The Trait Approach

The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachTheory, Application, and Assessment Theory, Application, and Assessment

What is a trait?What is a trait?

Is a dimension of personality used to Is a dimension of personality used to categorize people according to the degree categorize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular to which they manifest a particular characteristic.characteristic.

Trait:Trait:

the Four Temperantsthe Four Temperants based on general physiquebased on general physique

Typology Systems:Typology Systems:

SanguineSanguine (Happy)

MelancholicMelancholic (Unhappy)

CholericCholeric (Temperamental)

PhlegmaticPhlegmatic (Apathetic)

Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (4 Temperants)(4 Temperants)

SanguineSanguine (Happy)- impulsive, pleasure-impulsive, pleasure-seeking, sociable, charismatic.seeking, sociable, charismatic.

MelancholicMelancholic (Unhappy)- introverted, introverted, thoughtful, considerate.thoughtful, considerate.

CholericCholeric (Temperamental)- ambitious, ambitious, leader-like, has a lot of energy.leader-like, has a lot of energy.

PhlegmaticPhlegmatic (Apathetic) – relaxed, quiet, kind.relaxed, quiet, kind.

Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (4 Temperants)(4 Temperants)

EndomorphicEndomorphic (Obese)(Obese)

MesomorphicMesomorphic (Muscular)(Muscular)

EctomorphicEctomorphic (Fragile)(Fragile)

Typology Systems:Typology Systems: (Physique)(Physique)


EndomorphicEndomorphic (Obese) – (Obese) – sociable, fun-loving, sociable, fun-loving, love of food, relaxed, good humored.love of food, relaxed, good humored.

MesomorphicMesomorphic (Muscular) – (Muscular) – adventurous, adventurous, courageous, competitive, risk taker.courageous, competitive, risk taker.

EctomorphicEctomorphic (Fragile) – (Fragile) – introverted, artistic, introverted, artistic, private, self-counscious.private, self-counscious.


are relatively stable over time.are relatively stable over time.

are stable across situations.are stable across situations.

Two assumptions of trait approach Two assumptions of trait approach to personality:to personality:

(important) Trait Theorists:(important) Trait Theorists:

Gordon AllportGordon Allport Raymond CatellRaymond CatellHenry MurrayHenry Murray

Born on November 11, 1897 in Born on November 11, 1897 in Montezuma, Indiana.Montezuma, Indiana.

Earned his A.B degree in Philosophy & Earned his A.B degree in Philosophy & Economics and Ph.D in Psychology from Economics and Ph.D in Psychology from Harvard.Harvard.

Known as one of the founding fathers of Known as one of the founding fathers of Personality Psychology.Personality Psychology.

Gordon Allport:Gordon Allport:

Nomothetic ApproachNomothetic Approach Idiographic ApproachIdiographic Approach

Gordon Allport: (2 Strategies when Gordon Allport: (2 Strategies when investigating personality)investigating personality)

Nomothetic Approach Nomothetic Approach –– Researchers assume that people can be described Researchers assume that people can be described

along a single dimension according to degree of along a single dimension according to degree of certain characteristic.certain characteristic.

Idiographic ApproachIdiographic Approach ––Researchers identify the (best) unique combination of Researchers identify the (best) unique combination of traits of a single individual.traits of a single individual.

(Strategies….)(Strategies….)

Cardinal TraitsCardinal Traits Central TraitsCentral Traits Secondary TraitsSecondary Traits

Categories of Traits: Categories of Traits:

Cardinal Trait Cardinal Trait – – a trait that dominates an a trait that dominates an individual’s entire personality.individual’s entire personality.

Central Traits Central Traits – – common traits that make up our common traits that make up our personalities.personalities.

Secondary Traits Secondary Traits – – are traits that are only are traits that are only present under certain conditions/circumstances.present under certain conditions/circumstances.

Categories of Traits:Categories of Traits:

Neo-Freudian Theorist.Neo-Freudian Theorist. Earned Ph.D in Biochemistry from Cambridge.Earned Ph.D in Biochemistry from Cambridge. Known for the contribution of the TAT. Known for the contribution of the TAT. Called his approach “Personology”.Called his approach “Personology”. Developed Theory of Psychogenic Needs.Developed Theory of Psychogenic Needs.

