,densely hairy inside and sweetly scented.FRUIT Ovoid, plum-shaped drupe, yellow-brown when ripe; poisonous.

FLOWERS

Chinaberry HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Sri Lanka, India, China, S.E. Asia, Australia

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S306

With its buttressed trunk and spreadingcrown, this tree has been prized since the16th century, when its timber was firstshipped to Europe. Most natural standsof mahogany were felled long ago. Today,

Swietenia macrophylla

Baywood is the most valuable timber treein tropical Central and South America.Also known as Honduras mahogany, itswood is fairly lightweight and strong, witha medium and uniform texture. It takes anexcellent polish and is resistant to decay.BARK Pale brown, rough, deeply fissured.LEAF Alternate, pinnate without a terminalleaflet, slender yellow-green axis ending ina narrow point; 3–6 pairs of unequal-sided leaflets, 21⁄4 –6 in (6–15 cm) long.FLOWER Small, greenishyellow, short-stalked, inpanicles, 4–6 in (10–15cm) long, five petals, ten brown stamens,fragrant. FRUIT Seededcapsule, erect, oval,41⁄4 –7 in (11–18 cm)long, 3 in (7.5 cm) wide,on long, stout stalks.

MahoganyHEIGHT 40–50 ft (12–16 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE US (S. Florida), Bahamas,Antilles, Haiti, Jamaica

Swietenia mahagoni

Baywood HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE Evergreen/DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Mexico, Central and South America

FRUIT AND LEAVES

the largest living specimen isbelieved to be in Florida’sEverglades National Park.BARK Gray to dark reddishbrown, smooth to slightlyfissured, becoming scaly.LEAF Alternate, pinnate without a terminal leaflet, untoothed. FLOWER Greenishyellow, in panicles.FRUIT Woodycapsule, stalked,upright, withwinged seeds.

greenish yellowfused stamens

over 3⁄8 in(1 cm) thick

open capsule

oblongfruit FRUIT

FLOWERS

BARK

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 307

Toona ciliata

Also known as the red cedar, this tall treehas a cylindrical, sometimes buttressed,trunk. It grows in subtropical rainforest andscrubby areas, often bordering rivers andstreams. Its wood is highly valued forcabinet-making, and it has been virtuallylogged out in its range due to extensiveexploitation of its timber. In Australia, itused to be felled before conversion of areasto agricultural land, but the remainingforests where it occurs are now in a WorldHeritage site. In the past, its flowers wereused as a source of red and yellow dyes

for silk, cotton, and wool. The tree has been used medicinally,particularly as anastringent and atonic. BARK Grayishwhite to brown, usually fissured andflaking. LEAF Alternate,pinnate, with up to 20 ovate-lanceolate tolanceolate leaflets, smooth to sparsely hairy.FLOWER In large terminal panicles, white to creamy white staminal tube, fragrant.FRUIT Brown capsule, divides into fivesegments when dry.

ToonHEIGHT up to 180 ft (55 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE India, S. China, S.E. AsiaMalaysia, E. Australia

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

FRUIT

opencapsule

5 petals

creamy whiteflowers

FLOWERS

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S308

The wood of this tree was once used forboat-building. Its bark is used for makingdyes and medicines and its roots also havemedicinal properties. BARK Pale to yellow-brown, smooth, scaling in irregular flakes.LEAF Alternate, pinnate; leaflets in 1–3

pairs, with roundedtips. FLOWER Inaxillary white topink clusters.FRUIT Spherical,hanging capsule.

Satinwood grows in the dry, interiorforests of its native range. It has hard,heavy, yellowish wood that polishes well.Its timber was once an important

Xylocarpus granatum

Chloroxylon swietenia

Sri Lankan export. BARK Yellowish gray,deeply fissured. LEAF Pinnate, equal onboth sides, up to 91⁄2 in (24 cm) long,10–20 pairs of oblong leaflets. FLOWER Tiny, white, about 3⁄16 in (7 mm)wide, on pyramidal racemes up to 6 in (15cm) long, often produced when the tree isleafless. FRUIT Capsule, up to 11⁄4 in (3 cm)long, oblong-ovoid, three-celled, each cellcontaining about four flat, winged seeds.

LEAF Opposite, smooth, with untoothededges. FLOWER In open terminalpanicles, with five narrow petals, five palepink stamens. FRUIT Woody, five-lobed, rough capsule.

An ornamental with a dense, compact,and rounded crown, this shade tree issuitable for planting in parks and streets. BARK Gray, smooth, mottled, and streaky.

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

ovate-oblong toelliptic leaves

Calodendrum capense

pale pinkflowers

thinly branchedbuttresses

elliptic toobovate

LEAFLETS

Cannonball Mahogany HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE E. Africa, S.E. Asia, Tonga

Cape Chestnut HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Deciduous, rarely evergreenOCCURRENCE South Africa to Tanzania and Ethiopia

Satinwood HEIGHT up to 105 ft (32 m ) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Madagascar, Sri Lanka, S. India

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 309

Citrus x aurantium

The bitter or Seville orange has a roundcrown and its seedlings are often coveredwith spines. It is believed to haveoriginally grown in the area of theChina–Vietnam border, and its longhistory of cultivation brought it throughArabia and into southern Europe by the11th–12th centuries. The Spanishintroduced it and the more widely

cultivated sweet orange (Citrussinensis) into South

America andMexico in themid-1500s. Itsfragrant whiteflowers are the

thick-skinnedunripe fruit

VERSATILE CITRUS

The bitter orange is used as arootstock for other citrus trees,in herbal remedies, and to makemarmalade. It is also planted as anornamental, especially in the Mediterranean region.

source of neroli oil. BARK Green tograyish brown. LEAF Alternate, ovate toovate-oblong, smooth, with narrowlywinged stalks. FLOWER White, fragrant,solitary or in short axillary racemes.FRUIT Spherical, greenish yellow to bright orange.

FRUIT AND LEAVES

ORNAMENTALPLANTING

finely toothed edges

Bitter Orange HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Vietnam

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S310

The lime tree hasirregular, drooping

branches and spinytwigs. A native ofIndia, it was broughtby the Arabs to Africaand the Middle East. It spread to Europe

during the Crusades

The tangerine was probably brought intocultivation in tropical Southeast Asia. It isone of the major parent species that gaverise to the remaining hybrid Citrus. BARK Green to grayish brown. LEAF Alternate, ellipticto lanceolate, on wingedstalks. FLOWER White,solitary or in clusters of2–3. FRUIT Rounded,with thin skin, indented on top.

Unpalatable as a fresh fruit due to itsacidic taste, lemon is mostly consumed incooking and in drinks. BARK Green tograyish brown. LEAF Alternate, elliptic-

ovate to oblong, withtoothed margins, on winged stalks.FLOWER Axillary;solitary or in clustersof 2–3. FRUIT Ovoid,

greenish to goldenyellow, with thick

and rough skin.

Citrus x aurantiifolia

Citrus reticulata

and was later taken to the Caribbean andMexico following the Spanish conquest.The juice from the fruit is used incooking, soft drinks, pickles,and for medicinal purposes. Itsextracts and essential oils areused in aromatherapy, and inperfumes and cleansingproducts. BARK Greento grayish brown. LEAF Alternate, ellipticto ovate-oblong, withfinely toothed margins.FLOWER White, up to ten,on short axillary racemes.FRUIT Ovoid to globose,with a thin skin.

FRUIT

FLOWER

LEAVES AND FRUIT

LEAVESANDFRUIT

white flowers

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

Citrus x limon

Lemon HEIGHT 10–20 ft (3–6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

bright orange skin

toothededges

greenishpulp

greenishyellowskin

FRUIT

wingedstalks

elliptic-oblong leaves

Lime HEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Known only in cultivation

TangerineHEIGHT 10–20 ft (3–6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.E. Asia, S. Europe, Brazil, S.E. United States

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 311

This tree is found in mountain woods and thickets. Its leaves are aromatic whencrushed. BARK Gray with conical knobs.LEAF Pinnate; up to 11 ovate, toothedleaflets. FLOWER Small, green, in clusters

up to 2 in (5 cm) wide.FRUIT Round, warty,green, ripens to red.

The Crow’s ash or Australian teak has adense, spreading crown. It is an excellenturban shade tree. Its timber is yellow-brown. BARK Gray to dark brown,smooth, becoming scaly with roundedflakes. LEAF Alternate, pinnate, with aterminal leaflet; 3–13 elliptic to narrowlyovate leaflets, aromatic when crushed.FLOWER White to cream, in terminalpanicles. FRUIT Woody five-valvedcapsule, covered with short, blunt prickles.

Zanthoxylum simulans

Flindersia australis Flindersia brayleyana

Crow’s Ash HEIGHT 50–130 ft (15–40 m) TYPE Evergreen/Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE E. Australia

Flatspine Prickly Ash HEIGHT up to 20 ft (6 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

The wood apple grows in the dry areas ofits native habitat. Its fruit is a favorite of elephants. BARK Pale gray or whitish;branchlets with straight spines that are up to 11⁄2 in (4 cm) long. LEAF Pinnate,with one terminal leaflet; 2–3 pairs ofopposite, obovate, stalkless leaflets.FLOWER White, green, or reddish purple,with small petals and 7–12 stamens,numerous, on axillary clusters, often fromleafless nodes. FRUIT Round, woody,many-seeded fruit, with sticky pulp.

Limonia acidissima

Wood Apple HEIGHT up to 23 ft (7 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Asia

LEAVES AND FRUITred-stalkedfruit

FRUIT POD

boat-shapedvalve

glossy greenleaflet

This tree is valued for its easily workablepinkish wood that is used for cabinet-making and indoor fittings. In Australia,it is planted as an ornamental. BARK Gray, flaky. LEAF Opposite, pinnatewith a terminal leaflet; 3–10 broadlyelliptic leaflets. FLOWER White to cream,borne in terminal panicles. FRUIT Woodycapsule, covered with short, bluntprickles, splitting into five valves.

Queensland Maple HEIGHT 80–115 ft (25–35 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (Queensland)

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S312

Cultivated in the past for its edible fruit,which has a plumlike flavor, this tree isnow usually planted as a winter-floweringornamental. It has numerous cultivars. BARK Dark brown, scaly. LEAF Opposite,ovate to elliptic, hairy on both sides.FLOWER Yellow, appearing before leaves. FRUIT Bright red, round drupe.

The flower of this tree is the floral emblemof British Columbia. BARK Gray, smooth,becoming scaly with age. LEAF Opposite,elliptic to obovate, dark green. FLOWER In clusters, with creamy white bracts. FRUIT Ediblered drupe.

The fruit of this tree is used for flavoringand seasoning food. BARK Yellowishbrown, smooth to shallowly fissured.

LEAF Alternate,pinnate with aterminal leaflet;usually 9–17, ovateto elliptic-lanceolate,toothed leaflets.FLOWER Greenish, in terminal clusters;males and femaleson separate trees.FRUIT Globosefollicle, greenish,ripening to brown,with black seeds.

This tree has a columnar habit. Its foliageturns red in fall. BARK Grayish to red-brown. LEAF Opposite, dark green above, waxy and downy beneath. FLOWER Yellowish green, in dense headson long stalks. FRUIT Red, fleshy drupe.

Cornus nuttalli

Zanthoxylum piperitum Cornus kousa

FLOWERS

Cornus mas

FRUIT AND LEAVESovate to ovate-elliptic leaves

strawberry-like fruit

short flower clusters

small andyellowishgreen

FLOWERS

Sichuan Pepper HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan, Korea

Kousa Dogwood HEIGHT 10–50 ft (3–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, Japan, Korea

Cornelian CherryHEIGHT up to 25 ft (8 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. and S. Europe, S.W. Asia

Pacific DogwoodHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE W. North America

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 313

The blackgum, also called tupelo, has a pyramidal crown and droopingbranches. It is planted as an ornamentaland street tree due to its red fall color. It is also popular for environmentalplanting. BARK Dark gray, verticallyridged, breaking into irregular scales.LEAF Alternate, dark glossy green above,slightly hairy beneath. FLOWER Axillary,greenish, in stalked heads; males andfemales on same or separate trees. FRUIT Ovoid, blue drupe.

Davidia involucrata

British plant-hunters tried to introduce thetree into Europe. The form most growntoday was raised in French nurseries at theend of the 19th century. BARK Orange-brown, peeling vertically in small flakes.LEAF Alternate, broadly ovate, heart-shaped base, smooth above, downybeneath. FLOWER Terminal, on short spurshoots, in small heads, surrounded by twoasymmetrical white bracts. FRUIT Greenwith a purple bloom, solitary, usuallypear-shaped.

Also called dove tree, the genus is namedafter Father Armand David, aFrench missionary, who wasthe first to report in 1869that this tree had whiteflowers “fluttering likedoves.” During the decadesthat followed, French and

Nyssa sylvatica

FOLIAGE

LEAVES

FLOWERCLUSTERS

ovate to elliptic

large whitebracts

toothed leaf margin

Handkerchief Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China

Blackgum HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. North America

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S314

Fouquieria columnaris

This strange-looking tree has a succulentmain stem that has been often comparedto an upside-down green carrot. It wasgiven its unusual name by plant explorerGodfrey Sykes in 1923, after a fictitiouscharacter in a Lewis Carroll book. Its tall,gently tapering trunk has bristles withshort branches, armed with spines. Onolder trees, the main trunk splits into twoor more stems near the top. The treegrows on rocky hillsides, alluvial plains,and in deserts. BARK Pale yellow-green,tough, smooth but dimpled with twigscars. LEAF Alternate, obovate, fleshy,smooth. FLOWER Creamy yellow, tubular,borne on spikelike clusters. FRUIT Palebrown capsule, with three valves thatcurve backward after opening.

Boojum Tree HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mexico (Baja California)

BOOJUM BOOSTERS

Trees of the Fouquieriacenefamily are pollinated by a variety of insects. One species, E. splendens, was thought to bepollinated by hummingbirds, butthese are now known to feed on the nectar without carryingpollen between plants.

FLOWERING BRANCHES

flowers inclusters

HUMMINGBIRD

thin secondarybranches

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 315

Camellia sinensis

The tea plant is the source of the world’smost popular beverage. Under cultivation, it is trimmed and kept as low bushes orhedges. The use of tea was originallyrestricted to China and Japan. The Dutchintroduced it to Europe and dominatedthe trade for more than a century beforeyielding to the British. In 1823, the firstwild tea plant was discovered in Assam,India. On January 10, 1839, the firstsamples of Assam tea were auctioned inLondon, a historic event that determined

the future courseof tea cultivationall over the world.Today, more teais produced fromAssam plantsthan from theChinese type. It isfermented to giveblack tea as

opposed to Chinese unfermented greentea. BARK Gray, rough. LEAF Alternate,leathery, lanceolate to elliptic, slightlyhairy when young, becoming smooth.FLOWER White, large, axillary, solitary, with 5–7 petals and numerous yellow stamens. FRUIT Capsulethat splits openwhen seeds ripen.

