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Mahesh Kumar JatMahesh Kumar JatDepartment of Civil EngineeringDepartment of Civil Engineering
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, JaipurJaipur
Mahesh Kumar JatMahesh Kumar JatDepartment of Civil EngineeringDepartment of Civil Engineering
Malaviya National Institute of Technology, Malaviya National Institute of Technology, JaipurJaipur
Remote Sensing and Remote Sensing and Digital Image ProcessingDigital Image Processing
Remote Sensing and Remote Sensing and Digital Image ProcessingDigital Image Processing
The goal of science is to discover universal truths that The goal of science is to discover universal truths that are the same yesterday, today, and tomorrow. are the same yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Hopefully, the knowledge obtained can be used to Hopefully, the knowledge obtained can be used to protect the environment and improve human quality of protect the environment and improve human quality of life. To identify these universal truths, scientists life. To identify these universal truths, scientists observe and make measurements about:observe and make measurements about:
The goal of science is to discover universal truths that The goal of science is to discover universal truths that are the same yesterday, today, and tomorrow. are the same yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Hopefully, the knowledge obtained can be used to Hopefully, the knowledge obtained can be used to protect the environment and improve human quality of protect the environment and improve human quality of life. To identify these universal truths, scientists life. To identify these universal truths, scientists observe and make measurements about:observe and make measurements about:
• the physical world (e.g., the atmosphere, water, soil, rock),the physical world (e.g., the atmosphere, water, soil, rock),• its living inhabitants (e.g.,its living inhabitants (e.g., Homo sapiens Homo sapiens, flora, fauna), and, flora, fauna), and• the processes at work (e.g., erosion, deforestation, urban the processes at work (e.g., erosion, deforestation, urban
sprawl).sprawl).
• the physical world (e.g., the atmosphere, water, soil, rock),the physical world (e.g., the atmosphere, water, soil, rock),• its living inhabitants (e.g.,its living inhabitants (e.g., Homo sapiens Homo sapiens, flora, fauna), and, flora, fauna), and• the processes at work (e.g., erosion, deforestation, urban the processes at work (e.g., erosion, deforestation, urban
sprawl).sprawl).
Goal of ScienceGoal of ScienceGoal of ScienceGoal of Science
Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to
accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion. accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion.
The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may
be collected directly in the field, often referred to as be collected directly in the field, often referred to as inin
situsitu or or in-place in-place data collection. This can be a time-data collection. This can be a time-
consuming, expensive, and inaccurate process. consuming, expensive, and inaccurate process.
(Jensen, 2004)(Jensen, 2004)
Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to Scientists formulate hypotheses and then attempt to
accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion. accept or reject them in a systematic, unbiased fashion.
The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may The data necessary to accept or reject a hypothesis may
be collected directly in the field, often referred to as be collected directly in the field, often referred to as inin
situsitu or or in-place in-place data collection. This can be a time-data collection. This can be a time-
consuming, expensive, and inaccurate process. consuming, expensive, and inaccurate process.
(Jensen, 2004)(Jensen, 2004)
In SituIn Situ Data Collection Data CollectionIn SituIn Situ Data Collection Data Collection
Scientists can collect data in the field using biased Scientists can collect data in the field using biased procedures often referred to as procedures often referred to as method-produced errormethod-produced error. . Such error can be introduced by: Such error can be introduced by:
Scientists can collect data in the field using biased Scientists can collect data in the field using biased procedures often referred to as procedures often referred to as method-produced errormethod-produced error. . Such error can be introduced by: Such error can be introduced by:
Problems Associated withProblems Associated with In Situ In Situ Data Collection Data CollectionProblems Associated withProblems Associated with In Situ In Situ Data Collection Data Collection
• sampling designsampling design does not capture the spatial does not capture the spatial variability of the phenomena under investigation variability of the phenomena under investigation (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are oversampled while others are undersampled); oversampled while others are undersampled);
• improper operation improper operation of of in situ in situ measurement measurement instruments; orinstruments; or
• uncalibrated uncalibrated in situ in situ measurement instrumentsmeasurement instruments..