Henry Murray: Henry Murray:

Essentially, it is the study of the person Essentially, it is the study of the person himself.himself.

Murray believed that “Personology is simple in Murray believed that “Personology is simple in structure but complex in detail.”structure but complex in detail.”

Also believed no piece of behavior could be Also believed no piece of behavior could be understood without taking into account the understood without taking into account the fully functioning person.fully functioning person.

Personology:Personology:

Primary Needs Primary Needs (viscerogenic needs)(viscerogenic needs)

Secondary Needs Secondary Needs (Psychogenic needs)(Psychogenic needs)

Murray divided needs into:Murray divided needs into:

Primary Needs Primary Needs – – (Viscerogenic/Biological (Viscerogenic/Biological needs) needs for food, water, air, avoidance of needs) needs for food, water, air, avoidance of pain.pain.

Secondary Needs Secondary Needs – – Psychological needs or as Psychological needs or as Murray called them, the “Murray called them, the “psychogenicpsychogenic” needs.” needs.

Murray divided needs into:Murray divided needs into:

Psychogenic Needs: (21)Psychogenic Needs: (21) AbasementAbasement AchievementAchievement AffiliationAffiliation AggressionAggression AutonomyAutonomy BlameavoidanceBlameavoidance CounteractionCounteraction

HarmavoidanceHarmavoidance InfavoidanceInfavoidance NurturanceNurturance OrderOrder PlayPlay RejectionRejection SentienceSentience

Psychogenic Needs: (21)Psychogenic Needs: (21)

DefendanceDefendance DominanceDominance SexSex DeferenceDeference

SuccoranceSuccorance UnderstadingUnderstading ExhibitionExhibition

1.1. AbasementAbasement – – To surrender and accept To surrender and accept punishment.punishment.

2.2. AchievementAchievement – – to overcome obstacles and to overcome obstacles and succeed.succeed.

3.3. AffiliationAffiliation – – to make associations and to make associations and friendships.friendships.

4.4. Autonomy Autonomy – – to resist others and stand strong.to resist others and stand strong.


5.5. AggressionAggression – – to injure others.to injure others.

6.6. BlameavoidanceBlameavoidance – – to avoid blame and obey to avoid blame and obey the rules.the rules.

7.7. CounteractionCounteraction – – to defend honor.to defend honor.

8.8. DefendanceDefendance – – to justify actions and defend to justify actions and defend oneself against blame or belittlement. oneself against blame or belittlement.

9.9. DeferenceDeference – – to serve and follow superior.to serve and follow superior.


10.10. DominanceDominance – – to control and lead others.to control and lead others.

11.11. ExhibitionExhibition – – to attract attention.to attract attention.

12.12. HarmavoidanceHarmavoidance – – to avoid pain.to avoid pain.

13.13. InfavoidanceInfavoidance – – to avoid failure, shame, to avoid failure, shame, humilation.humilation.

14.14. NurturanceNurturance – – to protect the helpless.to protect the helpless.


15.15. OrderOrder – to arrange, organize and be precise.– to arrange, organize and be precise.

16.16. PlayPlay – to relieve tension, relax and have fun.– to relieve tension, relax and have fun.

17.17. RejectionRejection – to exclude another, ignore, be aloof.– to exclude another, ignore, be aloof.

18.18. SentienceSentience – to seek and enjoy sensuous – to seek and enjoy sensuous impressionsimpressions

19.19. SexSex – to form and enjoy erotic relationship– to form and enjoy erotic relationship


20.20. SuccoranceSuccorance – to seek protection and sympathy.– to seek protection and sympathy.

21.21. UnderstandingUnderstanding – to analyze and experience, to – to analyze and experience, to seek knowledge.seek knowledge.


Born on March 20, 1905 in England.Born on March 20, 1905 in England. Earned his BS in Chemistry from Kings Earned his BS in Chemistry from Kings

College.College. Earned his Ph.D in Psychology from Earned his Ph.D in Psychology from

University College.University College. Used the Factor Analysis of Spearman.Used the Factor Analysis of Spearman. Known for 16-Factor Personality Model.Known for 16-Factor Personality Model.