Tea HEIGHT 33–50 ft (10–15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, N. India

TEA HARVESTING

Tea leaves are harvested every 7–15 days, dependingon the development of the tender shoots. Slow-developing leaves give a better flavor. They are dried tomake green, black, or oolong teas.

LEAVESFLOWER AND FRUIT

glossy surface

PICKING TEA

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S316

This tree has nearly uniform black wood,the densest and darkest of the Indian-Asian ebony timbers. It is slow-growingand has a buttressed, sometimes flutedtrunk. BARK Black to gray-black, flaking insmall rectangular pieces. LEAF Alternate,elliptic to ovate-oblong. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees; males: yellowish,with white corolla, borne in clusters of3–5; females: yellowish white, solitary.FRUIT Large, spherical to ovoid berry.

Diospyros ebenum

Calamander timber is black, with brownbands. It is valued for its durability andornamental value, but the tree is nowrare because of its slow growth andirregular flowering period. BARK Black,very rough, peeling to reveal a brownlayer. LEAF Alternate, 31⁄4–7 in (8–18 cm)long, leathery, elliptic-oblong tolanceolate. FLOWER Males: yellow, in smallclusters; females: yellowish white to white,solitary. FRUIT Spherical berry.

Diospyros quaesita

LEAVES AND FLOWER

Franklinia alatamaha

Discovered in Georgia in 1765, this treewas named after Benjamin Franklin. Itwas last seen in the wild in 1803 and isnow known only in cultivation. The treehas a dense, rounded crown. BARK Darkbrown, smooth. LEAF Alternate, obovate,finely toothed, dark green above, palerwith fine hairs beneath. FLOWER Axillary,solitary, large, with five white petals.FRUIT Spherical, dry, woody capsule. numerous yellow stamens

Franklin Tree HEIGHT up to 16–24 ft (5–7 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

Ebony HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. India, Sri Lanka

CalamanderHEIGHT up to 115 ft (35 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Sri Lanka

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 317

Often planted as an ornamental, this treehas a broadly spreading crown. Its ripefruit is pulpy and can be fermented tomake persimmon beer. BARK Dark brown-gray to black, with square, scaly, thickplates. LEAF Alternate, leathery, ovate-oblong to elliptic. FLOWER Males andfemales on separate trees, both yellowishwhite and bell-shaped; males in clustersof 3–5; females solitary. FRUIT Large,spherical to ovoid, yellow to orange berry.

LEAF Alternate,leathery, ovate to ellipticor rounded, darkgreen above, palegreen andhairy beneath, at least on the veins.FLOWER Males andfemales on separatetrees; males: yellowish orred, with white corollas, borne in clustersof 3–5; females: yellowish white, solitary.FRUIT Large, spherical to ovoid berry,with a large, persistent calyx.

FRUIT LEAF

Halesia carolina

Diospyros kaki

Diospyros virginiana

The Carolina silverbell is a smallornamental that provides a spectaculardisplay of flowers in spring. Its trunk isshort or multi-stemmed and its crown is rounded. BARK Reddishbrown, scaly. LEAF Alternate, ellipticto ovate-oblong, thinlyhairy on both sides,with finely toothedmargins and a long-pointed tip. FLOWER White, withbell-shaped corolla,borne in clusters of3–5 at the nodes on old wood. FRUIT Pear-shaped, four-winged, green drupe.

FRUIT

Also called Sharon fruit, the kaki has ashort, crooked trunk and a dense crown.It has over 1,000 cultivars. Its fruits are oftwo types. The astringent type, with highlevels of soluble tannins, cannot be eatenuntil fully ripe and is best grown in coolerregions. The non-astringent type needshot summers. BARK Grayish brown, scaly,and divided into square plates.

persistent calyx

smoothsurface

FLOWERINGSHOOT

yellow to orangecoloration

untoothedmargins LEAVES

bell-shapedflowers

Kaki HEIGHT up to 90 ft (27 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, cultivated in Japan

PersimmonHEIGHT up to 50–65 ft (15–20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE E. United States

Carolina Silverbell HEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE Deciduous OCCURRENCE S.E. United States

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S318

The flowers of this narrow-crowned treehave an unusual sweet scent and arepollinated by bats. BARK Brown, smooth,becoming slightly fissured. LEAF Alternate,

elliptic to oblong or obovate,smooth, except for veinsbelow. FLOWER Six reddish-

tinged sepals, six pinkishto orange-red petals;only one flower opensat a time. FRUIT Large,

brown capsule.

This tall tree has a broad and densecrown. BARK Brown, rough, and fissured.LEAF Alternate, oblong to obovate, dark green above, brown beneath.FLOWER Yellowish to purple-white, bornein axillary clusters. FRUIT Egg-shaped tospherical berry, with thick rind.

Resin from the bark of this tree was onceused by the Sumerians in ointments. BARK Gray-brown, becoming verticallyfissured. LEAF Alternate, with whitish, star-shaped hairs. FLOWER White, with yellowanthers, in axillary, drooping clusters.FRUIT Greenish yellow, ovoid drupe.

This tall tree has large woody fruit. BARK Gray-brown, fissured. LEAF Alternate,leathery, smooth, with smooth or wavymargins. FLOWER Pale yellow to white, inaxillary spikes or terminal panicles.FRUIT Capsule with 10–25 seeds (nuts).

Chrysophyllum cainito

Styrax officinalis Bertholletia excelsa

LEAVES, FRUIT, AND FLOWERS

RIPE FRUIT

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

FRUIT

Snowbell HEIGHT up to 23 ft (7 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mediterranean region

Brazil Nut HEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical South America

Couroupita guianensis

FLOWER

smallflowers

densely hairyundersides

fruit 2–4 in(5–10 cm) wide

whitepetals

ovate leaves

hard, woodyshell

longitudinallyfissured bark

curved disk at center

spherical capsule

Cannonball Tree HEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE Evergreen/Deciduous OCCURRENCE Tropical South America

Star AppleHEIGHT up to 100 ft (30 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE West Indies, cultivated in tropical America, S.E. Asia, Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 319

Sapodilla is grown for its edible fruit. The tree’s latex, called “chicle,” was used in the past as the first chewing gum.

BARK Dark brown, rough.LEAF Alternate, ovate-elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, parallel veins.FLOWER Solitary, in leafaxils. FRUIT Reddish toyellow-brown berry.

This tree has a columnar trunk, usuallywith small buttresses. Its flowers smell ofburned sugar. Its latex was once used forwire insulation but has been replaced bysynthetics. It is now used for dental fillings. BARK Grayish brown, fissured. LEAF Alternate, obovate-ovate to elliptic,dark green above, golden brown with finesilky hairs beneath. FLOWER Pale green,in axillary clusters. FRUIT Green, globoseto egg-shaped, finely hairy nut.

This tree has a dense, wide crown. It isvalued for the oil that is extracted from

its nuts. BARK Gray to yellow-brown,cracked, and divided in small plates. LEAF Alternate, usually in clusters,lanceolate-oblong. FLOWER Greenishwhite, in axillary clusters. FRUIT Green tobrown, ovoidberry with 1–3 seeds.

The timber of the bulletwood is hard,heavy, and durable. It is used for cabinet-making and to make violin bows. Thetree was also tapped or felled for its latex,which was the source of balata gum.BARK Brown, thick, fissured and scaly;pink inner bark. LEAF Alternate, darkgreen, elliptic, to 9 in (23 cm) long, oftencovered in a black mold. FLOWER Small,fragrant, whitish, bell-shaped, in clustersof 3–10. FRUIT Smooth berry, with stickypulp and one shiny, blackish seed.

Palaquium gutta

Argania spinosa

Manilkara bidentata

Gutta Percha HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo

Manilkara zapota

yellow-brown flesh

FRUIT

shiny blackseeds

BulletwoodHEIGHT up to 110 ft (33 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE N. South America, West Indies

Sapodilla HEIGHT 16–65 ft (5–20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico, West Indies,tropical Central America

yellowstamens

FLOWERS

Argan HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Morocco

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S320

Miraculous BerryHEIGHT up to 10 ft (3 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa

This tree has a narrow or spreading crownwith thick branches. BARK Reddishbrown. LEAF Alternate, obovate, darkgreen above, pale green to pale brownbeneath. FLOWER White to pale yellow, in clusters of 6–15 in axils of fallen leaves.FRUIT Dark brown, globose berry withsoft, pink to red flesh, sweetish taste.

An unusual trait of this tree’s fruit is thatit can make bitter or sour food tastesweet. BARK Fibrous. LEAF Alternate,obovate to oblanceolate, smooth, inclusters. FLOWER White, small, in axillary clusters. FRUIT Small,single-seeded,bright red berry.

This tree has a pyramidal or roundedcrown. It is mostly grown in home gardens.BARK Gray-brown, with white latex. LEAF Alternate, variable shape, usuallysmooth. FLOWER White to pale yellow,solitary or in clusters of 2–5, fragrant.FRUIT Round to ovoid yellow berry.

Grown for its fruit, this tree has beenintroduced into tropical South America,the Philippines, and the Seychelles.BARK Dark gray-brown, furrowed. LEAF Alternate, obovate-elliptic, smooth.FLOWER White to pale yellow, solitary orin clusters. FRUIT Yellow berry.

Synsepalum dulcificum

Pouteria caimito Pouteria campechiana

AbiuHEIGHT 33–115 ft (10–35 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical South America

SapoteHEIGHT 25–65 ft (7–20 m) TYPE Evergreen/Semi-evergreen OCCURRENCE Mexico, Central America,South America, S.E. Asia

Pouteria sapota

LEAVES ANDFRUIT

CanistelHEIGHT 26–65 ft (8–20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Mexico

LEAVES LEAVES AND FRUIT

FRUIT AND FOLIAGE

elongated leaves

oval berry

smooth skin

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 321

The strawberry tree grows mostly inthickets and woodland in rocky places.The fruit is edible but not tasty. It has a

very high sugar content and sometimesferments on the tree. In severalMediterranean countries, it is used to make wines and liqueurs. The

strawberry tree is incorporated in theheraldic emblem of the Spanish city ofMadrid, with a bear stretching out to eatthe fruit of the tree. BARK Red-brown,not peeling but shredding into strips.LEAF Alternate, elliptic to oblong orobovate, smooth, dark glossy green above,paler beneath. FLOWER Small, white ortinged pink, borne in drooping terminalclusters. FRUIT Orange-red, sphericaldrupe, with mealy flesh.

Arbutus menziesii

freshly exposed. LEAF Alternate, smoothor slightly downy when young, dark green above, dull or waxy beneath.FLOWER White or tinged pink, borne inlarge, broad, upright, terminal panicles.FRUIT Orange-red, rough and warty,berrylike drupe, with mealy flesh.A highly ornamental horticultural

species, this tree is prized for its peelingbark, showy flowers, and brightly coloredfruit. It is named after ArchibaldMenzies, a Scottish botanist and surgeon,who was the first to discover it, in 1792.BARK Red-brown, smooth, peeling,becoming fissured with age; green when

FLOWERS AND LEAVES

Strawberry TreeHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. Ireland,Mediterranean region

Arbutus unedo

Madrone HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Canada (British Columbia),US (California, Oregon, Washington)

elliptic toobovateleaves

FLOWERS ANDLEAVES

BARK

leaf to 4 in(10 cm) long

urn-shaped flowersrough, wartyskin

BARK

rough, fissuredsurface

FRUIT

small, urn-shapedflowers

322

FOLIAGE

Widely cultivated, this tree often has acrooked trunk. BARK Gray-brown toblackish, shallowly fissured. LEAF Alternate,smooth to hairy below. FLOWER White, incymes. FRUIT Brownish yellow, oval drupe.

Wigandia is a coarse shrub and issometimes grown as an ornamentalbecause of its large, showy leaves andviolet flowers. However, its leaves and stemhave stinging hairs, which can cause severeallergic reactions. It is considered a noxiousweed in Australia. BARK Green-brown.LEAF Alternate, ovate, toothed, long-stalked, with glandular stinging hairs.FLOWER Purple-blue petals, bell-shaped,in large terminal cymes. FRUIT Capsulethat splits open on ripening.

Wigandia caracasana

Rhododendron arboreum Cordia alliodora

Spanish ElmHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE Evergreen/Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical South America, West Indies

Cordia myxa

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S

This species was the first rhododendron tobe introduced to Europe from theHimalayas. It is broadly columnar in shape.BARK Red-brown, rough, and shredding.LEAF Alternate, oblong to lanceolate, glossydark green above, silvery to rusty brown

beneath; poisonous. FLOWER Red, pink, or white,

bell-shaped, in denseterminal clusters of up

to 20. FRUIT Brownwoody capsule, withnumerous tiny seeds.

LEAVES

Rhododendron HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S.W. China, Himalayas, Sri Lanka

Assyrian Plum HEIGHT 10–50 ft (3–15 m) TYPE Deciduous/Semi-evergreenOCCURRENCE N. Africa, India, S.E. Asia, Australia

WigandiaHEIGHT up to 12 ft (3.6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

pointed tip

Spanish elm wood is in great demand forboat decks, cabinetry, veneers, flooring,and paneling. Its flowers, fruit, and leavesare used medicinally. BARK Gray tobrown, becoming rough and fissured.LEAF Alternate, elliptic-oblong, smooth orwith scattered hairs. FLOWER Small, white,in terminal panicles. FRUIT Oblong nutlet.

branches inhorizontallayers

323

This tropical tree is the primary sourceof the antimalarial drug quinine, which

is found in its bark. BARK Gray-brown, vertically and horizontallyfissured. LEAF Opposite, elliptic to

oblong or ovate or obovate, smoothabove, smooth to downy beneath.FLOWER White to pink, fragrant; in

terminal panicles, short-and long-styled onseparate trees.

FRUIT Ovate-oblong capsule.

Eucommia ulmoides

Cinchona calisaya

D I C O T Y L E D O N S

FOLIAGEFLOWERSAND BUDS

smoothmargins

large glossyleaves

Very rare in the wild, this tree is widelycultivated in China for medicinal use andas a street tree. It produces latex, but isnot exploited for rubber. BARK Gray-brown, rough. LEAF Alternate, usuallyelliptic, smooth. FLOWER Greenishbrown, axillary; males in clusters;females solitary; on separate trees.FRUIT Elliptic to oblong, winged nut.

LEAVESMALEFLOWERS

densely toothedmargins

rounded tospreadinghabit

Hardy RubberTreeHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE C. China

Quinine HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

There are probably at least 25 species ofcoffee growing wild, all indigenous totropical Africa, especially Ethiopia. Allspecies of arabica coffee are woody,ranging from small shrubs to large trees,and have horizontal branches in oppositepairs. This species accounts for 74percent of world production of coffee. BARK Brown, with fine vertical fissures.LEAF Opposite, glossy dark green, ovate to elliptic, smooth. FLOWER Borne inclusters of 5–20 in leaf axils, with fivewhite petals, fragrant. FRUIT Ovoidberry, about 1⁄2 in (1.25 cm) long; greenripening to yellow and then red, blackwhen dried, with two seeds.