• sampling designsampling design does not capture the spatial does not capture the spatial variability of the phenomena under investigation variability of the phenomena under investigation (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are (i.e., some phenomena or geographic areas are oversampled while others are undersampled); oversampled while others are undersampled);
• improper operation improper operation of of in situ in situ measurement measurement instruments; orinstruments; or
• uncalibrated uncalibrated in situ in situ measurement instrumentsmeasurement instruments..
In situ spectroradiometer measurement of soybeans
In situ spectroradiometer measurement of soybeans
In situ ceptometer leaf-area-index (LAI) measurement
In situ ceptometer leaf-area-index (LAI) measurement
In situ MeasurementIn Support of Remote Sensing Measurement
In situ MeasurementIn Support of Remote Sensing Measurement
It is a misnomer to refer to It is a misnomer to refer to in situin situ data as data as ground truth ground truth
datadata. Instead, we should refer to it simply as . Instead, we should refer to it simply as in situin situ
ground reference dataground reference data, and acknowledge that it also , and acknowledge that it also
contains error.contains error.
It is a misnomer to refer to It is a misnomer to refer to in situin situ data as data as ground truth ground truth
datadata. Instead, we should refer to it simply as . Instead, we should refer to it simply as in situin situ
ground reference dataground reference data, and acknowledge that it also , and acknowledge that it also
contains error.contains error.
Ground Reference InformationGround Reference InformationGround Reference InformationGround Reference Information
ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of photogrammetry photogrammetry andand remote sensing remote sensing as (Colwell, as (Colwell, 1997):1997):
““the art, science, and technology of obtaining the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of the environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns and digital representations of energy patterns derived from noncontact sensor systems”.derived from noncontact sensor systems”.
ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of ASPRS adopted a combined formal definition of photogrammetry photogrammetry andand remote sensing remote sensing as (Colwell, as (Colwell, 1997):1997):
““the art, science, and technology of obtaining the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of the environment, through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting imagery recording, measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns and digital representations of energy patterns derived from noncontact sensor systems”.derived from noncontact sensor systems”.
Jensen, 2004Jensen, 2004
Remote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data Collection
A remote sensing instrument
collects information about an
object or phenomenon within the
instantaneous-field-of-view
(IFOV) of the sensor system
without being in direct physical
contact with it. The sensor is
located on a suborbital
or satellite platform.
A remote sensing instrument
collects information about an
object or phenomenon within the
instantaneous-field-of-view
(IFOV) of the sensor system
without being in direct physical
contact with it. The sensor is
located on a suborbital
or satellite platform.
Is Remote Sensing a Science?Is Remote Sensing a Science?
A A sciencescience is defined as the broad field of human knowledge is defined as the broad field of human knowledge concerned with facts held together by concerned with facts held together by principlesprinciples (rules). (rules). Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the scientific method, an orderly system of solving problems. scientific method, an orderly system of solving problems. Scientists generally feel that any subject that humans can Scientists generally feel that any subject that humans can study by using the scientific method and other special rules study by using the scientific method and other special rules of thinking may be called a science. The sciences include -of thinking may be called a science. The sciences include -
1)1) mathematicsmathematics andand logiclogic, , 2)2) the the physical sciencesphysical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, , such as physics and chemistry, 3)3) the the biological sciencesbiological sciences, such as botany and zoology, and , such as botany and zoology, and 4)4) the the social sciencessocial sciences, such as geography, sociology, and , such as geography, sociology, and
anthropology.anthropology.
Is Remote Sensing a Science?Is Remote Sensing a Science?