Raymond Cattell: Raymond Cattell:

is a statistical technique used to find is a statistical technique used to find major trends in large amounts of data.major trends in large amounts of data.

Factor Analysis:Factor Analysis:

These are factors (traits) that could be These are factors (traits) that could be used to describe and explain used to describe and explain individual differences.individual differences.

16 PF (Personality Factor):16 PF (Personality Factor):

VigilanceVigilance AbstractednessAbstractedness PrivatenessPrivateness ApprehensionApprehension Openness to changeOpenness to change Self-RelianceSelf-Reliance PerfectionismPerfectionism TensionTension

16 PF (Personality Factors):16 PF (Personality Factors): WarmthWarmth ReasoningReasoning Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability DominanceDominance LivelinessLiveliness Rule consciousnessRule consciousness Social BoldnessSocial Boldness SensitivitySensitivity

16 PF (Personality Factor):16 PF (Personality Factor):FACTORFACTOR LOWLOW HIGHHIGH

WarmthWarmth Reserve, distant, aloofReserve, distant, aloof Easy going, participating, Easy going, participating,

ReasoningReasoning Less intelligent, unable to Less intelligent, unable to handle abstract problemshandle abstract problems

More Intelligent, abstract More Intelligent, abstract thinking, fast learnerthinking, fast learner

Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability Easily upset, emotinally Easily upset, emotinally less stable, sensitiveless stable, sensitive

Adaptive, Mature, Adaptive, Mature, Emotionally stableEmotionally stable

DominanceDominance Accommodating, humble, Accommodating, humble, avoids conflictavoids conflict

Dominant, competitive, Dominant, competitive, stubborn, bossystubborn, bossy

LivelinessLiveliness Silent, serious, restrainedSilent, serious, restrained Happy go lucky, cheerful, Happy go lucky, cheerful, impulsiveimpulsive

16 PF (Personality Factor):16 PF (Personality Factor):FACTORFACTOR LOWLOW HIGHHIGH

Rule ConsciousnessRule Consciousness Nonconforming, disregards Nonconforming, disregards rules, expedientrules, expedient

Rule-conscious, moralistic, Rule-conscious, moralistic, conscientiousconscientious

Social BoldnessSocial Boldness Shy, hesitant, intimidatedShy, hesitant, intimidated Socially bold, venturesomeSocially bold, venturesome

SensitivitySensitivity Tough minded, Tough minded, unsentimental unsentimental objectiveobjective

Sensitive, sentimentalSensitive, sentimental

VigilanceVigilance Trusting, unsuspecting, Trusting, unsuspecting, acceptingaccepting

Vigilant, suspicious, Vigilant, suspicious, distustfuldistustful

AbstractednessAbstractedness Grounded, practical, steadyGrounded, practical, steady Imaginative, impractical, Imaginative, impractical, absent mindedabsent minded

16 PF (Personality Factor):16 PF (Personality Factor):FACTOR LOW HIGH

PrivatenessPrivateness Genuine, Open, Genuine, Open, unpretentiousunpretentious

Private, nondisclosingPrivate, nondisclosing

ApprehensionApprehension Secure, unworriedSecure, unworried Worried, guilt proneWorried, guilt prone

Openness to changeOpenness to change Conservative, traditionalConservative, traditional Experimental, liberalExperimental, liberal

Self RelianceSelf Reliance Group orientedGroup oriented Self sufficient, resourcefulSelf sufficient, resourceful

PerfectionismPerfectionism Impulsive, uncontrolledImpulsive, uncontrolled Organized, controlledOrganized, controlled

OOpennesspenness CConscientiousnessonscientiousness EExtraversionxtraversion AAgreeablenessgreeableness NNeuroticismeuroticism

The Big Five Dimensions of The Big Five Dimensions of Personality: Personality:

OpennessOpenness – – refers to openness to experience refers to openness to experience rather than openness in an interpersonal sense.rather than openness in an interpersonal sense.

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness – – refers to how controlled refers to how controlled and self-disciplined we are.and self-disciplined we are.

ExtraversionExtraversion – – extraverts get their energy from extraverts get their energy from interacting with others. (interacting with others. (Opposite of introversionOpposite of introversion))


AgreeablenessAgreeableness – – these individuals prefer these individuals prefer cooperation than competition.cooperation than competition.

