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Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Introduction to Small Ruminant
Nutrition
JVMA Small Ruminant Medicine Workshop
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Nutrient Requirements• Will vary according to:
– Stage of Production– Environmental Adjustments– Animal size and breed– Body Condition Scoring
• Nutrients of Importance includes:– Energy– Protein– Minerals– Vitamins– Fibre
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Nutritional Stages
• Lamb and kid• Yearlings• Adult male• Adult female
Rumen function is important regardless of the stage of production
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
The Importance of Rumen Function
• Rumen is heavily muscled to promote grinding, churning and sorting of feed items
• Methane and CO2 makes up the majority of gases produced
• Papillae line the rumen and are responsible for the absorption of these gases which are critical to the maintenance of the animal
• Movement from high fibre to high concentrate should be done gradually to allow the papillae to adapt– High carbohydrates = high butyric and propionic acid =
increased papillae growth
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
The Importance of Rumen Function
• Microbial population in the rumen consists of bacteria, protozoa, and fungi
• Bacteria are grouped according to shape and size or substrate– products such as cellulose, hemicellulose, starch,
sugars, intermediate acids, protein, and lipids – These bacteria produce methane
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
The Importance of Rumen Function
• The methane-producing bacteria remove H gas by reducing CO2 with H gas to form methane. – Keeps the H concentration in the rumen low– allows methanogenic bacteria to promote the growth of
other bacterial species and provides for a more efficient fermenta tion.
• Removal of H encourages hydrogen-producing species to produce more H and thus alter their metabolism towards higher yielding pathways. – Results in the synthesis of more microbial cells, which
increases available protein to the ruminant.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
The Importance of Rumen Function
• Higher numbers of protozoa are generally found in the rumen when high digestibility diets are fed. – Some protozoa numbers are higher when diets
contain large amounts of soluble sugars and other types predominate with high starch diets.
• The protozoa actively ingest bacteria as a source of protein. – Limiting the amount available to the animal in the
small intestine.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Rumination and Saliva Production
• Rumination is a by-product of evolution• animals can ingest large quantities of food in a
short time and then chew their “cud” at leisure later
• Rumination decreases particle size and increases surface area
• It enhances degradation by microbes
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Rumination and Saliva Production
• Direct correlation between rumination time and saliva production
• Saliva acts as a natural buffer because it contains sodium, bicarbonate, phosphates
• Controls pH in rumen, despite the acids produced by fermentation
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Rumination and Saliva Production
• Diet control = saliva control• Decreasing chewing time, decreases saliva
production• Drastic decrease in saliva results in acidosis, altering
the rumen environment and negatively impacting animal production
• Long hay and forages high in fibre increases rumination time
• High concentrates, finely chopped forages and silage decreases rumination time
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
NEONATAL NUTRITION
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
A Tale of Two Animals
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Road to Success:Colostrum
• Colostrum Management should follow the 3Qs and 1C– Quickly– Quantity– Quality– Cleanliness
(adapted from R.W. Johnson and J. Drackley)
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Feeding ScheduleLamb and Kids
• 10-20% of body weight in colostrum within 12 hours of birth
• Critical not just for immunity but for optimal growth
Growth & feed intake
Disease
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Colostrum and SurvivalAntibodies from colostrum protect animals until active immunity Calf survival rates by IgG Levels
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Antibody absorption 2 hours of age and 24hours of age
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Impact of Contaminated Treats
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Colostrum and Growth:Failure of Passive Transfer (FPT)
• Calves with FPT (< 10mg IgG/mL serum):– Increased time to first calving (Can Vet. J, 1986
50:314)– Decreased ADG to 180 days (J. Dairy Sci. 1998,
71:1283)– Decreased milk and fat yield in first lactation• Each unit of serum IgG > 12mg/mL = + 8.2 kg increase
in ME milk (J. Dairy Sci. 1989, 72:552)
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Colostrum sources (lambs and kids) Dam Best source
Another female in flock Best substitute Thaw properly, if frozen.
A female in another flock (similar disease status)*
Next best substitute. Thaw properly, if frozen.
Ewe or doe
animal Lower in nutrition Milk from Jamaica Hope breeds higher in fat compared to Holstein
Colostrum supplement Nutritious, but no antibodies Use to supplement colostrum
Colostrum substitute Contains antibodies Homemade colostrum Lack of antibodies
Lamb or kid milk replacer Not an adequate substitute for colostrum. Feed after 24 hours.
