CLAH266: The Later Roman EmpireDr Jamie Wood23rd November 2012

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Ambrose of Milan and Theodosius I, Van Dick 17th century

Part 1:◦ The aftermath of Julian◦ The Valentinian dynasty◦ Theodosius ◦ The sons of Theodosius

Break Part 2:

◦ Theodosian themes◦ The Altar of Victory Controversy

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Julian dies in 363 while on campaign against Persia

Praetorian Prefect of the east, Saturninus, rejects the purple

He is succeeded by Jovian (363-364), an army commander◦ Christian, so revokes Julian’s anti-

Christian measures◦ Issues edict of toleration but soon takes

anti-pagan measures, e.g. burning of library in Antioch

◦ Agrees humiliating peace with Persians Withdrawal from 5 provinces Persians occupy 3 key fortresses

◦ Dies on way back to Constantinople

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Valentinian I made emperor◦ Son of Gratianus, one of generals of

Constantine and Constans◦ Commander under Julian in Gaul◦ Under Jovian promoted to tribune of

Scutarii (elite infantry) regiment at Ancyra

◦ So, close at hand when Jovian’s successor was discussed

◦ Had to placate the troops and the imperial bureaucracy by1. Sharing power2. Emphasising support for

military

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Colossus of Barletta

Reinforcement and almost continual campaigning along Rhine and Danube frontiers◦ Fighting against Alamans in Gaul

(365-368) culminates in Roman victory at Solicinium

◦ Fighting against Saxons and Franks in northern

Gaul Quadi and Sarmatians in Illyricum Picts and Scots in Britain

◦ Frontier defences reinforced and extended (resisted by barbarians)

◦ Alliance with Burgundians against Alamans

A stickler for the law Christian, but not militant

◦ Not involved in theological disputes◦ Minor anti-pagan measures

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Valentinian I shared power with his brother, Valens, who was made (subordinate) ruler in the East◦ Capitals at Milan and Constantinople

His sons Gratian and Valentinian II succeeded him in the West

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Less military experience than his brother Given control of the eastern half of the empire

◦ Situation -> Faces immediate revolt in Constantinople led by

Procopius, cousin of Julian, in 365; revolt put down in 366

Troubles with the Goths north of the Danube; campaigns successfully in 369, forcing them to accept disadvantageous treaty

Territory given up to Persians by Jovian; campaigns in the East with some success, especially in Armenia

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Valens allows Goths to cross Danube in 374; reasons:◦ Hopes to recruit troops?◦ Allows tax collection in provinces

instead of troop levies? ◦ Cannot stop them?

But Goths treated badly by administration and rebel

Valens campaigning against Persians and Saracens so cannot meet them immediately◦ 378: V moves forces to deal with

Goths, supposedly in coordination with Gratian, his nephew

◦ He rushes into battle, wanting glory for himself, and is defeated and killed

◦ Eastern field army destroyed9

Nicene Christian historians take great delight in Valens’ death: ◦ E.g. Orosius, Seven books of history against the pagans

7.33.10, 19: ‘The emperor himself was wounded by an arrow and turned to flee. He was carried with some difficulty to an outhouse on a small farm to hide but was found by the pursuing enemy who killed him by burning it down. So that his punishment should bear even greater witness to, and provide an even more terrible example of, Divine Wrath for future generations, he did not even have a common grave. […] So it was by righteous judgement of God that they burnt alive the man because of whom they would burn when dead for the error of heresy.’

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Gratian (375-383)◦ Received title of Augustus from his father in 367 ◦ Ruled Gallic provinces (Gaul, Spain, Britain)◦ Success against barbarians◦ Appoints Theodosius I to deal with aftermath of Adrianople◦ First reign in which Nicene (orthodox/ catholic) Christianity is

imperially-favoured◦ Becomes ineffective and killed by usurper general Magnus

Maximus Valentinian II (375-392)

◦ Proclaimed emperor as a child by troops in Pannonia on father’s death

◦ Ruled Italy, Africa and Illyricum◦ Under influence on his Arian mother, Justina = Arianism in favour

◦ Called in Theodosius I (marriage alliance) to deal with Magnus Maximus

◦ Valentinian sidelined; established at Vienne

Son of one of Valentinian I’s generals, also Theodosius

From Spain Held military office under

Valentinian I Father executed in 374 and he

retires to family estates in Spain Invited to take command of army

in Illyricum against Goths following Adrianople; in effect, this is an offer of imperial status

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Initially weak position: diplomacy with the Goths due to weakness of Roman forces and reliance on barbarians