NeuroticismNeuroticism –– refers to emotional stability of an refers to emotional stability of an individual.individual.


The Big 5 Characteristics:The Big 5 Characteristics:Dimension/Factor LOW HIGH

OOpennesspenness Uncreative, Uncurious, Uncreative, Uncurious, Down-to-earth, shies away Down-to-earth, shies away

from “new”from “new”

Creative, Intelectually curious, loves “new”, adventurous

CConscientiousnessonscientiousness Easygoing, Lazy, Late, Easygoing, Lazy, Late, DisorganizedDisorganized

Disciplined, responsible, efficient, organized

EExtraversionxtraversion Independent, quiet, Independent, quiet, reserved, shyreserved, shy

Outgoing, active, affectionate, sociable

AAgreeablenessgreeableness Irritable, suspicious, Irritable, suspicious, uncooperative, ruthlessuncooperative, ruthless

Trusting, Helpful, softhearted, cooperative

NNeuroticismeuroticism Secure, calm, self-satisfied, Secure, calm, self-satisfied, not easily botherednot easily bothered

Worried, insecure, self-Worried, insecure, self-pitying, moody, sensitivepitying, moody, sensitive

Criticisms/Limitations(Big 5):Criticisms/Limitations(Big 5): It may not accurately capture the It may not accurately capture the

complexities and subtleties of human complexities and subtleties of human personality.personality.

Patterns do not fit well within the five-Patterns do not fit well within the five-factor structure.factor structure.

Model is atheoretical.Model is atheoretical.

Criticisms of Trait Approach:Criticisms of Trait Approach:

Trait measures do not predict behavior Trait measures do not predict behavior well.well.

There is little evidence for cross-There is little evidence for cross-situational consistency.situational consistency.

Assessment: Self-Report Assessment: Self-Report InventoriesInventories

Self-report inventories Self-report inventories – are the – are the most widely used form of most widely used form of personality assessment.personality assessment.

Minnesota Multiphasic Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):Personality Inventory (MMPI):

the prototypic self-report inventory used the prototypic self-report inventory used by clinical psychologists.by clinical psychologists.

contains 567 true-false items.contains 567 true-false items.

Problems with Self-Report Problems with Self-Report InventoriesInventories FakingFaking

Careless and SabotageCareless and Sabotage

Response TendenciesResponse Tendencies

Strengths and Criticisms of Strengths and Criticisms of the Trait Approach the Trait Approach

StrengthsStrengths•Unlike Freud and many Neo-Unlike Freud and many Neo-Freudians, trait theorists used objective Freudians, trait theorists used objective measures to examine their constructs.measures to examine their constructs.•Has many practical applications.Has many practical applications.

CriticismsCriticisms•Trait measures do not predict behavior Trait measures do not predict behavior well.well.•There is little evidence for cross-There is little evidence for cross-situational consistency.situational consistency.•Don’t explain how traits develop.Don’t explain how traits develop.

The Trait ApproachThe Trait ApproachRelevant ResearchRelevant Research

Achievement MotivationAchievement MotivationThis brief exercise is similar to one of the This brief exercise is similar to one of the initial procedures developed by psychologists initial procedures developed by psychologists to tackle the question of why some people to tackle the question of why some people work hard and achieve in the business world, work hard and achieve in the business world, whereas others do not (McClelland, 1961, whereas others do not (McClelland, 1961, 1985; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & 1985; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953; Stewart, 19821). Lowell, 1953; Stewart, 19821).

2 Kinds of Achievement 2 Kinds of Achievement MotivationMotivation

1.1. Implicit MotiveImplicit Motive

1.1. Self-attributed or Explicit MotiveSelf-attributed or Explicit Motive

1.1. Implicit Motive Implicit Motive – we are not aware. Might – we are not aware. Might account for spontaneous actions. account for spontaneous actions.

1.1. Self-attributed or Explicit Motive Self-attributed or Explicit Motive – we can – we can readily describe. Come into play when we have readily describe. Come into play when we have time to ponder achievement options and time to ponder achievement options and decisions. decisions.