* Dam with single kid or lamb usually has extra colostrum
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Colostrum Replacement for Kids
Homemade• 740 ml animals milk (goat
milk preferable) • 1 beaten egg• 1 teaspoon cod liver oil (as a
laxative)• 1 teaspoon glucose sugarOr • 600 ml milk• 1 tsp castor oil• 1 small egg
Commercial
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Milk and Milk Replacer
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Feeding ScheduleLamb and Kids
• 10-20 % of body weight in milk daily (a 10kg lamb or kid should receive 1.5 to 1.9 litres of milk divided into 4-6 feedings daily)
• Milk replacers: 20% protein, 20% fat, whey proteins
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Milk Replacer Protein Sources
Preferred Acceptable as partial substitute
Marginal
Dried whey protein concentrate
Soy protein isolate Soy flour
Dried skim milk Protein modified soy flour
Modified potato protein
Casein Soy protein concentrate
Dried whey Animal plasma
Dried whey product Egg protein
Modified wheat protein
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Milk or Plant Based Protein
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Creep FeedingLamb and Kids
• Must be palatable if going to be successful• Start by 3-4 weeks of age• Must consume 0.25 kg daily until weaning if
increased performance is to be attained• Should provide an additional 0.5 kg of weight
gain for each 1.8-3.2 kg of feed consumed
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Omasum
Abomasum
RumenReticul.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Effect of Creep Feeding on Weight Gains of Kids
Adapted from Stanton, 2012
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Digestion and Absorption in Ruminants
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay
6 Week Calves
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay
8 Week Calves
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Weaners
• Early weaning at 3-4 weeks of age• Preferably delay until 8-12 weeks of age• Stressful!• Accustom animals to drinking out of a water trough
and eating out of a feeder prior to weaning• Offer free-choice good-quality hay/fodder for the
first 2 days of weaning• Concentrate feed offered at 1% of body weight per
day
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Finishing• Can finish on high-quality forage• Feedlot or semi-intensive situations• Stepwise feeding program where lambs and
kids get more grain/concentrate as they get larger
• High grain diet during this period may predispose to urinary stones, enterotoxemia and bloat
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Finishing
• Slowly introduce animals to this diet over 2-4 weeks and vaccinate against problematic diseases
• High risk of production diseases
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Yearlings
• Most females gain 0.25-0.5 lb daily from weaning until breeding.
• Keep the body condition score between 2.5 and 3.5.
• Most males gain 0.75 lb daily during this period.
• Monitor males for production-related diseases!
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Adult Male
• Maintain prebreeding BCS of 3-4 as they will lose weight during the breeding season
• Feed a concentrated energy-protein supplement 4-6 weeks before breeding season
• 1-2 lb of concentrate daily is reasonable• Outside of breeding season, maintain on a
maintenance feed
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Adult Female
• Maintenance• Pasture or range settings suffice
• Breeding• Flushing: increased nutrition (energy) before and
during early breeding increases the ovulation rate• Do not overcondition!• Provide lush pastures or supplement with 0.33-1 lb of
10-20% crude protein grain/head/day• Start 2 weeks before male is introduced and continue
for 2-3 weeks after• BCS of 2.5-3 are optimal
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Adult Female
• Early-middle gestation• Requirements not greatly increased over maintenance• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3 and monitor every 2-3 weeks
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Adult Female
• Late gestation• 70% of fetal growth occurs during the last 6 weeks of
gestation• Substantial increase in energy needs• Feed between 1/3-1 lb grain daily per head depending
on size of animal• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3• Promote adequate energy intake
– Ewes: 2.2 lbs daily during final 4 weeks– Does: 1-2 lbs daily during final 4-6 weeks
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Adult Female
• Lactation• Peak milk production 2-3 weeks after birth• Rapid decline 8-10 weeks after birth• Requires adequate levels of proteins prior to lactation• Addition of fat to increase the energy density of the
diet (do not exceed 4-5% of the diet)
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Nutritional Phases in theProduction Cycle-Goats Summary
• Move clockwise starting at top of innermost circle.
• Continue through the next cycle or move to next shell after 360°.
• Note that there are two possible routes after the kid is weaned.
(Tisch, 2006)
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD 43
Metabolic Disorders Arising From Unbalanced Diets
Cause Symptoms Treatment Milk fever Sudden decrease in blood
calcium levels. Decreased intake and milk yield. Kidding paralyses, death
Feeding management prior to kidding to stimulate animal’s ability to mobilise body calcium
Grass tetany Low blood magnesium levels
Decreased intake and milk yield. Muscular staggers, death
Feed magnesium supplements
Ketosis or acetonaemia
Animal rely on fat reserves for energy during early lactation
Decreased intake and milk yield, Characteristic smell of breath
Feed well balanced diet during early lactation
Lactic acidosis (grain poisoning) & laminitis
Rumen pH becomes very low due to high starch intake
Decreased intake and milk yield.
