USER STUDY FOR EXPLORATION OF USERS NEEDS

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International Journal of Library & Information Science (IJLIS) Volume 6, Issue 1, Jan–Feb 2017, pp. 67–78, Article ID: IJLIS_06_01_008

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USER STUDY FOR EXPLORATION OF USERS NEEDS

Dr. Pragya GuptaNayak

Librarian, Institute for Excellence in Higher Education,

Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT

The real challenge in the modern world is not producing information or storing information,

but apt and proper use of information by people. Since volume of information is growing in leaps

and bounds, the information needs of users are becoming more and more diverse and complex. In

this changing context information providers are facing a lot of challenges to capture, process, store

and disseminate the available information for actual users. The user studies provide a clear

understanding of the actual information needs of the user in order to readjust the existing

information systems or chose new ones. Various models of information needs and information

seeking behaviour have been discussed. Each model represents a different but an overlapping or

similar approach to information seeking behavior of users. In order to satisfy the information need,

the user actively undergoes the information seeking processes. Some factors like physiological,

emotional, learning and demographic, etc. also deeply influence information seeking behaviour i.e.

some people have to face some obstacles. These barriers may be economic, social, environmental,

time related or geographical.

Effectiveness of a professional depends upon dissemination and use of right information at

right time. Information and communication technologies have changed the way in which the

libraries provide their services. Users study provide deeper understanding of access to their

collections and services .The need and behavior of their users and satisfaction ratio of users are

new assessment techniques of libraries. Therefore an effort has been made to how determine

information need and information seeking behavior of users.

Key words: Information needs, Information seeking Behaviors, Models of Information seeking

behavior, user study

Cite this Article: Dr. Pragya Gupta Nayak, User Study For Exploration of Users Needs.

International Journal of Library & Information Science, 6(1), 2017, pp.67–78.

http://www.iaeme.com/IJLIS/issues.asp?JType=IJLIS&VType=6&IType=1

1. INTRODUCTION

The method of determining information needs and use is usually an essential part of user studies. (Kawatra,

1992, P 2)1 A user study is defined as “Systematic study of information requirements of users in order to

facilitate manning exchanger between information systems and users”. User is an important component in

any library and information system. The main objective of a library is to satisfy the information needs of

the users and to provide the right information to the right user at the right time. All activities of library

revolved around the surrounding of users needs. To achieve user satisfaction, Information provider must

Dr. Pragya Gupta Nayak


know the library users, how they interact with the information system, their purpose and pattern of search,

what strategy they adopt for reaching information and their pertinent information requirements. Now-a-

days user studies play an important role to evaluate the existing information system in order to re-orient

and improve library collections, services and activities to effectively meet the information needs of the

user. In an era of continuous technological development in conjunction with information overload, user

studies enable information professionals to improve both their understanding of information use and

information delivery .Day to day contact with user can provide some of the understanding but, for a deeper

insight into the information needs, more formal studies are required. According to Shaughness (1987)2

one

of the fundamental factors for quality assessment of information services is the focus on patrons.

(Pao, 1989. P 42)3categorizes the three groups for user studies.

• User oriented studies.

• System use oriented studies

• Utility oriented studies.

User oriented studies: Are focused on the characteristics of users. Pao suggests following points in the

study in the concentrating on users. User age, educational level, economic status, personal demography,

sociological, job and task description.

System use oriented studies: System use oriented studies drive their data from the system. The

transactions between users and the system are investigated and examined, for example the number of item

known to be having and/or loan through inter library channels, and the number of on line searches perform.

Utility Oriented Studies: Are related to information use and its impact. This study is difficult in the

sense that information use is uncountable and unobservable.

Purpose of a user study is:

• To identify the needs of users.

• To identify the resources and services user need.

• To identify the strength and weakness of library resources.

• For book selection.

• For resources collection.

User studies are a must at the time of designing a system or services. The effectiveness of a library and

information system depends on the extent to which the system characteristics correspond with the users

and, in how much the potential users are willing and able to make use of it.

A Systematic user study can also reveal some unanticipated data about the dynamic component of user.

No system has a luxury of unlimited resources and funds, User studies are required to check whether

intended goals are served by the system, if not, to alter the priorities and programmes so as to ensure

judicious allocation of limited resources. Users studies help improve public relations of a library with its

users. User studies is an area of continuous librarian education, about users than user education about

library and understanding user is a must.

The final goal of the system, which is engaged in collection and retrieval of information, is to deliver

the information according to the needs and requirements of the users. The success of providers of

information service depends on their ability with regard to catering to the specific need of information

seekers. So information needs of users should be carefully measured and assessed and that will prepare the

necessary platform for all information activities. Due to Scientific and technological revolution, the sheer

quantity of knowledge and information is growing exponentially. As a result, the libraries and information

centers are facing growing challenges to meet the diverse needs of the users.