2 Kinds of Achievement 2 Kinds of Achievement MotivationMotivation

High Achievement Motivation High Achievement Motivation Characteristics Characteristics • High need achievers is that they are moderate High need achievers is that they are moderate

risk takers. risk takers. • They want to succeed, but they also are They want to succeed, but they also are

highly motivated to avoid failure.highly motivated to avoid failure.• Strong achievement motivation are optimistic Strong achievement motivation are optimistic

that their decisions are correct and that they that their decisions are correct and that they will succeed (Puca & Schmalt, 2001). will succeed (Puca & Schmalt, 2001).

• People with a high need for achievement People with a high need for achievement tackle their work with a lot of energy.tackle their work with a lot of energy.

• High need achievers don’t work hard at High need achievers don’t work hard at everything. everything.

• High need achievers also prefer jobs that give High need achievers also prefer jobs that give them personal responsibility for outcomes.them personal responsibility for outcomes.

• They want credit for success but also are They want credit for success but also are willing to accept blame or failure. willing to accept blame or failure.

High Achievement Motivation High Achievement Motivation Characteristics Characteristics

• High need achievers want concrete feedback High need achievers want concrete feedback about their performance (Fodor & Carver, about their performance (Fodor & Carver, 2000). 2000).

• They want to find out how good they are and They want to find out how good they are and how they compare to others. how they compare to others.

High Achievement Motivation High Achievement Motivation Characteristics Characteristics

Predicting Achievement Predicting Achievement Behavior Behavior Parents can promote achievement Parents can promote achievement motivation by providing support and motivation by providing support and encouragement long enough to enable encouragement long enough to enable the child to develop a sense of personal the child to develop a sense of personal competence, but not so long that the competence, but not so long that the child is robbed of independence and child is robbed of independence and initiative. initiative.

• Predictably, people with a high need for Predictably, people with a high need for achievement are more likely that others to achievement are more likely that others to find economic prosperity (Littig & Yeracaris, find economic prosperity (Littig & Yeracaris, 1965). 1965).

• Researchers also warn that a high need for Researchers also warn that a high need for achievement can sometimes be a two-edged achievement can sometimes be a two-edged sword. sword.

Predicting Achievement Predicting Achievement Behavior Behavior

• The same high level of achievement The same high level of achievement motivation that helps some people motivation that helps some people succeed can also interfere with succeed can also interfere with effective performance. effective performance.

Predicting Achievement Predicting Achievement Behavior Behavior

Gender, Culture, and Gender, Culture, and AchievementAchievement- Researchers suggests that many other variables - Researchers suggests that many other variables come into play when comparing the achievement come into play when comparing the achievement behavior of men and women (Hyde & Kling, behavior of men and women (Hyde & Kling, 2001; Mednick & Thomas, 2008). 2001; Mednick & Thomas, 2008).

• Men and women differ in how they think Men and women differ in how they think about achievement (Eccles, 1985, 2005).about achievement (Eccles, 1985, 2005).

• Because of differences of Because of differences of gender-role gender-role socialization, socialization, men and women may differ on men and women may differ on the kinds of achievement they value and the kinds of achievement they value and where achievement falls among their personal where achievement falls among their personal goals. goals.

Gender, Culture, and Gender, Culture, and AchievementAchievement

• Men and women differ in the way they define Men and women differ in the way they define success (Gaeddert, 1985). success (Gaeddert, 1985).

• MENMEN in our society are more likely to see in our society are more likely to see success in terms of external standards, such as success in terms of external standards, such as gaining prestige or recognition for gaining prestige or recognition for accomplishments. accomplishments.


• WOMENWOMEN are more likely to rely on are more likely to rely on internal definitions of success, such as internal definitions of success, such as whether they accomplish what they set whether they accomplish what they set out to do. out to do.


- Researchers find that the meaning of - Researchers find that the meaning of achievement sometimes varies as a function achievement sometimes varies as a function of culture (Hui, 1988; Salili, 1994). of culture (Hui, 1988; Salili, 1994).


• In the US, achievement is typically defined In the US, achievement is typically defined in terms of personal accomplishments. in terms of personal accomplishments.

• In these cultures individual effort is rewarded In these cultures individual effort is rewarded and people are singled out for their success.and people are singled out for their success.