A A sciencescience is defined as the broad field of human knowledge is defined as the broad field of human knowledge concerned with facts held together by concerned with facts held together by principlesprinciples (rules). (rules). Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the Scientists discover and test facts and principles by the scientific method, an orderly system of solving problems. scientific method, an orderly system of solving problems. Scientists generally feel that any subject that humans can Scientists generally feel that any subject that humans can study by using the scientific method and other special rules study by using the scientific method and other special rules of thinking may be called a science. The sciences include -of thinking may be called a science. The sciences include -
1)1) mathematicsmathematics andand logiclogic, , 2)2) the the physical sciencesphysical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, , such as physics and chemistry, 3)3) the the biological sciencesbiological sciences, such as botany and zoology, and , such as botany and zoology, and 4)4) the the social sciencessocial sciences, such as geography, sociology, and , such as geography, sociology, and
anthropology.anthropology.
Observations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote Sensing
Remote sensingRemote sensing is a tool or technique similar to is a tool or technique similar to mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or geographic area from a distance and then extracting geographic area from a distance and then extracting valuable information from the data using valuable information from the data using mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a scientificscientific activity. It functions in harmony with other activity. It functions in harmony with other spatialspatial data-collection techniques or tools of the data-collection techniques or tools of the mapping sciencesmapping sciences, including cartography and , including cartography and geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001). geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001).
Remote sensingRemote sensing is a tool or technique similar to is a tool or technique similar to mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of mathematics. Using sensors to measure the amount of electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or electromagnetic radiation (EMR) exiting an object or geographic area from a distance and then extracting geographic area from a distance and then extracting valuable information from the data using valuable information from the data using mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a mathematically and statistically based algorithms is a scientificscientific activity. It functions in harmony with other activity. It functions in harmony with other spatialspatial data-collection techniques or tools of the data-collection techniques or tools of the mapping sciencesmapping sciences, including cartography and , including cartography and geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001). geographic information systems (GIS) (Clarke, 2001).
Observations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote Sensing
Is Remote Sensing an Art?Is Remote Sensing an Art?
Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific knowledge but all of the knowledge but all of the experienceexperience that a person has obtained that a person has obtained in a lifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge in a lifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, remote sensing image interpretation is both an remote sensing image interpretation is both an artart and a and a sciencescience..
Is Remote Sensing an Art?Is Remote Sensing an Art?
Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific Visual image interpretation brings to bear not only scientific knowledge but all of the knowledge but all of the experienceexperience that a person has obtained that a person has obtained in a lifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge in a lifetime. The synergism of combining scientific knowledge with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to with real-world analyst experience allows the interpreter to develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the develop heuristic rules of thumb to extract information from the imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image imagery. Some image analysts are superior to other image analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles analysts because they 1) understand the scientific principles better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many better, 2) are more widely traveled and have seen many landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the landscape objects and geographic areas, and/or 3) have the ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world ability to synthesize scientific principles and real-world knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, knowledge to reach logical and correct conclusions. Thus, remote sensing image interpretation is both an remote sensing image interpretation is both an artart and a and a sciencescience..
Observations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote Sensing
Information about an Object or AreaInformation about an Object or Area
Sensors can be used to obtain specific information Sensors can be used to obtain specific information about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or geographic area is used as a geographic area is used as a surrogatesurrogate for the actual for the actual property under investigation. The electromagnetic property under investigation. The electromagnetic energy measurements must be calibrated and turned energy measurements must be calibrated and turned into information using visual and/or digital image into information using visual and/or digital image processing techniques.processing techniques.
Information about an Object or AreaInformation about an Object or Area
Sensors can be used to obtain specific information Sensors can be used to obtain specific information about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree about an object (e.g., the diameter of a cottonwood tree crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon crown) or the geographic extent of a phenomenon (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR (e.g., the boundary of a cottonwood stand). The EMR reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or reflected, emitted, or back-scattered from an object or geographic area is used as a geographic area is used as a surrogatesurrogate for the actual for the actual property under investigation. The electromagnetic property under investigation. The electromagnetic energy measurements must be calibrated and turned energy measurements must be calibrated and turned into information using visual and/or digital image into information using visual and/or digital image processing techniques.processing techniques.