User Study For Exploration of Users Needs


2. MODELS OF INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOUR

Information seeking behaviour is the key area of user studies. Users are the principal component of

information system. Thus, it is important to examine information seeking behavior of user because this

behavior can assist librarians, designers of information system and information professionals to create a

system that is according to user strategies.

For understanding the process of information seeking, various models are useful for examining the

strategies, process, success and failures of the users while searching for information.

2.1. Alen Foster’s4

a Nonlinear Model of Information Seeking Behavior

Foster group information seeking activities into three categories: opening, orientation and

consolidation. These processes describe the interaction between the information seeker’s cognitive

approach and their internal and external context.

Opening: is a nonlinear component representing a collection of activities. All activities interact with

each other further opening activities and other core processes. Two activities, breadth exploration and

eclecticism, involve combination of other activities to form a larger process. Breadth exploration is a

conscious expansion of searching to allow exploration of every possibility. Following activities are Choice

of keywords, selection of sources and the initiation of combination of other core processes. Eclecticism

includes accepting, gathering and storing information from a diverse range of both passive and active

sources building.

Orientation: performs many of the basic problem solving aspects. It focuses on identification and the

direction we should look at. The activities and strategies found in the opening process feed results into the

orientation process.

Consolidation: It is the process of judgment whether acquired material is sufficient to satisfy the

information need. In this step search will be refined by deciding the boundaries for search. Outcomes

depend on sources and awareness of information needs. If information or outcomes are not available then

the loop will go back to the characteristics of information need.

Information seeking is context dependent process in which the information seeker works. Many

external and internal factors influence this process. There are categories of context which are given as

follows: External context includes social and organizational, time, the project, cognitive approach, etc

.Internal influence i.e. level of experience, prior knowledge, self-precision, and self-efficiency .Cognitive

approach means mode of thinking and willingness to identify the use of information.

2.2. Barbara Nicdzwiedzka (2003)5, General Model of Information Behavior

Barbara designed a new model of information behavior on the basis of Wilson’s 1996 model of

information behavior. The proposed new model consists of main concepts of Wilson’s model such as



person-in-context, three categories intervening variables (individual, social and environmental).According

to this model, a user perceives a need and then takes decision to seek information. He either seeks himself

independently or by intermediaries. This seeking process is done in information center, libraries etc. or in

computerized search system or own knowledge and reference collection. This entire process includes

intervening variables i.e. personal, role related, environmental. Wilson in his model described that these

variables influence as activating mechanism context. Thus, variables are influenced at all stages of the

process.

The model shows two basic strategies of information seeking.

• User seeks information personally

• Intermediaries seek information on behalf of user

2.3. Ellis’ Models of Information Seeking Behavior

Ellis (1989)5, Ellis etal (1993)

6 and Ellis and Hugan (1997)

7 proposed a general model of information

seeking behavior after studying the information seeking pattern of different user groups for example; social

scientists, research physicists, chemists and engineers. Ellis’ model illustrates six types of information

seeking activities. These are Starting, Chaining, Browsing, Differentiating, Monitoring and Extracting.

They have explained these activities in the following terms.

Starting: “The means employed by the user begin information seeking, for example, asking a

knowledgeable colleague”. It means all activities which are related to initial search for example,

identification of sources from which seeker get information might serve as primary source because they

refer to additional sources related to the topic.

Chaining: It is characterized by following different forms of referential connections between the

sources to identify new sources of information Footnotes and bibliographic citations cited in an article or

book referred to sources relevant to the topic make a chain. This chain can be backward or forward. Chain

enhances the search process.

Browsing: “Semi directed or semi structured searching”. Browsing means “to look casually”. It is the

activity by which seeker looks through table of contents, list of titles, keywords, proper nouns e.g. person,

organization’s name, abstract, summaries and conclusion. Shelf reading is also browsing. These activities

are basically unstructured and adhoc.

Differentiating: It is characterized by the activities undertaken when the information sources are ranked

according to their relative importance based on the respondent’s own perceptions. Informal channels are

given preference over formal channels. Participation in discussion and conversations is considered to be

more effective than reading literature. Filtering: - It is the process carried out by the use of certain criteria

or a mechanism while searching the information to make it as relevant and precise as possible. After some

browsing, the user filters and selects the sources that are according to his need or are recommended by

anyone or reviews. Computerised literature searches are considered the main means of filtering which

minimize the risk of failing to obtain the important information and problem of lack of time

Monitoring: “Keeping up to date or current awareness searching”. It is the activity in which users keep

themselves aware about the current and latest knowledge of their interest.