Arabica CoffeeHEIGHT 13–16 ft (4–5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Ethiopia, cultivated intropical regions

Coffea arabica

COFFEE ON THE GO

Coffee was transported to theArabian Peninsula around 600 CE,and the custom of coffee-drinkingthen spread throughout theOttoman Empire. Coffee housesopened in Vienna in 1555 and inEngland in 1650. It was not untilthe 1690s that the Dutchintroduced coffee into Java. A plant from Java was sent toAmsterdam, where it set fruit.Coffee plants were then sentto Paris and Surinam.

COFFEE BEANS

berry ripensto red

FLOWERS

324

5-lobedflowers

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 325

Often seen in parks and along streets, thistree has a distinctive pagoda-like crown.Its wood was once used to make writingtablets. BARK Gray; exudes white sap.LEAF In whorls of 4–10, with many lateralveins. FLOWER White, with overlappinglobes, in terminal or axillary inflorescences.FRUIT Long, paired follicles.

An important species planted in Africaand Asia, this tree has long, droopingbranches. Once chewed as a stimulant,the coffee beans are now used exclusivelyfor the production of instant coffee, orsometimes blended with arabica coffee.BARK Brown, with fine vertical fissures.LEAF Opposite, glossy dark green, oftentoothed or wavy margins, oblong-elliptic.FLOWER Borne in clusters of 5–20 in leafaxils, with 6–8 white petals. FRUIT Red,ovoid berry.

Dyera costulata

Coffea canephora Neolamarckia cadamba

Robusta Coffee HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa

KadamHEIGHT 80–150 ft (25–45 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE India, China, S.E. Asia

The kadam tree occurs in many ofthe Hindu writings about Lord Krishna.BARK Pale brown, smooth, becoming gray-brown, fissured, ridged, and flaky. LEAF Opposite, elliptic, smooth, withnarrowly triangular terminal stipules. FLOWER Numerous, in round heads, atends of short side twigs. FRUIT Greenishcapsule, turning brown, in spherical heads.

yellowish whiteflowers

FLOWER HEAD

LEAVES

elliptic to obovate

Dita HEIGHT up to 130 ft (40 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE India, S. China, S.E. Asia,tropical Australia

The wood of this tree is commonly usedto make pencils, picture frames, andcabinets. BARK Gray to brown, mottled.LEAF Arranged in whorls of 5–8, usuallyat the ends of the twigs, elliptic to obovate.FLOWER Axillary inflorescences, withsmall, white corollas. FRUIT Long, pairedfollicles, containing ellipsoidal seeds.

FOLIAGE

Jelutong HEIGHT up to 260 ft (80 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Thailand, MalayPeninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi

Alstonia scholaris

berry 3⁄4–1 in(1.8–2.5 cm) long

FRUIT

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S326

Widely cultivated in the tropics as anornamental, this tree contains alkaloidsthat also make it a useful medicinal plant.Its flowers exude an intense, penetratingperfume. All parts of this tree arepoisonous. BARK Green to pale brown.LEAF Opposite, elliptic. FLOWER White, interminal inflorescences of 1–8; ovoidbuds. FRUIT Oval follicles in pairs.

The iboga has an upright and branchingtrunk. Its leaves, seeds, and root barkcontain alkaloids, including a psychoactivecompound, ibogaine, which is illegal insome countries, such as the US. Knownas the “Tree of Life,” the Iboga tree has

This tree with fragrant flowers is central toMayan creation myths. BARK Pale green to pale brown, smooth; exudes white latex.LEAF Alternate, elliptic, with pointed tips.FLOWER Large, in terminal clusters. FRUIT Gray-green, oblong follicles.

This medicinal tree is usually unbranched.It contains the alkaloid reserpine, which is used in some medicinal drugs. BARK Thin, yellowish green. LEAF Ellipticto obovate, in whorls of up to three, neartips of stems. FLOWER White or tingedwith purple, with overlapping lobes, interminal and lateral cymes. FRUIT Oval,orange ripening to purple-black, paired drupes.

Tabernanthe iboga

Plumeria rubra Rauvolfia serpentina

LABEL

FLOWER AND LEAVES

FLOWERS IN BLOOM

Iboga HEIGHT up to 6 ft (2 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE W. Africa, Gabon, Cameroon

Tabernaemontana divaricata

been used for hundreds of years as asource of stimulant and aphrodisiacpreparations by people living in its nativehabitat. Extracts from the tree have beenused experimentally to treat impotenceand to break drug addiction. BARK Green to pale brown; exudes white latex. LEAF Opposite, dark green, elliptic toovate or oblanceolate, smooth anduntoothed. FLOWER White corollas, spotted with pink; in axillary clusters of up to 12. FRUIT Oval, orange-red.

pink-yellow lobes LEAVES AND FLOWERS

5 petalspointedleaf tip

untoothededges

red stalks

Frangipani HEIGHT up to 33 ft (10 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mexico, South America

Serpentine RootHEIGHT up to 10 ft (3 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Sri Lanka, India, China, Malay Peninsula

Crepe Jasmine HEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Myanmar, Thailand, India

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 327

The commercial production of this tree’sfruit is restricted to New Zealand, where itbegan in 1920. Internationally, the traderemains on a small scale. BARK Greenishbrown, thin. LEAF Alternate, ovate, heart-shaped base, with soft hairs. FLOWER Bell-shaped, fragrant, pink to pale blue, inaxillary clusters. FRUIT Ovoid, smooth,purplish red to orange-red or yellow berry.

Brugmansia x candida

Solanum betaceum

UNRIPE FRUIT

Often planted in gardens, this species is a hybrid of B. aurea and B. versicolor. Itincludes numerous cultivars, some withdouble flowers. All parts of the plant arehighly toxic. It has spectacular flowersthat are sweetly scented, particularly inthe evenings. Angel’s trumpet can begrown in frost-free Mediterranean or subtropical climates. BARK Grayish, thin. LEAF Alternate, up to 16 in (40 cm)long, with soft hairs.

FLOWER Solitary, white, pink, to yellow, up to 24 in (60 cm) long, with recurvedpetals. FRUIT Green, ovoid to spindle-shaped, pendulous capsule.

FLOWERSAND LEAVES

ovate leaves

trumpet-shapedflower

Angel’s Trumpet HEIGHT 5–16 ft (1.5–5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Peru

Tree Tomato HEIGHT 6–25 ft (2–8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America, Africa,S.E. Asia, New Zealand

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S328

Fraxinus excelsior

A broadly columnar, tall tree, Europeanash has a spherical to round crown and iscommonly found on limestone in moistwoods and on riverbanks. BARK Gray-brown and smooth, becoming ridged andfurrowed. LEAF Opposite, pinnate with aterminal leaflet; 7–15 ovate-oblong tolanceolate leaflets, dark green above,hairy beneath on the midrib, toothedmargins. FLOWER Small, purplish, withsepals and petals absent, in short, axillary

clusters, opening from black buds beforethe leaves appear. FRUIT Winged key,glossy green turning pale brown, inhanging clusters.

European AshHEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m)TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

FLOWERS

LEAVES ANDFRUIT

flowers in denseclusters

ELASTIC ASH WOOD

The wood of European ash isknown for its strength andflexibility; it is easily bent whensteamed or seasoned. Once used tomake shafts and wheel rims for carriages and wagons, it is nowused to make sturdy baskets, oars,and agricultural implements.

wingedfruit indroopingclusters

tapered tip

BASKET

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 329

Often planted as an ornamental, this fast-growing tree has a broadly columnarshape. BARK Gray-brown, with interlacingridges. LEAF Opposite, pinnate with aterminal leaflet; 5–9 ovate to lanceolateleaflets, green above, hairy beneath onthe midrib. FLOWER Greenish purple,petalless, small; males and females borneon separate trees, in short clusters. FRUIT Green winged key, ripening to pale brown.

Fraxinus ornus

Green AshHEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE N. and C. United States

Fraxinus pennsylvanica

Manna AshHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S. Europe, S.W. Asia

Also called flowering ash for its showyflower clusters, this tree has a roundcrown and a broadly spreading habit. In Sicily, the tree is tapped to form“manna” from the solidified sap. Thiscontains high concentrations of mannitol,a sugar that can be used as a sweetener by people with diabetes. BARK Gray,smooth. LEAF Opposite, pinnate with

a terminal leaflet; 5–9 ovate to lanceolateleaflets, dark green above, hairy beneathon the midrib, sharply toothed margins,and distinctly stalked lateral leaflets. FLOWER White, small, with four slenderpetals, borne before the leaves, in short,fluffy axillary clusters. FRUIT Greenlanceolate key, ripening to pale brown,with a flattened wing, hanging in clusters.

FLOWERINGBRANCHES

pointedleaflets

flowers inconicalclusters

LEAVES BARK

taperedtips

slightly furrowed

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S330

Olea europaea

The wild olive is a small, bushy plant, butcultivated trees have a typical gnarledtrunk. It grows best in a warm climate andtolerates periods of drought. It is a long-lived species; individual trees can survivefor up to 500 years. Probably domesticatedby the Minoans around 2500 BCE, theolive was spread throughout the Mediterranean region by

the Greeks and Romans. Franciscanmissionaries brought olive trees toCalifornia from Mexico in the 1700s.BARK Gray, furrowed, sometimes peeling. LEAF Opposite, lanceolate, or ovate (wildtrees), gray-green above, paler beneathdue to small silvery scales. FLOWER White,fragrant, small, four-toothed, borne in

dense axillary clusters in summer.FRUIT Ovoid drupe, green turningbrownish green to black.

white flowersin clusters

fruit to 11⁄2 in(4 cm) long

LEAVES ANDFLOWERS

OLIVES AND THEIR OIL

Olive trees are grown throughout theMediterranean region for their edible fruit.Harvested in late summer, olives arepickled in brine to remove bitter chemicals,or pressed to extract their oil.

FRUIT

OLIVE OIL

PICKING OLIVESgray-greenleaves

Olive HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Middle East,Mediterranean region, N. Africa

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 331

A species that grows on sandy soil androcky sites, this broad-crowned tree canbe used for hedging and street planting,particularly in coastal areas, as it isresistant to saline spray. BARK Gray-brown, deeply fissured. LEAF Alternate,toothed near tip. FLOWER White, withpurple spots, in axillary inflorescences of 3–8. FRUIT Ovoid, purple or purple-black drupe.

This bean tree is much branched, with a spreading habit and a round crown. It is frequently used as an ornamental. BARK Pale brown tinged with red, withirregular scales. LEAF Opposite or in threes,unlobed or shallowly lobed. FLOWER Large;white corollas with two lobes, frilled at themargin, with rows of yellow spots and

many purple spots. FRUIT Beanlike,pendulous pod.

Myoporum acuminatum

Crescentia cujete

Catalpa bignonioides

FLOWERINGSHOOT

The calabash tree has dense, tiered,spreading branches with a broadcrown and a relatively short trunk. Its fruits are dried and polished to make utensils and musicalinstruments. BARK Whitish to silvergray, rough. LEAF Alternatelyarranged in clusters on short shoots,oblanceolate to obovate,tapering at the base. FLOWER Yellow-green, withpurple markings, large,cup-shaped, solitary orin clusters, usuallyborne on the trunk;night-flowering.FRUIT Large, round gourd; hard shell.

flowers inpanicles

broadlyovate leaf

elliptic leavespointed tip

5–12 in(12–30 cm) wide

FOLIAGE

FRUIT

BoobiallaHEIGHT 6–25 ft (2–8 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia (New South Wales, Queensland)

Southern Catalpa HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.E. US, naturalized elsewhere

Calabash TreeHEIGHT up to 40 ft (12 m)TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE West Indies, tropical South America

The night-blooming flowers of this treehave a harsh, musty smell that attractspollinating bats. BARK Pale gray-brown,smooth or finely cracked. LEAF Opposite,pinnate, with 3–4 ovate to oblong leaflets,clustered at ends of branches. FLOWER Large, trumpet-shaped, reddishpurple outside, yellow to cream inside, in terminal clusters.FRUIT Long, pendentwoody capsule.

Its striking display of flowers makes thistree a popular ornamental for streets andparks. BARK Pale brown, rough andfissured with age. LEAF Opposite, bipinnate;

13–41 small, smooth or downy leaflets. FLOWER Purplish blue,in terminal panicles.

FRUIT Oval pod;winged seeds.

The flowers of this tree are pollinated bynectar-eating bats; it rarely fruits in theirabsence. BARK Pale brown, rough, oftencracked. LEAF Opposite, pinnate, with

Jacaranda mimosifolia

Kigelia africana

Sausage Tree HEIGHT 33–50 ft (10–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa

FLOWERStubularcorolla

3–6 pairs of elliptic to lanceolateleaflets. FLOWER Red to purplish, bell-shaped. FRUIT Pendulous, sausage-shaped capsule.

droopingpanicle FRUIT

gray-greencapsule

slendercrown

Oroxylum indicum

WINGEDSEED

Jacaranda HEIGHT 16–50 ft (5–15 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Argentina, Bolivia

Midnight Horror HEIGHT 16–65 ft (5–20 m) TYPE Evergreen/Semi-deciduousOCCURRENCE India, E. Asia

DICOTYLEDONS 333

The flame tree is grown for its shadeand color. It is used for fire-

resistant landscaping, asits wood is difficult to

burn. BARK Palegray and warty. LEAF Opposite,

pinnate; 11–15 pairs of oval to ovate

leaflets, hairy beneath.FLOWER Large, bell-

shaped, red-orange, withyellow edges, in racemes.FRUIT Greenish brown

pods; numerouspapery seeds.

This is the national tree of Venezuela.BARK Pale to dark gray and scaly. LEAF Palmate, with 5–7 stalked, oval to oblong leaflets.FLOWER Goldenyellow,trumpet-shaped, interminalpanicles.FRUIT Hairycapsule.

Spathodea nilotica Tabebuia chrysantha

Pink TrumpetTree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE South America

Tabebuia impetiginosa

The showy flowers of the yellow pouibloom when the tree has no leaves. Itshard, durable timber has been used formarine and naval construction, bridges,flooring, and furniture. It is also plantedas an ornamental and street tree in SouthAmerica, but is now rare in the wild due tooverexploitation. BARK Pale brown to gray,fissured, scaly. LEAF Opposite, pinnate withone terminal leaflet; five ovate-oblong toelliptic, toothed leaflets. FLOWER Yellow,tubular, in terminal and lateral clusters.FRUIT Long capsule, with winged seeds.

