1. SC2220: Gender Studies: Gender at Work Dr. Eric C.
Thompson
2. Issues in Gender at Work
The Double Shift
Women working a double shift
Domestic marginalization of Men
The Gender Gap in Wages
Choice Theory (women choose to opt out)
Gendered Organization Theory
Overt Discrimination
3. Video: The Double Shift
Even within occupations, it seems that specialties are gendered
(e.g., education, law, medicine). Why so?
What is the juggling act referred to? Do men juggle?
How much is the second shift worth, monetarily?
Should homemakers be compensated for their years of work in the
case of a divorce?
Is it fair for the state to make women give up their jobs to
men during times of national economic crisis? Is it a sound
decision, economically?
Is the state obligated to help working mothers?
If society became more egalitarian, would we fully accept men
as stay-at-home dads and homemakers?
4. The Second Shift for Women
From work of sociologist Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift
(1989)
Women work a second shift housekeeping and child care, after
the first shift of paid work outside the home; Men dont.
There is a lot of talk or hope of this changing; research shows
very little evidence of change.
5. Domestic Marginalization of Men
Women often complain about mens lack of participation in
domestic work; but many studies illustrate the domestic
marginalization of men.
Women protect the home as their sphere of dominance.
Men are not trained to do domestic work and assumed to be
incompetent.
Reading on Men in Crisis in Russia (among Supplemental
Readings)
6. The Gender Gap in Wages
Universal (global) and persistent
Everywhere, men earn more than women.
Relative differences
Biggest Gap: UAE, Peru, Belize Women earn 30% of mens
wages.
Smallest Gap: Iceland Women earn 94% of mens wages.
Singapore: Women earn ~65% of mens wages (common for
industrialized countries)
7. Explaining the Wage Gap
Different Choices made by Men and Women
Men choose higher paid, more demanding jobs
Women choose lower paid, more flexible jobs that allow them to
spend time with family
See: Kingsley Browne Biology at Work
As Result of Gendered Organization
Corporations and other Institutions are structured in ways that
discriminate (unintentionally)
See: Joan Acker Hierarchy, Jobs, Bodies
As a Result of Overt Discrimination
8. Browne vs. Acker*
Browne: Women earn less because of the choices they make. Women
opt out of high paying, but stressful and time-consuming jobs.
Acker: Women earn less because of the systemic, structural
biases of institutions (companies, schools, etc.).
Note: These are not mutually exclusive; it may be (probably is)
the case that both are true to some extent.
*Articles available in the Supplementary Readings.
9. Complexity of the Wage Gap
Browne demonstrates: The most significant gap is between women
who are married or have children and all others.
The gap between Single Childless Women and All Men is much less
substantial.
Married Men earn more than Unmarried Men.
Singapore 2008 report claimed only 2% wage gap among new
graduates BUT, these are almost certainly Single Childless Women!
(A very biased sample for trying to claim that there is little or
no gender gap in wages!)
10. Gender & Opportunity Structures
Individual-level effects of availability factors : Women select
jobs in which
They believe they can get hired
They think they will be welcome
They believe they can succeed
This limits many non-traditional and sex-segregated occupations
that may pay more, have higher status
At the same time, women have the structural option of finding a
partner who will provide surplus resources to them (sexual exchange
theory) to a far greater degree than men.
11. Acker: Gendered Organizations
Organizational practices and organizational processes create
gender segregation; also invent and reproduce gender norms
(Acker)
Acker is arguing that gender pervades institutional and
organizational structures (Browne considers organizations to be
basically gender neutral).
Gendered Institutions are not (only) the result of gender
difference; Institutions produce gender difference.
Gender difference in one institution is affected by gender in
other institutions in a society.
For example, gender differences in a corporate office will be
affected by the production of gender in family life; and the gender
in family life will be affected by the production of gender in
corporate offices.
No institution is gender neutral (even if it formally declares
itself to be). Gender is a pervasive social and cultural system.
Its effects can be reduced (or amplified) but no society is free
from gender.
13. Are Career Ladders Gender-Neutral?
Most professions (corporations, universities, law firms) expect
individuals to spend their 20s obtaining professional degrees;
their 30s building their career; and becoming established in their
40s.
Is it fair to expect this equally of men and women?
Is it fair to ignore the relatively larger commitments women
have to make to childbearing during these years (if they want to
have children of their own)?
14. Glass Ceilings and Escalators
Glass ceiling
Mostly-invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to top
levels at work
Glass escalator
Mostly-invisible accelerator that pushes men into higher-level
positions at work, more desirable work assignments, and more pay
(even in traditional female occupations: nursing, teaching)
15. Overt Gender Bias
On top of Brownes choice theory and Ackers gendered
organizations, there is often strong evidence of overt gender
bias.
Research results:
When given mock job applications for gender neutral and
traditional male jobs, more applicants with male names or male
characteristics were offered the jobs, even when the applications
(resumes) were identical in content.
When applying for child care jobs, the bias favored women (men
were not offered the jobs).