Extracting: “Selectively identifying relevant material in an information source”. In this activity, the

seeker searches a particular source or resources to identify- the material of his interest. This particular

source would be secondary type of source which can be located at the specific source e.g. bibliography,

indexes and online databases.

Verifying: “Checking the accuracy of information” which is sought.

Ending: i.e. “the tying up of loose ends through a final search”. This activity is carried out to actually

finish the information seeking process. This is performed at the end of final stage. When the researchers



are knowledgeable about the subject field and the conclusions are drawn they may need to carry out small

scale searches targeted towards the particular unsolved question to complete the project.

2.4. Wilson’s General Model of Information Behavior (1996)8

This model is designed on the basic framework of the 1981 model. The person in context remains the

focus of information needs. In this model barriers are identified as intervening variables, whose impact

may be “supportive” or “preventive” information seeking behavior would be active or passive. Behavior

theories are involved in stimulating information seeking behavior which explains the factors that motivate

information seeking behavior.

Stress coping theory explains that when the information needs of individuals engaged in seeking

activities are high, their work is affected due to lack of knowledge. This situation creates stress. High level

of stress develops high level of motivation to cope the stress and the individual engages in seeking

activities. The risk/reward theory explains why in some situations people seek information and in some

they do not and why certain information sources are more frequently used then others.

2.5. Leckie etal’s Model of Information Seeking of Professionals (1996)9



Leckie etal’s model is based on the assumptions that a man associated with any profession has to play a

particular role in his profession. For performing his role he has to accomplish particular tasks. These tasks

require information.

Thus, information need arises at this stage. In response to the needs, he shows seeking behavior. This

behavior is affected by factors such as sources available, intended use of sources, individual characteristics

of the user, and environment surrounding the user (Devadson and Lingam 1997)10

Leckie et.al specifies the

factors which directly have an impact on his appearances and awareness of information sources which

include accessibility, quality, timeliness, trustworthiness, familiarity and previous success. This model is

compatible for the researcher’s study because it is based on work role and tasks which arises information

needs.

2.6. Kuhithau(1992)11

Model of Information Seeking

Kuhlthau developed a model for high secondary student’s information seeking behavior to accomplish a

research assignment. His model illustrates information seeking process in different stages:

Initiation: In the first step the user recognizes the need due to lack of knowledge or understanding.

General information is related to the general understanding rather than specific information.

Formulation: Information gathered in exploration stage and thoughts become clearer and focused

perspective on the topic is developed on the basis of information found. At this stage understanding of the

topic grows and thus, the information search can be more focused.

Collection: Interaction between user and information system i.e. library, experts, librarian, friends

occur. In this step user have clear sense of direction. A person can specify his needs based on

understanding developed in exploration step. He is more confident in this stage.

Search Closure or presentation: When the problem is resolved or assignment is prepared the search is

completed and closed.

In Kuhlthau’s model student’s knowledge grows gradually due to interaction with information and

information system. Cognitive process is involved in information seeking. User gradually enhances

learning. His cognitive level increases step by step. Kuhlthau’s model focuses on the search process rather

than use, synthesize, evaluation and assimilation of information.

2.7. Dervin’s (1983)12

Sense-Making Approach

Sense-making can be defined as behaviour, both internal (i.e. cognitive) and external (i.e. procedural),

which allows the individual to construct and design his or her movement through time-space. It refers to

the ways in which individuals perceive and bridge cognitive gaps . As such the Sense-making approach

can be used to acquire an understanding of information, communication, and meaningful relationships in

these forms of behaviour (Tidline 2005:113)13

. By using the Sense-making approach to study users’

information behaviour, researchers are able to discover people’s strategies, expectations, attitudes, and

anxieties within their lives and work situations (Solomon 1997a:1098)14

.

To bridge this gap, individuals seek information to make new sense and use this information to help

them continue on their journey. The outcome represents the use of information to complete a task. From a

cognitive point of view, the Sense-making approach is an essential step forward in a study of information

needs and information-seeking. The approach draws attention to individual sense-making (problem



solving) in varying situations, and focuses on the information seeker and process viewpoints rather than on

information systems or traditional viewpoints (Ingwersen & Jarvelin 2005:6215

; Tidline 2005:11416

).