Tabebuia serratifolia

This tree is cultivated as an ornamental.BARK Gray, fissured. LEAF Opposite, ovate-elliptic leaflets. FLOWER Pinkish purple,tubular, in panicles. FRUIT Capsule.

terminal leaflet

LEAVES AND FLOWERS

uprightpods

Flame Tree HEIGHT up to 60 ft (18 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Tropical Africa

Yellow Trumpet Tree HEIGHT up to 80 ft (25 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Mexico, Central America, Venezuela

Yellow Poui HEIGHT up to 150 ft (45 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Tropical Central and South America

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S334

A popular ornamental and street tree in tropical and subtropical areas, fiddlewood has hard anddurable wood that washistorically used for tools. It was called “bois fidèle” orfaithful tree by the French,which was corrupted to“fiddlewood” in English.Despite the name spinosum, the tree bears no spines.Where the tree is deciduous,the leaves turn orange before falling. BARK Palebrown, becoming scaly, with longitudinal thin strips.LEAF Opposite or in whorls of three, ovate to oblong orelliptic. FLOWER White, small,tubular, borne in axillary and terminal, spikelike

Used occasionally for living fence polesand garden stakes, this tree is valued forits tolerance to salt spray and saline soil.

This broad-crowned, fast-growing tree is grown in plantations for its wood. BARK Pale ashy gray to grayish yellow,smooth. LEAF Opposite, broadly ovate,with brownish hairs beneath. FLOWER Inaxillary clusters, with five unequal lobes:upper two curved backward, next twoforward-pointing and orange-red, bottomlobe lemon yellow. FRUIT Oblong toobovoid, yellowish green, fleshy drupe.

Citharexylum spinosum

Premna serratifolia

Gmelina arborea

BARK Yellowish brown with verticalfurrows, soft, thin, flaky. LEAF Opposite,oblong to broadly ovate, sometimes hairyalong veins. FLOWER Greenish whitepetals, forming a short, hairy tube, withtwo unequal lobes, scented, in terminalcompound corymbs. FRUIT Round,bluish black, fleshy drupe, 11⁄4–21⁄4 in(3–6 mm) wide.

inflorescences. FRUIT Oblong drupe,borne on pendulous stalks, red, turningblack, containing four seeds.

irregular crown

Fiddlewood HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE Deciduous/Evergreen OCCURRENCE Caribbean, N. South America

Gumhar HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE India to S. China, MalayPeninsula, Indonesia

Headache Tree HEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE S. and S.E. Asia, Australia,Pacific Islands

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 335

Tectona grandis

One of the best-known tropical hardwoodspecies, teak has been exploited for itsdurable and versatile wood for hundreds ofyears. British colonists in India and Burma(now Myanmar), and Dutch colonists inIndonesia, established teak plantations toprovide a ready supply of timber for ship-building, general construction, and finefurniture. The tree takes up to 60 years tomature and can be exceptionally long-lived. There are two contenders for theoldest teak tree, both about 154 ft (47 m)tall; one in Palghat district, Kerala, Indiawith a girth of 21 ft (6.42 m) and theother in Uttaradit province, Thailand,with a girth of 32 ft (9.57 m), estimated tobe more than 1,000 years old. The trunkof the teak tree is fluted. BARK Palebrown, thin, flaky in narrow, vertical strips.

LEAF Opposite, large, ovate to broadlyobovate, rough above, soft hairs beneath.FLOWER White, with a small, funnel-shapedcorolla, the calyx densely covered withbrown hairs, numerous, borne in terminaland lateral, wide pyramidal inflorescences,at the ends of shoots. FRUIT Thin, inflatedcalyx surrounding a stone containing fourcavities, each with one seed.

TeakHEIGHT up to 165 ft (50 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Asia: India to Thailand,Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, Java

papery calyx

TEAK WOOD FURNITURE

The dark brown wood of the teak treehas a distinct grain, dries with littledegradation, and is easily worked withhand or power tools. The untreatedwood weathers well, resists rot, and is not attacked bytermites. Theseproperties make it one of the mostvaluable woodsfor furniture-making.

TEAK WOODCHAIR

LEAVES 12–20 in(30–50 cm)long

FRUIT

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S336

Also known as the empress tree, afterAnna Paulovna, queen of William II of the Netherlands, this tree was firstplanted in Jardin des Plantes, Paris, in1834. It was introduced into NorthAmerica a few years later and naturalized.Centuries ago, the tree was cultivated inJapan, where it was traditionally valued,particularly for making the stringed

This tree is a natural hybrid between P. fortunei and P. kawakami. It grows quicklyand is cultivated mainly for its fine, lighttimber. It can also be pruned to supplyleaves and flowers as fodder for livestock.

Paulownia x taiwaniana

It is highly ornamental with masses ofsweetly scented, trumpet-shaped flowers in spring. BARK Grayish, rough. LEAF Opposite, ovate, thin, 4–12 in (10–30 cm) long, with 3–5 lobes, pointed tip.FLOWER Petals 2–21⁄4 in (5–6 cm) long, palepurple with deep violet spots on yellow“throat”; in terminal, pyramidal panicles.FRUIT Woody capsule, oblong-ovoid,11⁄2–13⁄4 in (3.5–4.5 cm) long.

instrument called the “koto.” BARK Brown-gray, smooth,visible lenticels when young,splitting lengthwise with age.LEAF Opposite, ovate, 3–5lobes, hairy, untoothed orlobed margins. FLOWER Bell-shaped, large, pale purplewith darker spots, yellowstripes inside, in terminalpanicles. FRUIT Woody, ovoid capsule, up to 2 in(5 cm) long, hairy, ripeningfrom green to brown.

RIPE FRUIT

tubularflowers

to 12 in(30 cm) long

heart-shapedbase

ovoidcapsule

Paulownia tomentosa

FLOWERS

LEAVES

Princess Tree HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE China, cultivated in Korea, Japan, North America, Europe

PaulowniaHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE Island of Taiwan

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 337

Ilex aquifolium

The holly has been cultivated sinceancient times. There are numerouscultivars with variations in the density ofprickles, in patterns of variegation, andthe color of berries. Its glossy leaves alsovary in shape. Its wood is heavy and fine-grained and has been used for inlay workin furniture, chess pieces, and printingblocks. BARK Pale gray, smooth.LEAF Alternate, ovate to elliptic,wavy margins with spines.FLOWER Small, white,sometimes purple-tinged, fragrant;males and femaleson separate trees,borne in axillaryclusters. FRUIT Berry,usually shinybright red, butyellow in somecultivars; poisonous.

English HollyHEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Europe, W. Asia

FESTIVE WREATH

In ancient Rome, the festival ofSaturnalia took placeduring the wintersolstice. It was a timeof high spirits and gift-giving, which includedsending sprigs of holly tofriends. Some pagan peoples brought holly indoors toward off evil spirits. Gradually, these traditions wereabsorbed into Christianity, and the holly becameassociated with Christmas.

FEMALEFLOWERSMALE

FLOWERS

whiteflowers

green ovary

pyramidal tocolumnar crown

leaf to 4 in(10 cm) long

dense clustersof berries

FRUIT-BEARINGSHOOT

RU N N I N G H E A D338

The crown of this tree is rounded atmaturity and its juvenile foliage differsfrom adult leaves. BARK Grayish, smooth.LEAF Juveniles: very long, linear, toothed;adults: oblanceolate, smooth, toothed.FLOWER Greenish, in terminal umbels;males with five petals; females petalless.FRUIT Globose, black, fleshy drupe.

This tree is so named because of itscompound leaves that form an umbrella-shaped rosette. BARK Gray,smooth. LEAF Alternate, digitate, with5–16 elliptic to obovate, smooth leaflets.FLOWER Bright red, stalkless, clustered on straight branches.FRUIT Purple-black drupe.

The first maté plantations were founded bythe Jesuits in 1650 CE. Today, Argentinaaccounts for about 45 percent of the totalcrop. A tall, multi-stemmed bush in the

wild, Maté is pruned to 10–20 ft (3–6m) in cultivation to stimulate growthand to make the leaves easier to pick.The leaves are used to make a tea-like drink. BARK Gray-brown, smooth.LEAF Alternate, obovate, leathery.FLOWER Axillary; males in clusters of

3–11; females 1–3, on separate trees.FRUIT Reddish to black, spherical drupe.

Schefflera actinophylla

Ilex paraguariensis

Maté HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE South America

Umbrella Tree HEIGHT 16–40 ft (5–12 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Papua New Guinea, tropical Australia

LancewoodHEIGHT 20–60 ft (6–18 m) TYPE Evergreen OCCURRENCE New Zealand

Pseudopanax crassifolius

FLOWERS AND FRUIT

LEAVESMATÉ TEA

Maté is traditionally drunk from a gourd witha metal straw that has a filter to strain outleaf fragments. The bottom of the gourd isfilled with burned or toasted leaves and hotwater. Burned sugar, lemon juice, and/ormilk are used to flavor the tea.

whiteflowers

unripefruit

toothedmargins

TEA

GOURD ANDSTRAW

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 339

This tree was introduced into horticulturein 1789, and is now well established incultivation. It is commonly used for hedgesand windbreaks. However, it can be veryinvasive in scrubland. BARK Dark gray,smooth. LEAF Alternate, ovate to ellipticor lanceolate, clustered at ends ofbranches, aromatic when crushed.FLOWER White, turning yellow, borne inshort terminal panicles. FRUIT Globosecapsule, with red-brown seeds.

The fruit of this tree has more Vitamin Cper unit weight than oranges or tomatoes.BARK Pale yellowish brown, soft, spongy,fissured. LEAF Opposite, pinnate with aterminal leaflet; 5–7 lanceolate to elliptic,toothed leaflets, smooth or slightly hairybeneath. FLOWER Creamy white,numerous, in flat, terminal panicles. FRUIT Small, berrylike drupe, 3–5 nutlets.

Sambucus canadensis

Steganotaenia araliacea Pittosporum tobira

LEAF ANDFLOWER

FRUIT

Carrot Tree HEIGHT 10–16 ft (3–5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE S.W. and C. Africa

Tobira HEIGHT 16–20 ft (5–6 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE China, Japan

Elderberry HEIGHT up to 16 ft (5 m) TYPE DeciduousOCCURRENCE North America

Cheesewood HEIGHT up to 50 ft (15 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Australia

Pittosporum undulatum

Widely cultivated in areas with aMediterranean climate, this species issometimes used as a low hedge or as asmall ornamental tree. It has a roundedcrown. BARK Dark gray, smooth. LEAF Alternate, oblanceolate to obovate,leathery, sometimes curved back, aromatic when crushed.FLOWER White, turningyellow, in short terminalpanicles, fragrant.FRUIT Globosecapsule withred-brownseeds.

All parts of this tree smell strongly ofcarrots, hence its common name. BARK Pale greenish gray, papery andpeeling. LEAF Alternate, drooping,crowded at the ends of branches; pinnate

with ovate, deeplytoothed leaflets anda terminal leaflet.FLOWER Tiny, whiteto yellow, incompound umbels.FRUIT Small, flat,ovate to pear-shaped, with threeprominent ribs.

flowers inshort clusters

FLOWERS ANDLEAVES

TREE IN LEAFLESSPHASE

dark purple drupes

white petals

wavymargins

glossy leaves

F L O W E R I N G T R E E S340

Sambucus nigra

LEAF Opposite, pinnate with aterminal leaflet; 5–7 ovate to ellipticleaflets, slightly hairy beneath, sharplytoothed; exuding a foul odor whencrushed. FLOWER Creamy white, stronglyfragrant, numerous, borne in terminal flatpanicles. FRUIT Berrylike,purple-black drupe, with3–5 one-seeded nutlets.

broadly columnarto rounded head

flowers with broadflattened heads

CORDIALS AND WINES

Both the flowers and fruit of the elder tree are usedto make wine. Elder fruit is also used to make jelliesand the flowers to make a non-alcoholic cordial. The use of elderflowers for this purpose has greatlyincreased in the last 25 years. Anestimated 100 tons of wild flowers areharvested annually in Britain for cordial-making. Elder is also used to makemedicinal herbal remedies.

The Europeanblack elderberry is

common in damp woods andwasteland. It often grows around farmbuildings and along walls, where its seedsare scattered in bird droppings. Elderberrygrows rapidly, and its branches form adense, shrubby growth. Many cultivatedforms have been bred, with differentleaf colors and forms, as well asones with colored flowers orlarger fruit. BARK Paleyellowish brown,soft, spongy,fissured.

drupe to 1⁄4 in(6 mm) wide

Elderberry HEIGHT up to 32 ft (10 m) TYPE Deciduous OCCURRENCE Europe

FRUIT

BRANCHLET

DRIED FLOWERS AND INFUSION

pointedleaflets

D I C O T Y L E D O N S 341

A fast-growing tree, arboloco is found inopen habitats. This species has been usedfor construction of houses and buildings,animal enclosures, and fences. Its whitepith is used in handicrafts. BARK Brown-gray. LEAF Opposite, ovate to triangularto almost palmate, toothed to indentedmargins or lobed in older leaves. FLOWER Borne in terminal cymes,numerous, daisylike with white ray florets and yellow central disk. FRUIT Head of brown-black seeds.

Montanoa quadrangularis

Lobelia giberroa Dendrosenecio johnstonii

Arboloco HEIGHT up to 65 ft (20 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Colombia, Venezuela

One of the strange herbaceous plants ofAfrican mountains that have developed atreelike habit, this species has a hollowstem. There are also related species thatare stemless. BARK Brownish, not highlydeveloped. LEAF In rosettes, alternate,oblanceolate, hairy, with toothed margins.FLOWER Green with mauve stamens,borne in a long terminal inflorescence.FRUIT Capsule.

Giant Lobelia HEIGHT up to 32 ft (10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE Kenya

sparselybranchedstems

LEAFY ROSETTE

leaf-clad stems

The giant groundsel grows aroundMount Kilimanjaro in northernTanzania, in a belt of alpine grassland,shrubs, and bogs. This gigantic, odd-looking plant has treelike characteristics.Its sparsely branched stems terminate inlarge rosettes of leaves. These are denselyfurred as protection against the intenselight and harsh climatic conditions in itsmountainous habitat. The old, deadleaves act as a screen around its trunk.BARK Brownish, not highly developed.LEAF In rosettes, broadly ovate to elliptic, hairy, with toothed margins. FLOWER Borne in terminal inflorescences,numerous, to 3 ft (1 m) long, daisylikewith white ray florets and yellow central disk. FRUIT Head of brown-black achenes.

Giant Groundsel HEIGHT 16–32 ft (5–10 m) TYPE EvergreenOCCURRENCE E. African mountains

EUROPEAN BLACK ELDERThe structure of the flowerheads of the Europeanblack elder tree (Sambucus nigra) is clearly seenhere. The buds eventually open as fragrant greenishwhite and pink blossoms. The elder is a commoninhabitant of damp woodlands throughout Europe.

344 G L O S S A RY

ACHENE A small, dry and hard, one-seeded fruit that does not split open forseed distribution.

ALTERNATE Describes leaves that areborne singly at each node, in two verticalrows, on either side of an axis. (See LeafArrangements, p.347.)

ANTHER Part of the stamen that releasespollen; usually borne on a filament.

ARIL Coat that covers some seeds; oftenfleshy and brightly colored.

AXIL Upper angle between a part of aplant and the stem that bears it.

