Julius Caesar’s Invasions

• Caesar’s ‘Conquest’• Roman Perception of

Britain• Romanization Begins

Evolution of the Roman Army

• Property owning farmers

• Reform of Marius (107 BCE)- all citizens

• Cavalry of allies

• Government of provinces given to high officials whose offices arose from wealth not ability. Officers of senatorial or equestrian rank.

• 91-89 BCE Italian property owners gain citizenship

Invasion – 55 BCE

Legio VII Claudia Legio X Equestris

Significant Points

• In the first invasion, the Romans must fight ashore, actually fighting it out in the surf.

• The campaigns, taken together, give a good example of how Caesar learned from his mistakes the first time out. i.e. specialized landing craft, larger force.

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Caesar, Veniti and Britain

• Threat to trade

• Veniti attack Roman fleet• High, sturdy sailing vessels

• Roman fleet• Oared vessels

• Use hooks to cut rigging

Roman Trireme

Background

•Cassivellaunus

•Ruler in the S.E. of Britain

•Subdued his eastern neighbors -- the “Trinovantes”

•Executed their King

•Banished his son and heir - “Mandubraces” - to the continent

•Mandubraces goes to Caesar’s Camp begging for help

•Caesar sends “Commius” - to stir up trouble

Policy Considerations

•Caesar part of the Roman triumvirate, attacks Britain to enhance his reputation

•Caesar’s area is Gaul, has trouble with the Gallic tribes, some leaders are using Britain as a refuge, some mercenaries are coming from there

• Invades to punish Britons for helping Gauls. Invades to gain territory and fame

Capt. Carson, UIUC

Political Aspects

• Excitement of crossing the ‘Ocean’

• Keeps Caesar before the eyes of Rome• Letter to the Senate

• Commentaries

Intelligence Shortcomings

• Campaigns preceded by poor intelligence

• Possible Sources• Merchants – not forthcoming; warn Britons

• Volusenus fails to find Richborough

• Envoy, Commius, had influence with Atrebati but not tribes in the area of invasion

• Campaigns work as intelligence gathering – not as conquest

Rose Mary Sheldon (2002): “Caesar, Intelligence, and Ancient Britain,” International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence, 15:1, 77-100

First Landing August 55 B.C.

• Embarks two Veteran Legions [VII, X] and some cavalry.

• Launches following a “reconnaissance in force”

• Could not land since force was too small and had been observed

• Caesar sails from Boulogne to the Dover area. Sees British are there in force, so sails north for better beach

• He is tracked by British in chariots

Route

First Landing (Cont)

• Finds a better beach by Deal

• Must fight ashore

• Romans reluctant to leave ships

• Hand to hand fighting in the surf

• Transport ships cruise parallel to the shore delivering supporting fire

• Romans finally secure a foot hold on dry land

• After three weeks, Caesar re-embarks and leaves, accomplishing little

Landing

Heroes

• The Eagle standard bearer

• Caesius Scaeva – one man stand

The Fighting

• “Dismayed by these circumstances and altogether untrained in this mode of battle, our men did not all exert the same vigor and eagerness which they had been wont to exert in engagements on dry ground.”

• Caesar ordered …”the enemy to be beaten off and driven away, with slings, arrows, and engines: which plan was of great service to our men “

• “All the Britains, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish color, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight.

British and Roman Helmets

Artillery

Aftermath – First Invasion

• Envoys from enemy promise hostages

• Commius returns, reporting ill treatment

• Only two kingdoms provide hostages

Preparations: 2nd Invasion

• After building special flat-bottom, low freeboard, minimum draft landing craft, Caesar attacks again

• 5 legions (including veteran VII, X), plus 2,000 cavalry, for a total of about 22,000 troops

• A total of 800 ships to include 28 warships

Opposing forces

• 2,000 war chariots• Horses suitable for chariots

but not cavalry

• Briefly united tribes

• Some knowledge of Roman tactics

• “Indirect warfare”

Second Invasion, July 54 B.C.

• Lands at the same beach• Lands unopposed; (Britons seeing the size of the force decide not

to oppose)• Caesar immediately marches inland 12 miles, catching Britons off

guard.• 7th Legion attacks, hit with flank attack, but the veterans

withstand, improvise and take position• Britons united under Cassivellaunus• Storm damages Roman fleet. Not separate Naval commander

hurts repair effort. Lose 10 days.