Include rumen buffers in diet and sufficient roughage
Bloat Build up of foam in rumen which stops gas from escaping
Left side of cow is swollen. Animal stands up and lies down frequently
Put hose down oesophagus, administer oil, stab left flank to release gas
Urea toxicity Ammonia poisoning Rumen stops moving, death
Feed toxicities Anti-nutritional factors in diet.
Sickness and death Identify cause and remove from diet
Forages
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Hypocalcemia• Primarily a problem in dairy goats• Ewes susceptible in late gestation and early lactation• Greatest calcium demand for non-dairy animals is 3-4
weeks prior to birth• High producing dairy goats have problems after birth• Signs
• Stiff gait, tremors, tetany, constipation, decreased rumen contractions, etc.
• Diagnosis• History and signalment• Serum Ca < 4-5 mg/dl
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Hypocalcemia
• Treatment• 50-100 ml of a 23% calcium borogluconate solution IV• 50-100 ml of calcium chloride SQ• Monitor heart rate: stop if slows or the rhythm
changes!
• Prevention• Diet low in calcium• Low cation-anion ratio
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Hypomagnesemia• Grass tetany• Problem in animals grazing lush pastures
during early spring• Reduced absorption of magnesium due to
high nitrogen and potassium levels in the forage
• Clinical signs• Ewes 2-4 weeks after lambing • More common in ewes with twins• Excitability, convulsions, muscle spasms, increased
respiratory rate, dead in pasture
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Hypomagnesemia
• Diagnosis• Serum magnesium < 1.5 mg/dl or post-mortem
magnesium levels in CSF, urine or anterior eye chamber fluid
• Treatment• 20-25% calcium borogluconate and 50 ml of 4-5%
magnesium
• Prevention• Offer high-magnesium mineral supplements before
growth of lush forage and before lambing
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Copper Toxicosis• More common in sheep • Results from chronic accumulation in the liver
due to getting excess dietary Cu in relation to molybdenum or sulfate
• Sources of excess Cu• Trace mineral mixtures and feeds for cattle and horses
• Clinical signs absent during accumulation phase
• Acute disease• Off feed, lethargy, depression, diarrhea, weakness,
hemolysis, jaundice, port-wine colored urine
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Copper Toxicosis
• Diagnosis• Blood Cu levels 10-20 x normal (50-200 µg/dl)• Kidney Cu levels postmortem (> 100 ppm)• Liver Cu levels postmortem (> 350 ppm)
• Treatment• Usually unsuccessful
• Prevention• Avoid high dietary Cu, high Cu-Mo ratio, Cu-containing
foot baths, etc.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Concentrate Overload
• Rumen acidosis• Forage-fed animals suddenly introduced to a high
concentrate diet• Fermentation of carbohydrates decrease in rumen
pH lactic acidosis death of rumenal protozoa fluid from circulatory system drawn into the rumen dehydration and shock
• Chronic changes• Liver abscesses• Laminitis• Fungal rumenitis
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Concentrate Overload
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Concentrate Overload
• Clinical signs• Anorexia, depression, weakness• Severe dehydration, toxemia• Colic, distended abdomen, diarrhea
• Diagnosis• Rumen pH < 5.5• Few protozoa• Large gram-positive rods
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Concentrate Overload
• Treatment• Correct shock, dehydration, acid-base abnormalities• IV fluids with 5% sodium bicarbonate• Anti-inflammatories• Rumen transfaunation• Thiamine supplementation• Systemic antibiotics
» Penicillin
• Prevention• Introduce concentrate feeds slowly over 2-3 weeks• Rumen buffers• Minimum crude fibre content of 20%
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Protein Overload
• Urea-ammonia toxicity• Dull, depressed, muscle tremors, frequent urination
and defecation, excess salivation, increased respiration, ataxia, tetanic spasms and death• Treat with vinegar and water via stomach tube
• Do not feed excessive levels of protein or non-protein nitrogen
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Bloat
• Frothy bloat• Diets promoting formation of stable froth• Ingestion of legume forages or hay, lush cereal grain
pastures
• Free gas bloat• Diets promoting excessive gas formation
– Grain diets in animals unadapted to diet• Failure to eructate
– Esophageal obstruction– Various other conditions
• EMERGENCY!