AXILLARY Borne in an axil, usuallyreferring to flowers.

BIPINNATE A compound leafarrangement (see p.347) in which theleaflets are themselves pinnate.

BRACT Modified leaf at the base of aflower or flower head. A bract may besmall and scalelike, or large and petal-like, or it may resemble normal foliage.

BRACTEOLE Secondary bract sheathing aflower in an inflorescence.

BURR 1. Prickly, spiny, or hooked fruit,seed head, or flower head. 2. Woodyoutgrowth on the trunk of some trees.

BUTTRESS Trunk base that is fluted orswollen, giving stability to a tree inshallow soil conditions.

CALYX (pl. calyces) Collective name forsepals, joined or separate, that form theouter whorl of the perianth.

CAPSULE A type of dry fruit that splitsopen to disperse ripe seed.

CARPEL Female flower part consisting ofa style, a stigma, and an ovary.

CATKIN A type of inflorescence, usuallypendulous, in which scalelike bracts andtiny, often petalless flowers are arrangedin a spike.

CLONE A genetically identical group ofplants derived from one individual byvegetative reproduction.

GlossaryA number of specialist botanical and scientific terms have been usedin this book. Use this glossary to obtain a concise definition of theseterms. Terms in italic type are defined elsewhere in the glossary.

LEAF SHAPES

Leaves occur in a great variety of shapes, and aselection of the most common types is shownbelow. Some leaves do not match one of theseshapes exactly and may be a combination of two.

These shapes apply to both simple leaves, whichare undivided, and compound leaves, which aredivided into two or more component parts, eachof which is known as a leaflet.

NEEDLELIKE LINEAR ROUNDED OBLONG ELLIPTIC

OVATE OBOVATE LANCEOLATE OBLANCEOLATEHEART-SHAPED

G L O S S A RY

FLOWER PARTS

Most flowers are made up of petals, sepals,and the male and/or female flower parts (someflowers are exclusively male or female). Themain distinction is between those that havedistinct sepals and petals (advanced) and thosethat do not (primitive).

COLUMNAR A tree shape that is tallerthan broad, with parallel sides. (see TreeHabit, p.348.)

CONE The seed-bearing structure ofconifer trees.

COROLLA 1. Collective name for petals. 2. Inner whorl of perianth segments insome monocotyledons.

CORYMB Broad, flat-topped or domedinflorescence of stalked flowers or flowerheads arising at different levels onalternate sides of an axis. (See FlowerArrangements, p.346.)

CULTIVAR Contraction of “cultivatedvariety.” A cultivated plant that retainsdistinct characteristics when propagated.

CYME Branched inflorescence with eachaxis ending in a flower. (See FlowerArrangements, p.346.)

DECIDUOUS A tree that loses its leavesand remains leafless for some months ofthe year, usually in winter (temperatezones) or the dry season (tropical zones).

DIGITATE A palmate compound leafdivided into five leaflets arising from asingle basal point. (See Compound LeafArrangements, p.347.)

DRUPE A type of fruit consisting of oneor several hard seeds (stones) surroundedby a fleshy outer covering.

ELLIPTIC A flat leaf shape that is broadestat the center, tapering toward each end.(See Leaf Shapes, facing page.)

ENDOCARP The hard outer covering ofthe seed of a succulent fruit.

ENDOSPERM Specialized food storewithin the fertilized seed of angiosperms(flowering plants) that nourishes theembryo during germination.

EVERGREEN A tree that bears leavesthroughout the year.

FOLLICLE Dry fruit, formed from a singlecarpel, that splits along one side to releaseone or more seeds.

HABIT The overall shape of a tree. (SeeTree Habit, p.348.)

345

HERITAGE TREE A tree of considerableage that has some important cultural orhistorical significance.

HYBRID Naturally or artificially producedoffspring of genetically distinct parents ofdifferent species. Hybrids show newcharacteristics.

INFLORESCENCE Arrangement of flowersaround a single axis.

LANCEOLATE Leaf that is broadest belowthe center, tapering to a narrow tip. (SeeLeaf Shapes, p.344.)

showy petal style borne ona stigma

anther borne ona thin filament

sepalsdistinctfrom petals

ADVANCED FLOWER

PRIMITIVE FLOWER

anthers

stigmas arrangedspirally

tepals (petals andsepals that areindistinguishable)

LATERAL 1. Located on or to the side ofan axis. 2. Side shoot arising from thestem of a plant.

LEAFLET Single division of a compoundleaf. Also known as a pinna.

LENTICEL Raised pore on the surface ofbark or some fruits that provides accessfor air to the inner tissues.

MESOCARP The soft, fleshy, middleportion of the wall of a succulent fruitbetween the skin and the hard layer.

MIDRIB Primary (usually central) veinrunning from the stalk to the tip of a leafor leaflet. Also called midvein.

NATIVE A species that occurs naturally ina particular region, as opposed to onethat has been introduced.

NATURALIZED A non-native species thathas become established in the wild in aregion where it was introduced.

NODE Point on a stem, sometimesswollen, at which leaves, leaf buds, andshoots arise.

OBLANCEOLATE Leaf shape that isbroadest above the center, tapering to anarrow basal point. Also called inverselylance-shaped. (See Leaf Shapes, p.344.)

OBLONG Describes a leaf shape with twosides of roughly equal length. (See LeafShapes, p.344.)

OBLONG-ELLIPTIC Describes a leaf shapethat is oblong with ends that are round.

BARK TYPES

As the trunk of a tree grows, the bark has tocrack or peel to accommodate its increasinggirth. Every species has a distinctive barktexture; some examples are shown here.

346 G L O S S A RY

FLOWER ARRANGEMENTS

Flowers are arranged on a single stemeither singly or in groups calledinflorescences. Groups of flowers aredisplayed in a characteristic pattern aroundthe stem—a descriptive feature and ameans of identification. The most commontypes of inflorescences are shown here.

SPIKESOLITARY RACEME CORYMB

CYME

PANICLE

UMBEL

SMOOTH IN EARLY YEARS IRREGULAR PLATES

RIDGED AND FISSURED VERTICAL PEELING

HORIZONTAL PEELING ROUGH FLAKING

OBOVATE A leaf shape that is egg-shapedin outline and broadest above the middle.(See Leaf Shapes, p.344.)

OIL DOTS The tiny reservoirs that occuron the surfaces of leaves of some trees,known for their aromatic oils; sometimesvisible as black spots.

OPPOSITE A leaf arrangement in which the leaves are borne in pairsat each node, in the same place but onopposite sides of an axis. (See SimpleLeaf Arrangements, right.)

OVARY Female flower part that containsthe ovules, which develop into seeds (seealso carpel).

OVATE Describes a leaf shape that isbroadest below the middle. (See LeafShapes, p.344.)

OVOID Describes a solid form that isbroadest below the middle; usually refersto a fruit.

PALMATE A compound leaf that is fullydivided into leaflets arising from a singlebasal point. (See Compound LeafArrangements, right.)

PANICLE A branched raceme. (See Flower Arrangements, facingpage.)

PEALIKE Describes a flower with anerect standard petal, two lateral wingpetals, and two lower, keeled petalsenclosing the stamens and pistil.

LEAF MARGINS

SIMPLE LEAF ARRANGEMENTS

Simple leaves are not divided into secondaryunits. They are arranged in one of two patterns:opposite (paired on either side of the stem) oralternate (in a staggered arrangement).

The lamina, or leaf blade, of both simple andcompound leaves may have a smooth edge(entire) or it may be shaped with indentations.The individual pattern is particular to each

species of tree and can serve as an identificationfeature. As shown below, the indentations may betoothed, lobed, or wavy, but in addition there arealso other less common variations.

COMPOUND LEAF ARRANGEMENTS

Leaves that are divided into individual leafletsare known as compound leaves. Leaflets maybe arranged symmetrically around the tip ofthe stem or along its length.

G L O S S A RY 347

ALTERNATE OPPOSITE

PINNATE PALMATE

TOOTHED LOBEDENTIRE WAVY

STAMEN Male part of a flower, usuallycomposed of an anther borne on a filament.

STAMINAL TUBE A structure formed fromjoined stamens.

STIGMA Female part of a flower found atthe tip of the pistil that receives pollen.(See Flower Parts, p.345.)

STIPULE Leaflike or bractlike structureborne, usually in pairs, at the pointwhere a leaf-stalk arises from a stem.

STYLE Female part of flower connectingthe ovary and the stigma. (See FlowerParts, p.345.)

SUCKER 1. Shoot that arises below thesoil level, usually from the roots ratherthan from the stem or crown of theplant. 2. Shoot that arises from the stockof a grafted or budded plant.

SYNCARP An aggregate or multiple fruitthat is produced from fused pistils; theindividual fruits join together in a massand grow together to form a single fruit.

TEPAL The term that is given to the sepals and petals when they areindistinguishable from one another, as inthe case of primitive angiosperms. (SeeFlower Parts, p.345.)

TERMINAL A term that describes theposition at the end of a stem or shoot.

UMBEL Flat- or round-topped inflorescencein which numerous stalked flowers areborne in a terminal position from asingle point. (See also FlowerArrangements, p.346.)

PEDICEL The stalk supporting a flower,flower head, or fruit.

PERIANTH Collective term for the petalsand calyx.

PERICARP The part of the fruit thatencloses the seed.

PINNATE A compound leaf arrangementin which the leaflets (pinnae) are arrangedeither alternately or in opposite pairs ona central axis. (See Compound LeafArrangements, p.347.)

PIONEER SPECIES Species that are usuallythe first to colonize inhospitable sites andcleared ground, leading the way for othervegetation. They improve soil quality andprotect land from erosion.

PISTIL Female reproductive organ of aflower, composed of one or several fusedor separate carpels.

RACEME Inflorescence of stalked flowers radiating from a single,unbranched axis, with the youngestflowers near the tip. (See FlowerArrangements, p.346.)

SEMI-DECIDUOUS OR SEMI-EVERGREENA tree that loses its leaves for only a shortperiod during the year or that sheds aproportion of its leaves periodically but is never entirely leafless.

SEPAL One of the usually green parts ofan advanced flower outside the petals.(See Flower Parts, p.345.)

SPIKE An inflorescence in which stalklessflowers are arranged on an unbranchedaxis. (See Flower Arrangements, p.346.)

TREE HABIT

A tree’s shape is species-specific and can help inidentification. However, habit can vary dependingon age and habitat and other external features

such as climate. For example, a tree growing inthe open will differ greatly in shape compared toone of the same species growing in dense forest.

348 G L O S S A RY

CONICAL SHRUBLIKE SPREADING COLUMNAR

Tree Families

T R E E FA M I L I E S 349

Refer to this alphabetical list to find out which tree families andgenera are represented in this book and on which page(s) theirspecies can be found.

Adoxaceae Sambucus (pp.339–40). Amaranthaceae

Charpentiera; Haloxylon (p.148). Anacardiaceae Anacardium;

Gluta; Harpehyllum; Mangifera; Pistacia; Pleiogynium; Schinus;

Spondias (pp.296–9). Annonaceae Annona; Asimina;

Cananga; Polyalthia (pp.116–8). Apocynaceae Alstonia;

Dyera; Plumeria; Rauvolfia; Tabernaemontana; Tabernanthe

(pp.325–6). Aquifoliaceae Ilex (pp.337–8).

Araucariaceae Agathis; Araucaria (pp.92–3). Araliaceae

Pseudopanax; Schefflera (p.338). Asparagaceae Cordyline;

Dracaena; Yucca (pp.126–7). Asphodelaceae Aloe

(pp.125–6). Betulaceae Alnus; Betula; Carpinus; Corylus;

Ostrya (pp.257–62). Bignoniaceae Catalpa; Crescentia;

Jacaranda; Kigelia; Oroxylum; Spathodea; Tabebuia (pp.331–3).

Bixaceae Bixa; Cochlospermum (p.269). Boraginaceae

Cordia; Wigandia (p.322). Burseraceae Boswellia; Bursera;

Commiphora (pp.294–5). Buxaceae Buxus (p.145).

Cactaceae Carnegiea (p.149). Campanulaceae Lobelia

(p.341). Canellaceae Canella (p.113). Cannabaceae

Celtis (p.229). Caricaceae Carica; Vasconcellea (pp.267–8).

Caryocaraceae Caryocar (p.179). Casuarinaceae

Casuarina (p.263). Cercidiphyllaceae Cercidiphyllum

(p.153). Chrysobalanaceae Chrysobalanus; Parinari

(pp.167–8). Combretaceae Terminalia (p.153).

Compositae Dendrosenecio; Montanoa (p.341). Cornaceae

Cornus; Davidia; Nyssa (pp.310–11). Cucurbitaceae

Dendrosicyos (p.242). Cunoniaceae Davidsonia (p.184).

Cupressaceae Calocedrus; Chamaecyparis; Cryptomeria;

Cunninghamia; x Cupressocyparis; Cupressus; Juniperus;

Metasequoia; Platycladus; Sequoia; Sequoiadendron; Taxodium;

Tetraclinis; Thuja; Thujopsis; Xanthocyparis (pp.99–104).

Cycadaceae Cycas (p.69). Dicksoniaceae Dicksonia

(p.65). Dipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops; Hopea;

Neobalanocarpus; Shorea (pp.282–4). Ebenaceae Diospyros

(pp.316–7). Ericaceae Arbutus; Rhododendron (pp.321–2).

Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum (p.181). Eucommiaceae

Eucommia (p.323). Euphorbiaceae Aleurites; Baccaurea;

Euphorbia; Hevea; Mallotus; Vernicia (pp.177–9). Fagaceae

Castanea; Chrysolepis ; Fagus; Quercus (pp.243–55).

Fouquieriaceae Fouquieria (p.314). Ginkgoaceae Ginkgo

(p.71). Guttiferae Calophyllum; Garcinia (p.180).

Hamamelidaceae Liquidambar; Parrotia (p.154).

Juglandaceae; Carya ; Juglans; Pterocarya (pp.264–6).

Labiatae Gmelina; Premna; Tectona (pp.334–5). Lauraceae

Chlorocardium; Cinnamomum; Endiandra; Eusideroxylon; Laurus;

Persea; Sassafras; Umbellularia (pp.118–22). Lecythidaceae

Bertholletia; Couroupita (p.318). Leguminosae Acacia;

Albizia; Amherstia; Bauhinia; Butea; Cassia; Castanospermum;

Ceratonia; Cercis; Colophospermum; Colvillea; Cynometra;

Dalbergia; Delonix; Dipteryx; Erythrina; Falcataria; Gleditsia;

Gymnocladus; Inocarpus; Koompassia; Laburnum; Leucaena;

Parkia; Peltogyne; Peltophorum; Pericopsis; Prosopis; Pterocarpus;

Robinia; Samanea; Sophora; Tamarindus (pp.185–209).

Loranthaceae Nuytsia (p.152). Lythraceae Lawsonia

(p.153). Magnoliaceae Liriodendron; Magnolia (p.114).