Route

Bigbury

The Land Campaign

•Cassivellaunus divides force to attack base camp and to get main body to pursue

• Cassivellaunus sees Caesar’s extreme sensitivity to the security of base camp

• Realizes even with chariots, cannot win pitched fight

• Caesar pursues, conducts masterful forced crossing of Thames, sends cavalry around flanks, brings up supporting fires and conducts frontal assault

The Land Campaign (Cont)

• Romans unable to force the Britons into a pitched battle

• Roman base camp attacked, attack is beaten off, but commander sends word to Caesar that he expects to be attacked again

• Caesar leaves main body, rushes back, surveys situation and decides to abandon campaign

• Caesar withdraws after receiving few hostages, and a promise of tribute

Strategic Considerations

• Virtually no strategic thought, at least for the first invasion. Land and take over. Little planning.

• Was the first invasion a reconnaissance in force, or a true attempt to invade

• For second invasion, Caesar comes to play, 5 legions a substantial force

Operational Considerations

• First invasion hindered by lack of plan• Few supplies, few troops, no landing craft

• Intelligence: recon force too small; no beach survey

• Deal chosen because looked good upon arrival

• No attempt at surprise

• Second invasion; planned.• Larger fleet, larger force

• Landing craft, faster debarkation, close to beach.

• Uses same beach, brings supplies.

Tactical Considerations

• First landing, no landing plan, fight in the surf

• Good fire support in the first landing, brought the heavy stuff along on the cargo vessels.

• Once fight is joined and Romans are organized, their superior training and fighting skills are apparent and they prevail.

• The Britons chariots a factor until Romans learn how to counter

Tactical Considerations (Cont)

• Shortage of cavalry adequate recon and force screening difficult for Romans

• Cassivellaunus conducts a textbook guerrilla fight• Avoids decisive engagement

• Harasses foraging parties

• Strikes at the beachhead with a sufficient force to cause alarm

Technical Consideratons

•First time, no landing craft, rectified the second time out.

•Returned with the gunships, not as critical the second invasion.

•Good use of heavy artillery in crossing the Thames.

Conclusions

•Security of beachhead and LOC to Gaul, primary concerns for Caesar.

•Britons conduct guerrilla campaign, Cassivellaunus able to recognize that he cannot conventionally defeat Romans. Wins without winning a battle.

•Caesar commands both land and sea. Caused problems in 54 after the storm

•Good naval gunfire support, earliest known example

Testudo

Conclusions (Cont)

•Somehow, Caesar’s reputation is not damaged.

•Flexibility of Cassivellaunus - exploited Roman sensitivity to base camp

•Crossing of Thames excellent example of supporting arms.

•As veteran troops gain familiarity with new weapons(chariots in this case), they adapt tactics to cope or overcome the new system. The new weapon then loses most of its impact.

Conclusions (Cont)

•Romans aware of the pitfalls of invasion

•Opportunity for Roman and Romanized merchants

•British leaders adopt aspects of Roman culture

•British policy reflects events in Rome

“…a Celtic-Gallic midget called Asterix (fix meant "king" in Celtic… for about 20 years has been beating up on Romans all over the place-to the delight of

citizens who have never quite forgotten, or forgiven, Caesar”

Dora Jane Hamblin. Smithsonian, May 1993

An Opposing View

• Purpose was only Caesar’s greed

• Loss of troops and ships

• Leaving Gaul might have threatened Italy

• Failure to find wealth (silver, gold, pearls?)

• Britain’s only asset – barbarous slaves who can neither write poetry or music

After Caesar leaves

• Conflict in Gaul• Troops disbanded to winter quarters however

• Approach of fall• Enough supplies to overwinter

• Uprisings in 53 and 52 in Gaul prevent return

Evaluations

• Success• 55 reconnaissance in force; 54 police action

• Trading patterns established

• Loyal allies cultivated

• 90 years of peace

Evaluation

• Failure• No occupation for enforcement

• Did not successfully counteract chariot guerilla warfare

• Did not gain access to mineral resources

• Did not learn about agriculture, industry

Effects On Britain

• Subject to tribute

• Roman ‘technical assistance’ leads to improved coinage.

• Those who aided Rome benefit economically

• Those who opposed Rome wait their chances.

“British” Reaction

A kind of conquest

Caesar made here; but made not here his brag

Of 'came, and saw, and overcame.' With shame-

The first that ever touch'd him- he was carried

From off our coast, twice beaten; and his shipping-

Poor ignorant baubles!- on our terrible seas,

Like egg-shells mov'd upon their surges, crack'd

As easily 'gainst our rocks

Queen, Cymbeline Act III, Scene 1