Treaties result in Goths fighting for Theodosius◦ e.g. against usurper Eugenius in 394: Orosius on

Battle of Frigidus Interference in the West

◦ Defeats usurper Magnus Maximus in 388◦ Sidelines Valentinian II

Split between Eastern and Western Empires formalised

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Against Pagans:◦ Defeated pro-pagan usurper, Eugenius◦ Legislated against paganism◦ Encouraged militant monks and destruction of prominent pagan

temples (Serapeum in Alexandria, Temple of Apollo in Delphi)◦ 393: banning of Olympics

Within Christianity: ◦ Death of Valens undermines Arians (no divine protection?)◦ Theodosius decides in favour of Nicenes in 380-1:

Codex Theodosianus 16.1.2: all subjects should profess faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria

Expels Arian bishops and appoints Nicenes to main sees Holds First Council of Constantinople in 381

◦ Trouble with Bishop Ambrose of Milan (Thessaloniki and Callinicum): stage-managed to make both look good?

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Honorius, Emperor of the West (395–423) ◦ Young, therefore relies on general Stilicho, his

guardian then father-in-law, until 408◦ Trouble with the Visigoths, who invade Italy

repeatedly◦ Loss of Britain and much of Spain and Gaul;

sack of Rome by Visigoths and their settlement in s. Gaul

Arcadius, Emperor of the East (395-408)◦ Chief ministers play key role in his

government, as does his wife Aelia Eudoxia◦ Further anti-pagan legislation◦ Anti-barbarian (i.e. Gothic) sentiment:

massacre of Goths in Constantinople17

Theodosius II, Eastern Emperor (408-450)◦ Young, so dominated by chief ministers, then

by his elder sister, Pulcheria who was proclaimed Augusta

◦ War against Persians due to persecution of Christians

◦ Involvement in Christological controversies◦ Issued Theodosian Code in 438◦ Constructed Theodosian Walls of

Constantinople◦ Wars with Huns

Valentinian III, Western Emperor (425-455)◦ Installed by Theodosius II, betrothed to his

daughter, Licinia Eudoxia◦ Another young emperor; regency of his

mother, Galla Placidia◦ struggles among his generals, Aëtius

emerging victorious; invasions of the Huns

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Options◦ Monday all day◦ Tuesday 2.30 onwards◦ Wednesday 3.30 onwards◦ Thursday 12 onwards

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Overview1. Dynasty and internal (in)stability2. East and West3. Barbarians and Romans4. Military defeat and loss of

territory5. Religion and empire

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Division into eastern and western empires formalised under Theodosius I to give his sons separate spheres of influence◦ Recognition of what had been happening for

previous century and longer Third Century Crisis; Diocletian and the Tetrarchy; 2nd

Tetrarchy Benefits: the two sides can aid one another

(theoretically) Drawbacks: competition and interference

◦ E.g. East sends Goths westwards to save itself?

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As under Constantine, attempt to secure throne for family members◦ Sons and brothers as co-emperors (or Eastern and

Western emperors)◦ Mothers and sisters play an important role, not just in

dynastic marriages, but as regents/ power brokers, especially influential in religious controversies

Key problem: young emperors◦ Power in hands of advisers ◦ Open to challenge from generals

E.g. Magnus Maximus: a successful general, like Theodosius

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Co-existence:◦ Converting the barbarians

begun under Constantius II so most barbarians Arian barbarians maintain Arianism later as sign of identity?

◦ Intermarriage among barbarian and Roman elites see dynastic stemma on next slide

Tension:◦ Invasions increase, possibly under pressure from Huns (Peter

Heather) ◦ Anti-barbarian feeling (and outbreaks of ethnic violence)

A bit of both:◦ Barbarian generals playing roles as power-brokers

E.g. Stilicho; Visigoths (cooperating with Roman elites in Gaul) make Attalus emperor in 450s

◦ Romans and Visigoths fight together against Huns in 450s

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Roman military no longer predominant◦ 376: Adrianople◦ 406: Barbarians cross the Rhine◦ 410: Sack of Rome◦ Early 5th C: loss of Britain and Spain

Romans can no longer break up barbarian groups and scatter them across empire/ army unit◦ Visigoths able to maintain separate identity and

leadership in 370s◦ Settling of Visigoths in southern Gaul (terms of

settlement) in late 410s: first separate kingdom on Roman soil (WHY AND ON WHAT TERMS?)

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Victory was interpreted as a Goddess in Greek and Roman religion

It was particularly important in the context of imperial ideology

We find her on many official buildings and on the reverse of coins

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Victory of Samothrace (2nd cent. BCE), Paris Louvre

Aureus, Octavian 29-27 BCE: Victory standing on a globe, holding a wreath in her right hand and a vexillum on her shoulder.