Malvaceae Adansonia; Bombax; Brachychiton; Ceiba; Durio;

Guazuma; Lagunaria; Ochroma; Pachira; Theobroma; Tilia;

Triplochiton (pp.269–81). Melastomataceae Tibouchina

(p.167). Meliaceae Azadirachta; Cedrela; Chukrasia;

Dysoxylum; Khaya; Lansium; Lovoa; Melia; Sandoricum; Swietenia;

Toona; Xylocarpus (pp.301–8). Moraceae Antiaris; Artocarpus;

Broussonetia; Ficus; Maclura; Milicia; Morus (pp.230–41).

Moringaceae Moringa (p.268). Muntingiaceae

Muntingia (p.282). Musaceae Ravenala (p.140).

Myricaceae Morella (p.256). Myristicaceae Myristica

(p.114). Myrtaceae Corymbia; Eucalyptus; Eugenia;

Melaleuca; Metrosideros; Psidium; Syzygium (pp.153–67).

Nothofagaceae Nothofagus (p.243). Oleaceae Fraxinus;

Olea (pp.328–30). Oxalidaceae Averrhoa (p.184). Palmae

Areca; Arenga; Borassus; Caryota; Ceroxylon; Cocos; Copernicia;

Corypha; Elaeis; Hyphaene; Jubaea; Lodoicea; Metroxylon;

Phoenix; Raphia; Roystonea; Trachycarpus; Washingtonia

(pp.127–40). Pandanaceae Pandanus (p.124).

Paulowniaceae Paulownia (p.336). Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca (p.152). Pinaceae Abies; Cedrus; Larix;

Phyllocladus; Picea; Pinus; Pseudotsuga; Tsuga (pp.76–91).

Pittosporaceae Pittosporum (p.339). Platanaceae

Platanus (pp.144–5). Podocarpaceae Podocarpus (pp.96–7).

Polygonaceae Triplaris (p.148). Proteaceae Grevillea;

Macadamia (pp.142–3). Quillajaceae Quillaja (p.184).

Rhamnaceae Hovenia; Ziziphus (pp.225–6).

Rhizophoraceae Rhizophora (p.181). Rosaceae

Crataegus; Cydonia; Eriobotrya; Malus; Prunus; Pyrus; Sorbus

(pp.210–25). Rubiaceae Cinchona; Coffea; Neolamarckia

(pp.323–5). Rutaceae Calodendrum; Chloroxylon; Citrus;

Flindersia; Limonia; Zanthoxylum (pp.308–12). Salicaceae

Pangium; Populus; Salix (pp.291-2). Santalaceae Santalum

(pp.152–3). Sapindaceae Acer; Aesculus; Blighia;

Dimocarpus; Koelreuteria; Litchi; Nephelium (pp.285–93).

Sapotaceae Argania; Chrysophyllum; Manilkara; Palaquium;

Pouteria; Synsepalum (pp.318–20). Schisandraceae Illicium

(p.112). Sciadopityaceae Sciadopitys (p.97).

Scrophulariaceae Myoporum (p.331). Simaroubaceae

Ailanthus; Leitneria (p.300). Solanaceae Brugmansia; Solanum

(p.327). Staphyleaceae Staphylea (p.154). Styraceae

Halesia; Styrax (pp.317–318). Taxaceae Cephalotaxus; Taxus;

Torreya (pp.97–9). Theaceae Camellia; Franklinia

(pp.315–6). Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria; Gonystylus (p.285).

Ulmaceae Trema; Ulmus; Zelkova (pp.226–9).

Umbelliferae Steganotaenia (p.339). Urticaceae Cecropia;

Dendrocnide; Musanga (p.242). Verbenaceae Citharexylum

(p.334). Winteraceae Drimys (p.113).

Xanthorrhoeaceae Kingia; Xanthorrhoea (pp.124–5).

Aabiu 320Abies

alba 76grandis 76koreana 76nordmanniana 76procera 77

acaciafalse 207prickly 187

Acaciaaneura 185dealbata 185farnesiana 185longifolia 186mangium 186mearnsii 186melanoxylon 186nilotica 187pycnantha 188seyal 188xanthophloea 188,

190–191Acer

campestre 285negundo 285palmatum 286

palmatum dissectum 290–291pseudoplatanus 287rubrum 287saccharum 288

acid rain 27ackee 289Adansonia

digitata 270gregorii 270

Aesculus hippocastanum 289African baobab 42African blackwood 196African mahogany 303African teak 240afromosia 205agarwood 285Agathis

australis 92robusta 92

alan 284Albizia julibrissin 189alder

European 257green 56grey 258

Aleurites moluccana 177Alexandrian laurel 180algarroba 205Allanthus altissima 300almond, sweet 141, 217

Indian 155almond nuts 45Alnus

crispa 256glutinosa 257incana 258

Aloebainesii 126dichotoma 125

aloe tree 126alpine ash 156Alstonia scholaris 325ambarella 299American basswood 278American beech 245American chestnut 243American elm 227American hornbeam 260Amherstia nobilis 189Anacardium occidentale 296angiosperms 110

primitive 112angel’s trumpet 327angsana 207annatto 269Annona

cherimola 116glabra 116muricata 116

Antarctic beech 243Antiaris toxicaria 231apple

flowering 211pond 116star 318turkish crab 211wild 211wood 311

apricot 212, 214–215Aquilaria malaccensis 285arabica coffee 324arar tree 106Araucaria

araucana 93, 94–95bidwillii 92columnaris 92cunninghamii 96heterophylla 96hunsteinii 96

arboloco 341arborvitae 107Arbutus

menziesii 331unedo 331

Areca catechu 127Arenga pinnata 127argan 319Argania spinosa 319aromatherapy 50Artocarpus

altilis 230heterophyllus 231

ashalpine 156Crow’s 311European 328green 329flowering 329manna 329mountain 164

Ashoka, King 238Asian sweetgum 154Asimina triloba 117aspen

big-tooth 168European 172, 174–175quaking 172

aspirin 50, 51 and white willow 173

Assyrian plum 322Atlas cedar 77Australian rosewood 303Austrian pine 87Averrhoa

bilimbi 184carambola 184

avocado 121Ayurvedic medicine 301Azadirachta indica 301

Bbabaco 268bacteria, nitrifying 21Baccaurea ramiflora 177bald cypress 106, 108–109balsa 275balsam poplar 169banyan, Indian 233baobab 42, 270, 272–273bark 18, 37barren lands 34basket willow 173bastard cedar 275Bauhinia variegata 189bay laurel 121baywood 306bean

black 192tonka 199

beech American 245Antarctic 243black 243European 246Japanese 245myrtle 243

beefwood 263bella umbra 152Bertholletia excelsa 318betel palm 127Betula

alleghaniensis 258lenta 258pendula 259utilis 258

Betulus papyrifera 259Bhutan pine 91big-tooth sspen 168bilimbi 184biodiversity 61biomass 48birch

European white 259

350 I N D E X

Index

birch cont.Himalayan 258paper 259sweet 258yellow 258

bisselon 303bitter orange 309Bixa orellana 269black bean tree 192black beech 243black cottonwood 172black gin 124blackgum 313black locust 207black mulberry 241black oak 254black walnut 265black wattle 186blackbutt 161blackthorn 218blackwood 186

African 196bladdernut, European 154Bligh, Captain 289Blighia sapida 289bluegum 157Boab 270boat, wood-framed 47bodhi tree 238Bombax ceiba 269bonsai trees 53boobialla 331boojum tree 314Borassus flabellifer 130Boswellia sacra 34, 294bo-tree 238

special reverence for 43box elder 285boxwood 145Brachychiton acerifolius 270branches 19Brazil nut 318Brazilian rosewood 197Brazilian tulipwood 196breadfruit 230bristlecone pine 86, 88–89broadleaf forests

temperate 28tropical 30

Broussonetia papyrifera 232Brugmansia x candida 327Buddha 43, 238, 283bulletwood 319bunya-bunya 92Burdekin plum 299bur oak 254Bursera simaruba 295Butea monosperma 192butternut 265Buxus sempervirens 145

Ccabbage tree 126calabash tree 331calamander 316California fan palm 140California laurel 122

California nutmeg 99California redwood 103California yew 97Callophyllum inophyllum 180Calocedrus decurrens 99Calodendrum capense 308cambium 21Camellia sinensis 315camphor tree 120Cananga odorata 117Canary palm 139candelabra tree 177candlenut 177Canella winterana 113canistel 320cannonball tree 318cannonball mahogany 308canoes 40Cape chestnut 308Cape York redgum 156carbon cycle 58, 59cardboard boxes 49Caribbean pitch pine 86Carica papaya 267caring for trees 54–55carnauba wax palm 133Carnegiea gigantea 149, 150–151carob 193Carolina poplar 169Carolina silverbell 317Carpinus

betulus 260caroliniana 260

carrot tree 339Carya illinoinensis 264Caryocar nuciferum 179Caryota urens 131cashew 296cassia 119Cassia

fistula 192javanica 192

Castaneadentata 243pumila 245sativa 244

Castanospermum australe 192Casuarina equisetifolia 263catalpa, southern 331Catalpa bignonioides 331Caucasian fir 76cave paintings 41Cecropia peltata 242cedar of Lebanon 78, 80–81cedar

Atlas 77bastard 275Deodar 77eastern red 102Hiba 107incense 99Japanese 100of Lebanon 78Port Orford 99Spanish 302western red 107white see arborvitae

cedar cont.yellow 107

Cedrela odorata 302Cedrus

atlantica 77deodara 77libani 78, 80–81

Ceibapentandra 274, 276–277speciosa 271

Celtisaustralis 229occidentalis 229

Cephalotaxus harringtonia 97Ceratonia siliqua 193Cercidophyllum japonicum 153Cercis

canadensis 194siliquastrum 194

Ceroxylon alpinum 131Chamaecyparis

lawsoniana 99pisifera 99

champak 115Chanel No. 5 117Charpentiera densiflora 148cheesewood 339chengal 282cherimoya 116cherry laurel 216cherry

Cornelian 312European bird 218flowering 218Jamaican 282sour 216Surinam 164wild sweet 213winter-flowering 218Yoshino 222

cherry plum 213chestnut 244

American 243European 244Cape 308horse 289

Chilean wine palm 137chinaberry 305Chinese arborvitae 106Chinese pear 224chinkapin 245

giant 245Chios mastic 298chir pine 87Chlorocardium rodiei 118chlorophyll 19Chloroxylon swietenia 308chocolate 45, 281Christmas tree 164Chrysobalanus icaco 167Chrysolepis chrysophylla 245Chrysophyllum cainito 318Chukrasia tabularis 303Chusan palm 139cicada 208cider gum 157cigar boxes 302

351I N D E X

Cinchona calisaya 323Cinnamomum

aromaticum 119camphora 120verum 119

cinnamon 119Citharexylum spinosum 334Citrus

x aurantiifolia 310x aurantium 309x limon 310reticulata 310sinensis 309

clarinet 196classification

artificial 14botanical 14

clove 166coast coral tree 199coal 17coca 181cocaine 181Cochlospermum religiosum 269cocoa 281cocoa beans 44, 281coconut

double 137palm 132, 134–135

cocoplum 167Cocos nucifera 132Coffea

arabica 324canephora 325

coffee arabica 324robusta 325

coffee beans 45coir 132Colophospermum mopane 195Colvillea racemosa 195Colville’s glory tree 195Commiphora myrrha 295common fig 234common linden 279coniferous forests 26conifers, description 74conservation, of trees 60–61Cook pine 92coolibah 161Copernicia prunifera 133coppices, hazelnut 261coppicing 56, 57Cordia

alliodora 322myxa 322

cordials 340Cordyline

australis 126fruticosa 126

cork 51corks, bottle 255cork oak 255corkwood 300Cornelian cherry 312Cornus

kousa 312mas 312nutalli 312

Corylusavellana 261colurna 262maxima 262

Corymbia ficifolia 155Corypha umbraculifera 133cottonwood

black 172eastern 169

Couroupita guianensis 318crab apple 211

Turkish 211crack willow 22Crataegus monogyna 210crepe jasmine 326Crescentia cujete 331crops, processed 45Crow’s ash 311crybaby tree 199Cryptomeria japonica 100cucumber tree 184, 242Cupressus

macrocarpa 100empervirens 100 lusitanica 100

x Cupressocyparis leylandii 101cycads

and tree evolution 17description of 68

Cycas circinalis 69Cydonia oblonga 210Cynometra cauliflora 195cypress

bald 106Italian 100Japanese false 99Leyland 101Mexican 100Monterey 100

DDalbergia

decipularis 196melaxylon 196nigra 197

damar 284date palm 138David, Armand 313Davidia involucrata 313Davidsonia pruriens 184Davidson plum 184dawn redwood 102deforestation, rainforest 58Delonix regia 198Dendocnide excelsa 242Dendosenecio johnstonii 341Dendosicyos socotranus 242Deodar cedar 77deserts 34Dicksonia antarctica 65dicotyledons

comparison withmonocotyledons 123,

description of 141Dimocarpus longan 292Diospyros

ebenum 141, 316

Diospyros cont.kaki 317quaesita 316virginiana 317

Dipteryx odorata 199dita 325dogwood

kousa 312Pacific 312

doronoki 169double Coconut 137Douglas fir 91doum palm 137dove tree 313downy oak 250Dracaena cinnabari 126,

128–129Drake, Sir Francis 113Drimys winteri 113Dryobalanops aromatica 284durian 271Durio zibethinus 271durmast oak 250Dyera costulata 325 Dysoxylum fraserianum 303

Eearly humans 40eastern hemlock 91eastern red cedar 102eastern redbud 194eastern white pine 87ebony 141, 316Elaeis guineensis 136elder

box 285European black 340, 342–343

elderberry 339European 340, 342–343

elmAmerican 227English 228Siberian 229wych 227

elm bark beetle 228endangered tree species 61Endiandra palmerstonii 120English elm 228English oak 251environmental problems 58Eriobotrya japonica 210erosion control 59Erthroxylum coca 181Erythrina

caffra 199crista-galli 199

ethanol 48Eucalyptus

brassiana 156camaldulensis 156,

158–159deglupta 156delegatensis 156diversicolor 157globulus 157gunnii 157marginata 160

352 I N D E X

Eucalyptus cont.microcorys 161microtheca 161pauciflora 161, 162–163pilularis 161regnans 164

Eucommia ulmoides 323Eugenia uniflora 164Euphorbia

candelabrum 177ingens 177

European beech 141, 246,248–249European bird cherry 218European chestnut 244European mountain ash 224European turkey oak 247European white birch 259evolution, of trees 16