Observations About Remote SensingObservations About Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing is Remote sensing is unobtrusiveunobtrusive if the sensor if the sensor passivelypassively records records the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest. the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest.
• Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data systematically. This systematic data collection systematically. This systematic data collection can remove the can remove the sampling biassampling bias introduced in some introduced in some in situin situ investigations. investigations.
• Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide fundamental fundamental biophysical informationbiophysical information, including , including x,yx,y location, location, z z elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content.elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content.
• Repetitive information about an object/phenomenon Repetitive information about an object/phenomenon
• Information for the inaccessible areasInformation for the inaccessible areas
• Assessment and monitoring of natural disasters, like flood, Assessment and monitoring of natural disasters, like flood, earthquake, tsunamiearthquake, tsunami
• Remote sensing is Remote sensing is unobtrusiveunobtrusive if the sensor if the sensor passivelypassively records records the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest. the EMR reflected or emitted by the object of interest.
• Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data Remote sensing devices may be programmed to collect data systematically. This systematic data collection systematically. This systematic data collection can remove the can remove the sampling biassampling bias introduced in some introduced in some in situin situ investigations. investigations.
• Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide Under controlled conditions, remote sensing can provide fundamental fundamental biophysical informationbiophysical information, including , including x,yx,y location, location, z z elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content.elevation or depth, biomass, temperature, and moisture content.
• Repetitive information about an object/phenomenon Repetitive information about an object/phenomenon
• Information for the inaccessible areasInformation for the inaccessible areas
• Assessment and monitoring of natural disasters, like flood, Assessment and monitoring of natural disasters, like flood, earthquake, tsunamiearthquake, tsunami
Advantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote Sensing
• Remote sensing–derived information is now critical Remote sensing–derived information is now critical
to the successful modeling of numerous to the successful modeling of numerous naturalnatural (e.g., (e.g.,
water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies; water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies;
nonpoint source pollution) and nonpoint source pollution) and culturalcultural (e.g., land-use (e.g., land-use
conversion at the urban fringe; water-demand conversion at the urban fringe; water-demand
estimation; population estimation) estimation; population estimation) processesprocesses (Walsh et (Walsh et
al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003). al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003).
• Remote sensing–derived information is now critical Remote sensing–derived information is now critical
to the successful modeling of numerous to the successful modeling of numerous naturalnatural (e.g., (e.g.,
water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies; water-supply estimation; eutrophication studies;
nonpoint source pollution) and nonpoint source pollution) and culturalcultural (e.g., land-use (e.g., land-use
conversion at the urban fringe; water-demand conversion at the urban fringe; water-demand
estimation; population estimation) estimation; population estimation) processesprocesses (Walsh et (Walsh et
al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003). al., 1999; Stow et al., 2003).
Advantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote SensingAdvantages of Remote Sensing
• The greatest limitation is that it is often The greatest limitation is that it is often oversoldoversold. . Remote Remote sensing is not a panaceasensing is not a panacea that provides all the information that provides all the information needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal informationinformation of value in a manner that we hope is efficient and of value in a manner that we hope is efficient and economical.economical.
• Human beingsHuman beings select the appropriate remote sensing system to select the appropriate remote sensing system to collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and specify how the data are processed. specify how the data are processed.
•Human method-produced errorHuman method-produced error may be introduced as the may be introduced as the remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified.remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified.
• The greatest limitation is that it is often The greatest limitation is that it is often oversoldoversold. . Remote Remote sensing is not a panaceasensing is not a panacea that provides all the information that provides all the information needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science needed to conduct physical, biological, or social science research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal research. It provides some spatial, spectral, and temporal informationinformation of value in a manner that we hope is efficient and of value in a manner that we hope is efficient and economical.economical.
• Human beingsHuman beings select the appropriate remote sensing system to select the appropriate remote sensing system to collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote collect the data, specify the various resolutions of the remote sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will sensor data, calibrate the sensor, select the platform that will carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and carry the sensor, determine when the data will be collected, and specify how the data are processed. specify how the data are processed.