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Bloat
• Pass stomach tube of free gas bloat• Frothy bloat: administer hand soap or
vegetable oil• Prevention
• Limit access to above dietary changes• Add ionophores (monensin) to diet
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Urinary Calculi Prevention
• No supplemental P• Add Ca to 2.0-2.5 Ca:P ratio• No milking ration• Plenty of clean/warm water• Salt• Ammonium chloride .5%
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Nutritional Recommendations• Free choice fresh, good quality water• Each ewe/doe with at least 1 foot of water trough
space• Energy
• Structural carbohydrates: bulk of diet• Fat: 4-5% maximum
• Protein• Minimum of 7% dietary crude protein needed for normal rumen
bacterial growth and function• Minerals
• Calcium-phosphorus ratio between 1:1 and 2:1• NaCl at 0.5% of diet
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Nutritional Recommendations
• Make feed changes slowly!• Avoid excessive carbohydrates and protein in
diet• Ensure appropriate stocking density for
forages • Use BCS as a guideline
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Meat Goat Production Handbook, Langston University, 2007
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
USE OF FORAGES AND OTHER SUPPLEMENTS
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Forages are Crops and should be treated as such
• Three types of forages:– Grasses (average CP
10.6%)– Legumes (19.4% CP)– Non – leguminous
shrubs and trees (> 12%CP)
• Managing leaf:stem ratio is important Feed value of fodder decreases with
growth stage at harvest
Tisch, 2006)
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Grass - Legume Combinations
Possible advantages• Improvement in nutritive
value of forage on offer• Possible nitrogen fixation in
soils
Limitations• Difference in optimal
harvest intervals for the two species results in non –persistence of the legumes.
Siratro/Pangola grass
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
PasturesUtilization and Management
• Pastures are utilized in two ways:– Grazing – animals are allowed to do their own harvesting.
• During this process they return organic matter to the system.
– Cutting or zero-grazing – forage is harvested and brought to the animal.• During this process there is no return of organic matter to the system.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Grazed PasturesSystems of Utilization
• Rotational Grazing – a system in which a single pasture is subdivided into smaller paddocks and animals are moved from paddock to paddock in a systematic pattern.
• e.g. An 8 - paddock , 4 - day rotation will give each paddock a 28 day rest period .
• In choosing a cycle one must consider the species being grazed since different species have different recovery rates.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
• Set-Stocking – also known as continuous grazing.– This is a system in which animals remain on the
same pasture for an extended period of time.
– This system is not recommended for intensive livestock production.
Grazed PasturesSystems of Utilization
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Grazed PasturesSystems of Utilization
• Occasional Grazing – in this system grazing is limited to restricted areas set aside for specific periods such as during a dry spell(forage banks).
• Leguminous trees or shrubs are the species generally utilized in this system.
• These trees or shrubs should be cut back 2 or 3 times each year to prevent them becoming too tall or woody.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Cutting/Zero Grazing Systems
• Forages harvested for daily feeding (green chop).
• Forages harvested for conservation.• Forages harvested from forage banks during
dry periods.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Zero Grazed Pastures
• Allows for an increase in carrying capacity through the use of high producing forages such as king grass.
• Allows for the production of high quality feeds for specific groups such as fatteners and lactating animals.
• Reduces losses from trampling and selection that is experienced on grazed pastures .
Disadvantages• Labour intensive or heavy
machinery required• Forage will be harvested
and transported and should therefore be located close to the site at which it will be utilized.
Advantages
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Forage Conservation
• Ensures a continuous supply of forage throughout the year
• achieved by harvesting and storing forage material as either silage or hay.
• Both processes can be carried out on a large or small scale.
• Includes silage, hay and leaf meals.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Silage• Forage is allowed to ferment in the absence of air
and in the presence of suitable soluble carbohydrates.
• Acidification of the forage material acts as a preservative.
• Stable for years as long as it is not exposed to air with no decrease in nutrient value.
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Best time to use Silage
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Hay
• Fodder dried to a moisture content of 15% or less
• Can be stored for several months without great deterioration in quality.
• Requires large scale production and costly machinery
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Leaf MealMulberry
This is the dried leaves of legumes or non – leguminous shrubs.
Gliricidia
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Multi-Nutrient Blocks
• One of the least expensive means of rectifying the deficiency in forage quality
• High percentage of rumen by-pass nutrients, most notable urea and molasses (FOA, 2007).
• Decreases labour cost and increases forage intake• Excellent supplement during dry period– At Bodles animals fed combination of 1/3 level
concentrate + MNB performed as well as those receiving 100% concentrate
– Basal diet was pangola hay
Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD
Thank you