FFagus

crenata 245grandifolia 245sylvatica 246, 248–249

Falcataria moluccana 200false acacia 207false sago 69felling 57fever tree 188, 190–191fiber 51fiberboard 48Ficus

benghalensis 233benjamina 234carica 234elastica 235macrophylla 235,

236–237religiosa 238sumatrana 239sycomorus 239

fiddlewood 334field notes 36field work 36fig 234

Moreton Bay 235strangler 239sycamore 239weeping 234

filbert, giant 262fir

Caucasian 76Douglas 91grand 76Korean 76noble 77Nordmann 76silver 76

fire tree 152, 256flamboyant

yellow 204flame of the forest 192flame tree 270, 333flatspine prickly ash 311Flindersia

australis 311brayleyana 311

floss silk tree 271flowering apple 211flowering ash 329flowering cherry 218, 220–221flowering trees, description 110flowers 19

and tree reproduction 22and tree identification 37

food 40forest

beech 29birch–alder 29commercial 56coniferous 24, 26–27maintenance 57management 56–57, 60oak 29prehistoric 16southern beech 29sparse African 30temperate broadleaf 24, 28tropical broadleaf 24, 30tropical rainforest 24wildlife in Eucalyptus 31zones 24–25

fossil cycad frond 68Fouquieria columnaris 314frangipani 326frankincense 35, 294frankincense tree 154Franklin, Benjamin 316Franklin tree 316Franklinia alatamaha 316Fraxinus

excelsior 328ornus 329pennsylvanica 329

fruit 19, 37and nuts from trees 44growing commercially 44

fuel, modern wood 48

GGarcinia mangostana 180gardens, trees in 53Gandhi, Mahatma 301giant sequoia 103, 104–105giant groundsel 341giant lobelia 341gin, black 124ginkgo 68ginkgos 17, 70Ginkgo biloba 71Gleditsia triacanthos 201global warming 58Gluta renghas 296Gmelina arborea 334 golden chain 202, 292golden shower 192golden wattle 188golden weeping willow 176Gonystylus bancanus 285grand fir 76grass-tree 125gray alder 258green alder 256green ash 329

greenheart 118Grevillea robusta 142groundsel, giant 341guacimilla 226 guava 165Guazuma ulmifolia 275gum

alpine ash 156blackgum 313blackbutt 161bluegum 157Cape York redgum 156coolibah 161cider 157kamarere 156karri 157jarrah 160mountain ash 164red flowering 155river redgum 156sandarac 106snow 161sweet 154tallowwood 161

gum 51gum arabic 187gumhar 334gumbo limbo 295gutta percha 319Gymnocladus dioica 201gympie stinger 242

Hhackberry, common 229Halesia carolina 317Haloxylon persicum 148habitat conservation 61hamadryads 42–43handkerchief tree 313hardwood 46hardy rubber tree 323Harpehyllum caffrum 297hawthorn, singleseed 210hazelnut 261hazel, Turkish 262headache tree 334heartwood 21hedge maple 285hemlock

eastern 91western 91

henna 155Hevea brasiliensis 33, 178hiba 107hibiscus, Norfolk Island 275Himalayan birch 258holly, English 337holly oak 247Homo erectus 40–41Homo sapiens 41honey, from jarrah trees

160honey locust 201hop hornbeam 262Hopea odorata 282hornbeam

American 260

353I N D E X

hornbeam cont.European 260hop 262

horse chestnut 289horseradish tree 268Hovenia dulcis 225Hyphaene thebaica 137

Iiboga 326ibogaine 326identification, of trees 36Ilex

aquifolium 337paraguariensis 338

Illicium verum 112incense cedar 99incense tree 295incense

frankinscence 294myrrh 295

Indian almond 155Indian rubber tree 326Indian willow 118insecticide, natural 301International Union for the

Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 15

iroko 240ironwood 154Italian cypress 100Italian stone pine 83, 84–85

Jjacaranda 332Jacaranda mimosifolia 332 jackfruit 231jackpine 83jaggery palm 131Jamaican cherry 282Jambolan 167jam tree 282Japanese apricot 216Japanese beech 245Japanese cedar 100Japanese false cypress 99Japanese larch 79Japanese maple 286,

290–291Japanese white pine 83Japanese zelkova 229jarrah 160jelutong 325Joshua tree 127Jubaea chilensis 137Judas Iscariot 194Judas tree 194Juglans

cinerea 265nigra 265regia 266

jujube 225juniper, common 101Juniperus

communis 101virginiana 102

Kkadam 325Kaffir plum 297kaki 317kamala tree 179kamarere 156kapok 274, 276–277kapur 284karri 157katsura tree 153kauri 92

Queensland 92kempas 202Kentucky coffee tree 201kepayang 168Khaya senegalensis 303Kigelia africana 332 Kingia australis 124klinki pine 96Koelreuteria paniculata 292Koompassia

excelsa 202malaccensis 202

Korean fir 76koto, instrument 336kousa dogwood 312

LLaburnum anagyroides 202Lagunaria patersonia 275lancewood 338langsat 304Lansium domesticum 304lapacho 333larch

European 79Japanese 79

Larixdecidua 79kaempferi 79laricina 79

latex 51laurel

Alexandrian 180cherry 216

Laurus nobilis 121Lawsonia inermis 155layering 23lead tree 203Leitneria floridana 300lemon 310Leucaena leucocephala 203Leyland, C. J. 101Leyland cypress 101Limonia acidissima 311linden 310

common 279silver 280little-leaf 279

Linnaeus, Carolus (Karl vonLinné) 14, 69

Liquidambarorientalis 154styraciflua 154

Liriodendron tulipifera 115Litchi chinensis 293

Lobelia giberroa 341 locust 204lodgepole pine 86Lodoicea maldivica 137Lombardy poplar 172London planetree 144longan 292longbow 98Long Jack 148loquat 210lotus 226Lovoa trichilioides 304lychee 293

Mmacadamia 143Macadamia integrifolia 143Maclura pomifera 240madrone 321magnolia, southern 115Magnolia

champaca 115grandiflora 115

mahogany 33, 306African 303cannonball 308

Mayas 274, 281maidenhair tree 71Malaysian tree 167Mallotus philippensis 179Malus

sylvestris 211trilobata 211

Mangifera indica 297mangium 186mango 297mangosteen 180mangrove, red 181, 182–83Manilkara

bidentata 319zapota 319

manna 329manna ash 329maple

hedge 285Japanese 286, 290–291Queensland 311red 287sugar 288

maritime pine 83mastic 298maté 338medium density fiberboard 49Melaleuca quinquenervia 164Melia azedarach 305Menzies, Archibald 321mesquite, honey 206Metasequoia glyptostroboides 102Metrosideros excelsa 164Metroxylon sagu 137Mexican cypress 100Mexican pine 87midnight horror 332Millennium Seed Bank 61Milicia excelsa 240Miller, Philip 300

354 I N D E X

miraculous berry 320mobola 168money pine 79monkey puzzle 93, 94–95monocotyledons 122monsoon woodland 30Montanoa quadrangularis 341Monterey cypress 100mopane 195Morella

cerifera 256faya 256

Moreton Bay fig 235Moreton Bay pine 96Moringa oleifera 268Morus

alba 241nigra 241

mountain ash 164mountain papaya 268mulberry 241

black 241paper 232white 241

mulga 185Muntingia calabura 282Musanga cecropioides 242Myoporum acuminatum 331Myristica fragans 114myrrh 295myrtle, wax 256myrtle beech 243myths 42

Nnam-nam 195Neanderthal 41neem 301Nelson, Lord 251Neobalanocarpus heimii 282Neolamarckia cadamba 325Nephelium lappaceum 293nettle tree 229Nigerian golden walnut 304nitrogen cycle 21noble fir 77Nordmann fir 76Norfolk Island hibiscus 275Norfolk Island pine 96Norway spruce 82Nothofagus

antarctica 243cunninghamii 243solanderi 243

nuts, as food 44–45nutmeg 114

California 99Nuytsia floribunda 152Nyssa sylvatica 313

Ooak

bur 254cork 255downy 250durmast 250English 251

oak cont.holly 247pedunculate 251red 254scarlet 247sessile 250 shingle 250silk 142 turkey, European 247valonia 250white 247

obeche 280Ochroma pyramidale 275oil

aromatic 51cloveolive 330palm 136

oil palm 136Olea europaea 330olive 330ombu 152ooray 184orange

bitter 309Osage 240sweet 309

orchids 33orchid tree 189Oroxylum indicum 332 Osage orange 240Ostrya carpinifolia 262

PPachira aquatica 278Pacific dogwood 312pagoda tree 209Palaquium gutta 319palm

California fan 140Canary 139carnauba wax 133Chilean wine 137Chusan 139coconut 132date 138double coconut 137doum 137jaggery 131oil 136Palmyra 130raffia 139royal 139sago 137sugar 127talipot 133traveler’s 140wax 131

Palmyra palm 130Pandanus tectorius 124Pangium edule 168papala 148papaya 267

mountain 268paper

recycling 49handmade 48

paperbark tree 164paper birch 259papermaking 48paper mulberry 232Parinari curatellifolia 168Parkia

biglobosa 204speciosa 204

Parrotia persica 154Paulovna, Anna 336Paulownia

x taiwaniana 336tomentosa 336

pawpaw 117peach 219pear 223

Nashi 224Whitty 225willow 224

pecan 264pedunculate oak 251Pehuenche 93Peltophorum pterocarpum 204pepper tree 299Pericopsis elata 205Persea americana 121persimmon 317pest and disease control 55petai 204phloem 21Phoenix

canariensis 139dactylifera 138

photosynthesis 20Phytolacca dioica 152Picea

abies 82sitchensis 82

pineAustrian 87Bhutan 91bristlecone 86, 88–89Caribbean pitch 86chir 87Cook 92Italian stone 83jack- 83Japanese white 83klinki 96lodgepole 86maritime 83Mexican 87Moreton Bay 96Norfolk Island 96Scotch 90screw- 124Swiss stone 86umbrella 97Weymouth 87white, eastern 87

pink shower 192pink trumpet tree 333Pinus

banksiana 83caribaea 86cembra 86contorta 86

355I N D E X

Pinus cont.longaeva 86, 88–89nigra 87parviflora 83patula 87pinaster 83pinea 83, 84–85roxburghii 87strobus 87sylvestris 90wallichiana 91

pipal tree 238pistachio 298Pistacia

lentiscus 298vera 298

Pittosporumtobira 339 undulatum 339

planting, of trees 54commercial 56

plants, climbing 32Platanus

x hispanica 144occidentalis 145

Platycladus orientalis 106Pleiogynium timoriense 299Pliny the Elder 14plum yew 97plum 216

Assyrian 322Burdekin 299Davidson 184Kaffir 297

Plumeria rubra 326Podocarpus macrophyllus 97pollination 22pollution

and climatic change 58gene 61protection from air 55

Polyalthia longifolia 118pond apple 116poplar

balsam 169Canada 169Lombardy 172white 168

Populusalba 168, 170–171balsamifera 169x canadensis 169deltoides 169grandidentata 168maximowiczi 169nigra 172tremula 172, 174–175tremuloides 172trichocarpa 172

Port Orford cedar 99Pouteria

caimito 320campechiana 320sapota 320

prehistoric trees 16, 17Premna serratifolia 334 preserves, apricot 212

prickly acacia 187prickly ash, flatspine 311pride of Burma 189primitive angiosperms 112princess flower 167princess tree 336problems, of trees 55Prosopis

chilensis 205glandulosa 206

pruning 55Prunus

africana 212armeniaca 212,

214–215avium 213cerasifera 213cerasus 216x domestica 216dulcis 141, 217laurocerasus 216mume 216padus 218persica 219serrulata 218, 220–221spinosa 218subhirtella 218x yedoensis 222

Pseudopanax crassifolius 338Pseudotsuga menziesii 91Psidium guajava 165Pterocarpus

indicus 207santalinus 207

Pterocarya fraxinifolia 266Pyrus

communis 223pyrifolia 224salicifolia 224

pulp 48–49

Qquaking aspen 172Quillaja saponaria 184Queen of Sheba 298Queensland kauri 92Queensland maple 311Queensland walnut 120Quercus

alba 247cerris 247coccinea 247ilex 247imbricaria 250macrocarpa 254macrolepis 250petraea 250, 252–253pubescens 250robur 251rubra 254suber 255velutina 254

quillai 184quince 210quinine 323quinine 50, 323quiver tree 125

Rraffia palm 139rain tree 208rainforest

South American 32subtropical 30tropical 24, 32

rainbow shower 192raisin tree 225rambai 177rambutan 293ramin 285Raphia farinifera 139Rauvolfia serpentina 326 Ravenala madagascariensis 140red cedar, eastern 102red mangrove 181, 182–183red maple 287red oak 254red sandalwood 207red stinkwood 212redbud, eastern 194red flowering gum 155redwood

Californian 103dawn 102giant sequoia 103

rengas 296reproduction, in trees 22resin 51Rhizophora mangle 181, 182–183rhododendron 322Rhododendron arboreum 322river redgum 156, 158–159Robin Hood 251Robinia pseudoacacia 207robusta coffee 325roots 18rosewood

Australian 303Brazilian 197

royal palm 139royal poinciana 198Roystonea regia 139rubber 33, 178rubber plant 235rubber tree 33, 178

hardy 323Indian 326

Ssago palm 137saguaro 149, 150–151sal 283Salix

alba 173babylonica 173fragilis 23purpurea 173x sepulcralis 176

Samanea saman 208Sambucus

canadensis 339 nigra 340, 342–343

sandalwood 153red 207

356 I N D E X

sandarac gum 106Sandoricum koetjape 304Santalum album 153santol 304sapodilla 319sapote 320Sassafras albidum 122sassafras 122satinwood 308sau 200sausage tree 332saxaul 148scarlet oak 247Sequoyah 103sessile oak 250, 251–252Schefflera actinophylla 338 Schinus molle 299Sciadopitys verticillata 97Scotch pine 90Scottish crossbill 90screwpine 124seed banks 61seed dispersal 23seed trees 66Sequoiadendron giganteum 103Sequoia sempervirens 103serpentine root 326shaman’s drum 43shaving-brush tree 278shelter 40shelterbelts 59shingle oak 250shittim 188Shorea

albida 284javanica 284robusta 283

showerpink 192rainbow 192golden 192

Siberian elm 229Sichuan pepper 312silk tree 189

floss 271silk-cotton tree 269silk oak 142silver fir 76silver linden 280silver wattle 185simul 269Sitka spruce 82snowbell 318snow gum 161, 162–163soapbark tree 184Socotra dragon tree 126,

128–129softwood 46soil

salinity 35stabilization 58

Solanum betaceum 327Solomon, King 298Sophora japonica 209Sorbus

aria 224aucuparia 224

Sorbus cont.domestica 225

torminalis 225souari nut 179soumbala 204sour cherry 216soursop 116southern catalpa 331southern magnolia 115Spanish cedar 302Spanish elm 322Spathodea nilotica 333Species Plantarum 14spices 114, 166spirits 42Spondias dulcis 299spore trees 64 spruce