•Human method-produced errorHuman method-produced error may be introduced as the may be introduced as the remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified.remote sensing instrument and mission parameters are specified.
Limitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote Sensing
• Powerful Powerful activeactive remote sensor systems that emit their own remote sensor systems that emit their own
electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can
be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated. be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.
Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these
active sensors can be. active sensors can be.
• Remote sensing instruments may become Remote sensing instruments may become uncalibrateduncalibrated, ,
resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data. resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data.
• Remote sensor data may be Remote sensor data may be expensive to collect and analyzeexpensive to collect and analyze. .
Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor
data justifies the expense.data justifies the expense.
• Powerful Powerful activeactive remote sensor systems that emit their own remote sensor systems that emit their own
electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can electromagnetic radiation (e.g., LIDAR, RADAR, SONAR) can
be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated. be intrusive and affect the phenomenon being investigated.
Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these Additional research is required to determine how intrusive these
active sensors can be. active sensors can be.
• Remote sensing instruments may become Remote sensing instruments may become uncalibrateduncalibrated, ,
resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data. resulting in uncalibrated remote sensor data.
• Remote sensor data may be Remote sensor data may be expensive to collect and analyzeexpensive to collect and analyze. .
Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor Hopefully, the information extracted from the remote sensor
data justifies the expense.data justifies the expense.
Limitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote SensingLimitations of Remote Sensing
The remote sensing The remote sensing data-collectiondata-collection and and analysisanalysis
proceduresprocedures used for Earth resource applications are used for Earth resource applications are
often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to
as the as the remote sensing processremote sensing process. .
The remote sensing The remote sensing data-collectiondata-collection and and analysisanalysis
proceduresprocedures used for Earth resource applications are used for Earth resource applications are
often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to often implemented in a systematic fashion referred to
as the as the remote sensing processremote sensing process. .
The Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing Process
Jensen, 2004Jensen, 2004
• The hypothesis to be tested is defined using a specific type of The hypothesis to be tested is defined using a specific type of
logiclogic (e.g., (e.g., inductiveinductive, , deductivedeductive) and an appropriate processing ) and an appropriate processing
modelmodel (e.g., (e.g., deterministicdeterministic, , stochasticstochastic).).
• In situIn situ and collateral data necessary to and collateral data necessary to calibrate the remote calibrate the remote
sensor datasensor data and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and
thematic characteristics are collected. thematic characteristics are collected.
• Remote sensor data are collected passively or activelyRemote sensor data are collected passively or actively using using
analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same
time as the time as the in situin situ data. data.
• The hypothesis to be tested is defined using a specific type of The hypothesis to be tested is defined using a specific type of
logiclogic (e.g., (e.g., inductiveinductive, , deductivedeductive) and an appropriate processing ) and an appropriate processing
modelmodel (e.g., (e.g., deterministicdeterministic, , stochasticstochastic).).
• In situIn situ and collateral data necessary to and collateral data necessary to calibrate the remote calibrate the remote
sensor datasensor data and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and and/or judge its geometric, radiometric, and
thematic characteristics are collected. thematic characteristics are collected.
• Remote sensor data are collected passively or activelyRemote sensor data are collected passively or actively using using
analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same analog or digital remote sensing instruments, ideally at the same
time as the time as the in situin situ data. data.
The Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing Process
A Taxonomy of Models used in Remote Sensing, GIS, and Environmental
Science Research
A Taxonomy of Models used in Remote Sensing, GIS, and Environmental
Science Research
• In situIn situ and remotely sensed data are processed and remotely sensed data are processed using a) analog using a) analog
image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and
d) d) nn-dimensional visualization.-dimensional visualization.
• Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the
information are providedinformation are provided and the and the results communicatedresults communicated using using
images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial
Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc.Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc.
• In situIn situ and remotely sensed data are processed and remotely sensed data are processed using a) analog using a) analog
image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and image processing, b) digital image processing, c) modeling, and
d) d) nn-dimensional visualization.-dimensional visualization.
• Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the Metadata, processing lineage, and the accuracy of the
information are providedinformation are provided and the and the results communicatedresults communicated using using
images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial images, graphs, statistical tables, GIS databases, Spatial
Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc.Decision Support Systems (SDSS), etc.
The Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing ProcessThe Remote Sensing Process
The amount of electromagnetic radiance, The amount of electromagnetic radiance, LL (watts m (watts m-2-2 sr sr-1-1; watts ; watts per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of an optical remote sensing system (e.g., a picture element in a an optical remote sensing system (e.g., a picture element in a digital image) is a function of:digital image) is a function of:
where, where,
l = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or l = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or at specific frequencies). Wavelength (l) and frequency (u) may at specific frequencies). Wavelength (l) and frequency (u) may be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the speed of light (speed of light (cc) where .) where .
The amount of electromagnetic radiance, The amount of electromagnetic radiance, LL (watts m (watts m-2-2 sr sr-1-1; watts ; watts per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of per meter squared per steradian) recorded within the IFOV of an optical remote sensing system (e.g., a picture element in a an optical remote sensing system (e.g., a picture element in a digital image) is a function of:digital image) is a function of:
where, where,
l = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or l = wavelength (spectral response measured in various bands or at specific frequencies). Wavelength (l) and frequency (u) may at specific frequencies). Wavelength (l) and frequency (u) may be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the be used interchangeably based on their relationship with the speed of light (speed of light (cc) where .) where .
( )Ω= ,,,,, ,, PtsfL zyx θλ
Remote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data Collection
ssx,y,zx,y,z = = x, y, zx, y, z location of the picture element and its size ( location of the picture element and its size (x, yx, y) )
tt = temporal information, i.e., when and how often the = temporal information, i.e., when and how often the information was acquiredinformation was acquired
q = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships q = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of interest (e.g., a corn field), and the remote sensing systeminterest (e.g., a corn field), and the remote sensing system
P P = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the sensorsensor
W = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., W = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by the remote sensing system.the remote sensing system.
ssx,y,zx,y,z = = x, y, zx, y, z location of the picture element and its size ( location of the picture element and its size (x, yx, y) )
tt = temporal information, i.e., when and how often the = temporal information, i.e., when and how often the information was acquiredinformation was acquired
q = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships q = set of angles that describe the geometric relationships among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of among the radiation source (e.g., the Sun), the terrain target of interest (e.g., a corn field), and the remote sensing systeminterest (e.g., a corn field), and the remote sensing system
P P = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the = polarization of back-scattered energy recorded by the sensorsensor
W = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., W = radiometric resolution (precision) at which the data (e.g., reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by reflected, emitted, or back-scattered radiation) are recorded by the remote sensing system.the remote sensing system.
Remote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data CollectionRemote Sensing Data Collection
Spectral Resolution
Spectral Resolution
Spatial Spatial ResolutionResolution
Spatial Spatial ResolutionResolution
TemporalTemporal ResolutionResolutionTemporalTemporal ResolutionResolution
June 1, 2004June 1, 2004June 1, 2004June 1, 2004 June 17, 2004June 17, 2004June 17, 2004June 17, 2004 July 3, 2004July 3, 2004July 3, 2004July 3, 2004
Remote Sensor Data AcquisitionRemote Sensor Data AcquisitionRemote Sensor Data AcquisitionRemote Sensor Data Acquisition
16 days16 days16 days16 days
RadiometricRadiometric ResolutionResolutionRadiometricRadiometric ResolutionResolution
8-bit8-bit(0 - 255)(0 - 255)
8-bit8-bit(0 - 255)(0 - 255)
9-bit9-bit(0 - 511)(0 - 511)
9-bit9-bit(0 - 511)(0 - 511)
10-bit10-bit(0 - 1023)(0 - 1023)
10-bit10-bit(0 - 1023)(0 - 1023)
0
0
0
7-bit7-bit(0 - 127)(0 - 127)
7-bit7-bit(0 - 127)(0 - 127)0
Remote sensing systems record very specific Remote sensing systems record very specific angularangular characteristicscharacteristics associated with each exposed silver halide associated with each exposed silver halide crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are a function of:crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are a function of:
• location in a three-dimensional sphere of the illumination location in a three-dimensional sphere of the illumination sourcesource (e.g., the Sun for a passive system or the sensor itself (e.g., the Sun for a passive system or the sensor itself in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its associated azimuth and zenith angles, associated azimuth and zenith angles,
• orientation of the terrain facetorientation of the terrain facet (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., vegetation) under investigation, and vegetation) under investigation, and
• location of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing systemlocation of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing system and its associated azimuth and zenith angles.and its associated azimuth and zenith angles.