In 29 BCE Octavian built the Altar of Victory in the Senate house

Senators poured libations, sacrificed and made oaths to the Altar of Victory during their sessions

Political, military and religious factors interconnected and reinforcing

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357 CE: Constans II, son of Constantine the Great, ordered the Altar of Victory to be removed from the Senate House

Julian (361-363) restored it as part of his support for pagan religious traditions

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382 CE: Gratian enacted a series of anti-pagan measures:

- He renounced to the title of Pontifex Maximus (the head of the Roman religion, an imperial title/ office since Augustus)

- He ordered - closure of all temples - confiscation of their property- public financial support to pagan religion was

abolished (compare to previous anti-Christian legislation)

- that the Altar of Victory be removed from the Senate House

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383: Gratian was killed by the usurper Magnus Maximus

Western part of the empire experienced a deep crisis

Many pagan/traditionalist aristocrats gained power

Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, a member of an ancient senatorial family and a pagan, became prefect of Rome (highest political authority of the city after the emperor)

Valentinian II (Arian Christian) becomes emperor in the West

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Symmachus was sent to the imperial court at Milan to plea for ◦ the restoration of the Altar of Victory ◦ the continued possibility of performing pagan

religious practices◦ the restoration of privileges to pagan priests and

the Vestal Virgins Ambrose was the bishop of Milan, where he

was a counsellor of Valentinian II (and of Gratian before)◦ Ambrose also a former governor within the

imperial administration so well-connected◦ Ambrose opposes Symmachus’ plans

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Symmachus, Relatio 6: ◦ “Where shall we swear to obey your laws and commands? by what religious sanction shall the

false mind be terrified, so as not to lie in bearing witness? All things are indeed filled with God, and

no place is safe for the perjured, but to be urged in the very presence of religious forms has great

power in producing a fear of sinning. That altar preserves the concord of all, that altar appeals to

the good faith of each, and nothing gives more authority to our decrees than that the whole of our

order issues every decree as it were under the sanction of an oath. So that a place will be opened

to perjury, and this will be determined by my illustrious Princes, whose honour is defended by a

public oath.”

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Symmachus, Relatio 2: ◦ “In the exercise, therefore, of a twofold office,

as your Prefect I attend to public business, and as delegate I recommend to your notice the charge laid on me by the citizens. Here is no disagreement of wills, for men have now ceased to believe that they excel in courtly zeal, if they disagree”

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Ambrose, Letter 18.31:◦ “They ask to have her altar erected in the Senate

House of the city of Rome, that is where the majority who meet together are Christians! There are altars in all the temples, and an altar also in the temple of Victories. Since they take pleasure in numbers they celebrate their sacrifices everywhere. To claim a sacrifice on this one altar, what is it but to insult the Faith? Is it to be borne that a heathen should sacrifice and a Christian be present? Let them imbibe, he says, let them imbibe, even against their will, the smoke with their eyes, the music with their ears, the ashes with their throats, the incense with their nostrils, and let the dust stirred up from our hearths cover their faces though they detest it. Are not the baths, the colonnades, the streets filled with images sufficient for them? Shall there not be a common lot in that common assembly? The faithful portion of the senate will be bound by the voices of those that call upon the gods, by the oaths of those that swear by them. If they oppose they will seem to exhibit their falsehood, if they acquiesce, to acknowledge what is sacrilege.”

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Victory an obvious concern for an empire under pressure from barbarians outside and usurpers within◦ Remember, this is before Theodosius has established his dominance

Symmachus and Ambrose ◦ present 2 different religious systems in terms of rites, beliefs and

institutions ◦ but also appeal to the same tradition to justify their positions to some

extent Greek and Roman past memory of Julian’s attempt to control the schools Ambrose defines the Symmachus’ religion) as superstitio

(unreasonable form of religion, connected with superstitious and or alien behaviours; compare Pliny and Tacitus on Christians)

Symmachus appeals to toleration (compare to early Christian apologists)

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A. For 1 of the sources below, answer the following questions. Be ready to discuss them next week:

◦ What kind of source is it?◦ When was it written?◦ Why is it important? ◦ What are its strengths and weaknesses?

1. Ammianus Marcellinus, Histories2. The Theodosian Code3. Gildas, On the Ruin of Britain4. Hydatius, Chronicle5. Priscus, History

B. Work through the learning object here: http://www.glomaker.org/samples/PulcheriasCoin/GLO_Player.html

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