Norway 82Sitka 82

Staphylea pinnata 154star anise 112star apple 318starfruit tree 184Steganotaenia araliacea 339stinkwood, red 212strangler fig 239strawberry-tree 321structure, of trees 18Styrax officinalis 318suckering 23sugar maple 288sugar palm 127Surinam cherry 164sweet acacia 185sweet birch 258sweet cherry 213sweetgum 154Swietenia

macrophylla 306mahagoni 306

Swiss stone pine 86sycamore 145sycamore fig 239sycamore maple 287Sydney golden wattle 186Sykes, Godfrey 314Synsepalum dulcificum 320syrup

maple 288palm 130

Syzygiumaromaticum 166cumini 167malaccense 167

TTabebuia

chrysantha 333 impetiginosa 333 serratifolia 333

Tabernaemontana divaricata 326Tabernanthe iboga 326talipot palm 133tallowwood 161tamarack 79

tamarind 209Tamarindus indica 209tangerine 310tannin 51tapa cloth 232Tasmanian fern 65Taxodium distichum 106Taxus

baccata 98brevifolia 97

tea 315maté 338

teak 33, 335African 240

temperate broadleaf forest 28

thinning 57Tectona grandis 335 Terminalia catappa 155Tetraclinis articulata 106Theobroma cacao 281Theophrastus 14thingwa 282Thuja

occidentalis 107plicata 107

Thujopsis dolobrata 107ti plant 126Tibouchina urvilleana 167Tilia

americana 278cordata 279x europaea 279tomentosa 280

tobira 339tonka bean 199toon 307Toona ciliata 307Torreya californica 99tourist tree 295Trachycarpus fortunei 139transpiration 21Tradescant, John 144traveler’s palm 140tree aloe 126tree euphorbia 177tree ferns 17tree migration 17tree of heaven 300tree-tomato 327Trema micrantha 226Triplaris weigeltiana 148Triplochiton scleroxylon 280tropical

broadleaf forest 30rainforest 32

trumpet tree 242pink 333yellow 333

trunk 18Tsuga

canadensis 91heterophylla 91

tualang 202tuliptree 115tulipwood, Brazilian 196tung 179

357I N D E X

Turkish crab apple 211Turkish hazel 262turpentine 51

UUlmus

americana 227glabra 227procera 228pumila 229

Umbellularia californica 122umbrella pine 97umbrella tree 242, 338upas tree 231urban environment, trees in 53

VValonia oak 250varnish 51Vasconcellea x heilbornii 268Vernicia fordii 179von Linné, Karl see Linnaeus,

Carolus

WWallich, Nathaniel 189walnut

English 266black 265Nigerian golden 304Queensland 120

washi paper-making 232Washingtonia filifera 140wattle

black 186golden 188silver 185Sydney golden 186

wax 133

wax myrtle 256wax palm 131weapons 41weeping fig 234weeping willow 173, 176western hemlock 91western red dedar 107white mulberry 241white oak 247white poplar 168, 170–171white willow 173whitebeam 224Whitty pear 225Wigandia caracasana 322wigandia 322wild apple 211wild cinnamon 113wild service tree 225willow pear 224willow

basket 173golden weeping 176Indian 118purple osier 173weeping 173white 173

wind, protection from 59wine, elder 340wingnut 266Winter, William 113winter-flowering cherry 218Winter’s bark 113wood

for fire 40products 48pulp 48–49types 46uses 46–47

wood apple 311wood-framed

boat 47house 47

woodland, monsoon 30wych elm 227

XXanthocyparis

nootkatensis 107xanthophloea 188

Xanthorrhoea australis 125xylem 21Xylocarpus granatum 308

Yyellow birch 258yellow cedar 107yellow flamboyant 204yellow poui 333yellow trumpet tree 333yew

in churchyards 42California 97English 98plum 97

yew plum pine 97yinma 303ylang-ylang 117Yoshimune Tokugawa 222Yoshino cherry 222Yucca brevifolia 127Yggdrasil 42

ZZanthoxylum

piperitum 312simulans 311

Zelkova serrata 229Ziziphus

jujuba 225

358 I N D E X

359A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

AcknowledgmentsDORLING KINDERSLEY would like to thank thefollowing: David Burnie and Sabina Knees forreviewing the text; Steve Parker and PhilWilkinson for supplying additional text; MiezanVan Zyl for administrative and proofreadingassistance; Corrine Manches for administrativehelp.

PICTURE CREDITS

Picture librarians: Richard Dabb; LucyClaxton. Picture researchers: Neil Fletcher, Will Jones,David Penrose, Jo Walton.

Abbreviations key: a = above, b = bottom, c = center, f = far, l = left, t = top, r = right.

Dorling Kindersley would like to thank thefollowing for permission to reproduce copyrightmaterial:

Akg-images: 42tr. Alamy: AGStockUSA, Inc: 44–45. Apex Newsand Pictures Agency: 60b. ArchivberlinFotoagentur GmbH: 50b. Peter Arnold Inc:182–183. Bildagentur-online.com/th-foto: 36tr.Brand X Pictures: 78tr. CuboImages srl: 36c. SueCunningham Photographic: 32c. Andrew Fox:286t. ImageState: 12. Inmagine: 45tl. Mike Lane:144tr. Luis C. Marigo: 182–183. Jamie Marshall:181bl. Renee Morris: 25tr. The National TrustPhotolibrary: 342–343. Ron Niebrugge: 123l.Donald Pye: 21bl. Jeremy Samson: 270tr. NickServian: 309b. Frantisek Staud: 53tr. Dr M. Balick: 226br. Belpress.com: Photofruit: 304bl. Paul Bolsted: 187tc, clb; 333cra. Kenneth L. Bowles: 314clb. Dr Gerald D. Carr: 86br; 92cra; 107br; 122cb;137br; 148cra, cla, clb, bl; 152tr; 155cra; 164cra;167cla; 180cra, cla; 181cla; 189cfr; 192bl; 195cra;198clb; 203cfr; 207cla, cra; 208cla; 209bl, br;230tr, cfr; 263cla; 269tr; 274tc; 275bl, br, cra, cla;289br, bl; 306cfr, bl, crb, br; 307cfl, tr; 315cla;318clb, bl; 320bl; 326crb; 327c; 332cfl; 333cla, cfl;335crb; 338br. Geoffrey Carr: 173bl. William M. Ciesla: 187cfr. Bruce Coleman Collection: Tore Hagman:4–5. Clemson University: 264tcr.Constructionphotography.com/Mediacolors.

com: 47br. Charles W. Cook: 245cla. Corbis: 25tl; 45tr; 104–105; 176tr. ArchivoIconografico SA: 41t. Yann Arthus-Bertrand:

272–273. Craig Aurness: 19c; 123r. David Ball:52br. Tom Bean: 2; 3. Gary Braasch: 57b.Richard A. Cooke: 64bl. Terry W. Eggers: 28–29.Michael Freeman: 38–39. Darrell Gulin: 74cr; 97;111. Lindsay Hebberd: 43b. Robert Holmes: 236-237. Karen Huntt: 52tl. George H.H. Huey: 41br.Peter Johnson: 31cra. Wolfgang Kaehler: 70c; 70t.Layne Kennedy: 7. Frank Lane Picture Agency:67b. 149t. Wayne Lawler/Ecoscene: 158–159.George D. Lepp: 150–151. Joe Macdonald:190–191. John McAnulty: 290–291. Gunter MarxPhotography: 27tr; David Muench: 10, 88–89,132b, 264b. Charles O’Rear: 84–85. DouglasPeebles: 33tr, 134–135; 198b. Clay Perry: 65br.Reuters: 45crb. Reuters/Sukree Sukplang: 136cr.David Samuel Robbins: 40b. Hans Georg Roth:47cfr. M.L. Sinibaldi: 174–175, 220–221. Paul A.Souders: 27tl. Alan Towse/Ecoscene: 49cfr. VanniArchive: 309tr. Ron Watts: 49br. Nevada Wier:130bl. Roger Wilmshurst/Frank Lane PictureAgency: 337b. Doug Wilson: 141b. Michael S.Yamashita: 46–47. Ed Young: 219b. Jean Delacre: 226tr, c. M. Fagg, Australian National Botanic

Gardens: 311cfl. Olivier Filippi: 106bcr; 298br; 319tl. Flora Fauna International: Evan Bowen Jones:205tr. FLPA: Tim Fitzharris: 108–109. Frans Lanting:32b, 49t. Minden Pictures/Michael & PatriciaFogden: 15bc; 16cl, tl, tr, cl; 17tl, tr. MindenPictures/Martin Withers: 67br. Tui de Roy: 94–95.Roger Wilmhurst: 19tc. Forestry Department, Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations: SusanBraatz: 58ca. Roberto Faidutti: 303cla, cal.Christel Palmberg Lerche: 303tr. J.B. Friday: 153tl; 200tc, cr, cfr, bl; 293cla. Garden Picture Library: Pernilla Bergdhal: 2.Jacqui Hurst: 80–81. Getty Images: Jens Schlueter: 26bc. Chris Gibson: 173br; 310clb; 318cla; 327cra. Paul Gullan: 161cfl; 188cla, tr. Nigel Hicks: 178cb, tr; 274clb; 315bc; 324cb. Josh Hillman/Florida Nature: 179clb, crb. Holt Studios: Nick Spurling: 56b. Dr. A. Jagel, Ruhr-Universität Bochum:

106br. Henriette Kress: 107bl; 112bl; 212cra; 212bl;338tl, cla. Rolf Kyburz/Kplams.com: 130cfl, clb. Paul Latham: 116cla; 180br; 204cla; 231cla;240bl; 242bl; 268cbr, cra; 293crb; 304cfr; 310bl;325cla; 341cfl. Amanda Mason: 331br. Archie Miles: 250b. National Geographic: Lynn Abercrombie:

360 A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

295bl. Walter Meayers Edwards: 75. Darlyne A.Murawski: 66. National Parks Board, Singapore: 86cra;114cra, bl; 118crb; 166cfl, tr; 180bl; 192cla;195br; 202bl, tr; 242cla; 268bl; 269bl; 278cla; cra;282cfl, tr, cra, crb; 303br; 306cra, cal; 318br;320br; 325bl; 335cfl. Natural History Museum: Dr G.S. Robinson:284tc. Natural Visions: Heather Angel: 22bl; 113bl;137bl; 202br; 204cra; 219cr. 232cra; 278cfr; 283bl,br; 302tc; 316tr, c; 318car, cra.Nature Picture Library: Juan Manuel Borrero:217tl. Hanne & Jens Eriksen: 294cfr, bl. MarthaHolmes: 23crb. Jose B. Ruiz: 319cra. Neil Fletcher: 185clb; 257bl. NHPA: George Bernard: 57t. Simon Booth: 28cfr.Simon Colmer: 15br. Nigel J. Dennis: 125bl.Khalid Ghani: 33cla. Martin Harvey: 42b. DanielHeuclin: 136b. Ernie Janes: 228b; 248–249; 255b.Matt Johnston: 138cl. Mike Lane: 294tr. HaroldPalo Jr: 281b. Tim Scoones: 35br. John Shaw: 1;20cr; 288br.Dave Osbourne: www.walkgps.com: 160b. Alan Outen: 122bl; 126cfl; 177br; 224cla; 281cfl;308clb; 317br; 332cfr; 339bl. Oxford Scientific: Peter Adams: 62–63. KathieAtkinson: 231br. Deni Bown: 199tr; 284bl; 299br.Prof. Jack Dermid: 206crb. Michael Fogden: 295tr.Mike Powels: 40c.Jerry A. Paine: 264cal. Photolibrary.com/Oxford Scientific: 116bl;148br. Christian Puff: 325cra. Gordon Ridgewell: 146–147. Rik Schuiling: 292cla, cra. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew/Photo: AndrewMcRobb: 61br. Royal Saskatchewan Museum: 23bcl. José Manuel Sánchez de Lorenzo Cáceres:

205bl; 297tr.A.D. Schilling: 96tl; 164br; 233cra; 283car;310br; 322cla.Science Photo Library: Diccon Alexander:126br, 128–129, 276–277. David Aubrey:252–253. Pallava Bagla: 253b; 301b. AndreaBalogh: 68l. Alex Bartel: 193b. Darryl T. Branch:70b. Robert Brook: 56t. Dr Jeremy Burgess: 15bl.

Peter Etchells: 132tc. Eye of Science: 20bl.Vaughan Fleming: 64br. Simon Fraser: 43cra; 67tr;170–171; 206t. Bob Gibbons: 136tr. Adam Hart-Davis: 330b. David Henderson: 217b. K. Jayaram:198t. Matt Johnston: 138cfl. Andrew LambertPhotography: 48cfl. Martin Land: 68r. MichaelMarten: 246b. Susumu Nishinaga: 214–215.Claude Nuridsany & Marie Perennou: 21cr. BjornSvensson: 61t. Steve Taylor: 72. Thomas Schoepke: 119bc; 296cla, car. Shu Suehiro: 314cfl. Soraya Sierra: 179tr. J. Dan Skean Jr: 113cra; 116clb, br; 293tr. Forest & Kim Starr (USGS): 92br; 142cla, cb;155ca; 164bl, bcl; 167cra, bl, br; 185br; 186cra;198crb; 200bl; 203tr, cla, cb; 204bc; 208cb;230cla, bl; 232bl; 233cl, bl; 234cla, cfr; 235br;256tl, car, bl, bcl; 263cfr, cb; 299cfr; 302tcl;304bcr, br; 307clb, cbr; 319br; 323clb, br; 334clb;335tr. Geoff Stein: 97cfl; 118cla; 120cra, cfl; 131bl;133cra, cla, bl, bcr; 138br; 139cra; 140bl; 149bl;177bl; 184cfl; 189bl; 199clb, bl; 206br; 235cla, cra;238cb; 239car; 269br; 270br; 299cfl; 308crb;314cr. Still Pictures: Mark Edwards: 58br; 59br. PeterFrischmuth: 44cl. Mike Thiv: 61cfr, 242br. Top Tropicals/www.toptropicals.com:

Tatiana Anderson: 271tr, c. Marina Rybka: 69bc. Alan Watson: 65tc; 96bl; 124cla, bl; 127tr; 130cr;140cal, cfl, cra; 152bl, br; 155br; 156bl; 157br, cla,cal; 160car; 164cla; 178cfl; 181ca; 185cra; 188bl;195cla; 227bc; 239cla, br; 243cla; 270bl; 274br;275crb; 295cl; 296bl, bc; 308cla, tr; 338bl; 339cla. Alan Watson/Forest Light: 90bc; 120br. Paul Wray: 168cbr; 172bl; 201cfr; 240cra; 243br;254cal; 260bl; 265cra; 278br; 288tc, tcr. Kazuo Yamasaki: 245bl. DK Images: Peter Anderson: Courtesy of theRoskilde Viking Ships Museum, Denmark: 251br.Judith Miller/Lyon and Turnbull Ltd: 142cr.Hamptons: 197tr. Freeman’s: 328br. Windsor andNewton: 186bl.

Other photographs provided by: ChrisGibson, Neil Fletcher, A.D. Schilling, HeinzSchneider, Jens Schou, Justyn Willsmore.