Remote sensing systems record very specific Remote sensing systems record very specific angularangular characteristicscharacteristics associated with each exposed silver halide associated with each exposed silver halide crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are a function of:crystal or pixel. The angular characteristics are a function of:
• location in a three-dimensional sphere of the illumination location in a three-dimensional sphere of the illumination sourcesource (e.g., the Sun for a passive system or the sensor itself (e.g., the Sun for a passive system or the sensor itself in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its in the case of RADAR, LIDAR, and SONAR) and its associated azimuth and zenith angles, associated azimuth and zenith angles,
• orientation of the terrain facetorientation of the terrain facet (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., (pixel) or terrain cover (e.g., vegetation) under investigation, and vegetation) under investigation, and
• location of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing systemlocation of the suborbital or orbital remote sensing system and its associated azimuth and zenith angles.and its associated azimuth and zenith angles.
Angular InformationAngular InformationAngular InformationAngular Information
There is always an There is always an angle of incidenceangle of incidence associated with the associated with the
incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an angle of angle of
exitanceexitance from the terrain to the sensor system. This from the terrain to the sensor system. This
bidirectionalbidirectional nature of remote sensing data collection is known nature of remote sensing data collection is known
to influence the spectral and polarization characteristics of the to influence the spectral and polarization characteristics of the
at-sensor radiance, at-sensor radiance, L,L, recorded by the remote sensing system. recorded by the remote sensing system.
There is always an There is always an angle of incidenceangle of incidence associated with the associated with the
incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an incoming energy that illuminates the terrain and an angle of angle of
exitanceexitance from the terrain to the sensor system. This from the terrain to the sensor system. This
bidirectionalbidirectional nature of remote sensing data collection is known nature of remote sensing data collection is known
to influence the spectral and polarization characteristics of the to influence the spectral and polarization characteristics of the
at-sensor radiance, at-sensor radiance, L,L, recorded by the remote sensing system. recorded by the remote sensing system.
Angular InformationAngular InformationAngular InformationAngular Information
The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using a The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using a
variety of image processing techniques, including: variety of image processing techniques, including:
• analog (visual) image processing, andanalog (visual) image processing, and
• digital image processing. digital image processing.
Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to
detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once
identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the
information is used in solving problems. information is used in solving problems. Optimum results are Optimum results are
often achieved using a synergistic combination of both visual often achieved using a synergistic combination of both visual
and digital image processing.and digital image processing.
The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using a The analysis of remotely sensed data is performed using a
variety of image processing techniques, including: variety of image processing techniques, including:
• analog (visual) image processing, andanalog (visual) image processing, and
• digital image processing. digital image processing.
Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to Analog and digital analysis of remotely sensed data seek to
detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once detect and identify important phenomena in the scene. Once
identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the identified, the phenomena are usually measured, and the
information is used in solving problems. information is used in solving problems. Optimum results are Optimum results are
often achieved using a synergistic combination of both visual often achieved using a synergistic combination of both visual
and digital image processing.and digital image processing.
Remote Sensing Data AnalysisRemote Sensing Data AnalysisRemote Sensing Data AnalysisRemote Sensing Data Analysis
Image Analysis Image
Analysis