• Americans tend to see themselves in Americans tend to see themselves in competition with coworkers and find this competition with coworkers and find this competition motivating. competition motivating.


• In collectivist cultures, success is more likely to In collectivist cultures, success is more likely to be defined in terms of cooperation and group be defined in terms of cooperation and group accomplishments. accomplishments.

• Workers in a collectivist culture might have a Workers in a collectivist culture might have a strong sense of accomplishment when they do strong sense of accomplishment when they do their part and the entire company reaches its goal their part and the entire company reaches its goal (Niles, 1998). (Niles, 1998).

• Individual recognition is not required and is not Individual recognition is not required and is not needed. needed.


Concepts like achievement motivation that Concepts like achievement motivation that focus on the individual may not be useful focus on the individual may not be useful when studying behavior in a collectivist when studying behavior in a collectivist culture. Rather, new definitions for culture. Rather, new definitions for achievement and success may be needed to achievement and success may be needed to fully understand achievement behavior in fully understand achievement behavior in different societies. different societies.


Many psychologists are interested in Many psychologists are interested in the explanations people generate for the explanations people generate for

why they do well or poorly in why they do well or poorly in achievement situations (Weiner, 1985, achievement situations (Weiner, 1985,

1990, 2006). 1990, 2006).

AttributionsAttributions

• Determines how we feel about the Determines how we feel about the performance and how we perform in performance and how we perform in similar situations in the future. similar situations in the future.

Three Dimensions for AttributionsThree Dimensions for AttributionsStability Stable Attributions Unstable Attributions

Good coordination Good luck

Poor math attitude Illness (such as cold)

Locus Internal Attributions External Attributions

Extra effort Easy test

Poor skills Difficult competition

Control Controllable Attributions Uncontrollable Attributions

High motivation From a wealthy family

Not enough practice Weak national economy

• Achievement is not only determined by how Achievement is not only determined by how we account for performances after the fact, we account for performances after the fact, but also by the goals we set for ourselves at but also by the goals we set for ourselves at the outset (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Kaplan the outset (Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Kaplan & Maehr, 2007).& Maehr, 2007).

• Provide targets that individuals aspire to in Provide targets that individuals aspire to in achievement siyuations. achievement siyuations.

Achievement GoalsAchievement Goals

Broad Categories of Broad Categories of Achievement GoalsAchievement Goals

1.1. Mastery GoalsMastery Goals

2.2. Performance GoalsPerformance Goals

1.1. Mastery Goals Mastery Goals – concerned with developing – concerned with developing competence. competence.

• Students motivated by a strong mastery goal Students motivated by a strong mastery goal will work hard to learn the subject matter in a will work hard to learn the subject matter in a course. course.

• SatisfactionSatisfaction comes from feeling they comes from feeling they understand the material and a sense of understand the material and a sense of proficiency. proficiency.

• People motivated by People motivated by mastery goals mastery goals are likely are likely to retain the information and skills they learn to retain the information and skills they learn longer than those driven by performance longer than those driven by performance goals. goals.

• People motivated by People motivated by mastery goals mastery goals often often continue their interest in the material after the continue their interest in the material after the recognition for achievement is gone recognition for achievement is gone (Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999).(Rawsthorne & Elliot, 1999).

2.2. Performance Goals Performance Goals – concerned with – concerned with demonstrating accomplishments to others.demonstrating accomplishments to others.

• Students motivated by strong performance Students motivated by strong performance goals want to obtain a high grade, possibly the goals want to obtain a high grade, possibly the highest grade in class.highest grade in class.

• SatisfactionSatisfaction comes from receiving the comes from receiving the recognition that accompanies the achievement. recognition that accompanies the achievement.

People aren’t just motivated to People aren’t just motivated to succeed. Sometimes they are more succeed. Sometimes they are more

concerned about not feeling. concerned about not feeling.

Achievement Goal Framework Achievement Goal Framework

Mastery-Approach Goal

Performance-Approach Goal

Mastery-Avoidance Goal

Performance-Avoidance Goal

Definition

Valence

Positive (Approaching Success)

Negative (Avoiding Failure)

Type A, Hostility and HealthType A, Hostility and Health

Type A as a Personality VariableType A as a Personality Variable

Hostility and HealthHostility and Health

Education

The Trait Approach