2.8. Wilson’s Model of Information behavior (1981)17

The model characterizes information seeking behavior as a user perceives a need. To satisfy this need,

he makes demands from formal or informal information system services or sources. His demands may be

fulfilled or not which result in success or failure to find relevant information. In case of success the uses

the information but if he fails to satisfy the need, he will have to start searching again.In this model other

people may be involved through information exchange. In seeking process if a user finds information,

which is useful to any other person, he passes it to them

Common elements or factors reflected in all the models are that information usage is a process

involving multiple phases. There phases include the identification of Information need, the decision to use

information, selecting and acquiring information sources, finding and gathering, interpreting and

processing the information, and putting the information to use. The outcome of the information seeking

process is the utilisation of the required information to complete the task (i.e. the satisfaction of the

original need).

Ellis (1989)18

model and Kuthlthau's (1993)19

information process models characterise the information

seeking patterns of information users. Dervin's (1983)20

sense making approach's focuses on the need for

information experienced by users within the context of their personal situations.

Models have some other features, which distinguish them. While Foster, Wilson, Barbara and Kuhlthau

focus on the personal context and personal cognition of information need, their explanation of information

seeking behavior might be understood with the terminology they have used to emphasise their concept.

Foster talks of collection of certain activities which interact with each other and this combination provide

the basic drive for other required steps of his model like ‘judgment’ and ‘consolidation’. Wilson and

Barbara explain the process in a much-simplified manner. Wilson highlights the context of information

need, which is activated by a strong feeling to do something. Thus, the individual develops a deep feeling

of the need that in turn motivates him to satisfy that need under a mixed effect of psychological,

demographic, role oriented, environmental elements and source characteristics and according the

expectation of reward etc. 'the seeker is activated to seek information. Although this model is quite

comprehensive, yet Barbara believes that ‘intermediaries, who work on behalf of the user, also play some

role. Leckie’s model focuses on the work role which certainly shapes up the nature of required tasks. This

partly linear and partly circular model emphasizes the role of ‘feedback’ which in turn affects information

seeking. Kuhlthau’s six stage model describes the beginning (initiation) of the specific subject which is to

be explored. This step precedes and shapeup the kind of information required.



3. INFORMATION NEEDS

Information needs are not “Internal mental states”. This is a mistaken understanding related to the

subjectivity of a cognitive view and the concept of ASK (“Anomalous state of knowledge”).the concept of

information needs is similar to the need for love and the physiological need for food and water.

Information seeking thus is dependent upon the problem situation from which the need for information

arises”. In this view, information need is a situation or task which depends on many factors and changes as

the seeker goes form on stage of task to the next. Thus, it seems that there is a need to understand the

user’s requirement because the root of any information seeking is believed to be the concept of information

needs, like; needs for new information; need to expand or clarify the information obtained; and need to

confirm or validate the information known (Allen, 1996, P.103)22

Voigt23

recognizes types of users

Information needs or approaches

Current approach: User keeps himself abreast with the latest development in his own field of

information.

Everyday approach: is to meet user’s frequent information need during his research work. Exhaustive

approach, this type of information need user wants to know almost all the relevant literature on a particular

field.

Catching up approach: A user seeks brief but full information on this recent development in a related

field to have a quick and broad view of the subject.

Psychologists have divided need into three categories:

• Physiological need, such as of food, water, shelter etc.

• Affective needs, such as the need for attainment for domination, etc.

• Cognitive needs, such as the need to plan, to learn a skill.

Choudhary, (1999, P.181)24

Characterizes information need as-

• It is a relative concept. It depends on several factors and does not remain constant.

• Information needs vary from over a period of time.

• Information needs vary from person to person; from job to job, subject to subject, organization to

organization and so on.

• People’s information needs are largely dependent on the environment for ex, information needs of those in

an academic environment from those in an industrial, business or government/administrative environment.

• Information need often either remains unexpressed or is poorly expressed.

• Information often changes on receipt of some information.

All these categories are interrelated. One type of need may trigger another and as a part of search for

satisfaction of needs an individual may seek information, Rohde (1986)25

3.1. Factors of Information Need & Use

• Information needs are subjective as well as objective with inter relationship between the two.

• Needs differ from: individual to individual, group to group, institution to institution, society to society,

environment to environment and from time to time.

The main factors for such variations are caused because the group or the individual has to perform

various work roles and functions in different environment. In addition to this, personal characteristics,

aptitude, knowledge structure also influences individual behavior of information seeking. The range of

information services available, service aptitude of the library staff, availability of information resources,

physical facilities and environment within the library or information center and user own orientation also

make difference. The social, political, economic and cultural environment within the work role is



performed by users also affect information needs of users. Paisley (1981)26

observed the following

dependant factors:-

• The full array of information sources those are available to users.

• The different uses to which the information will be put.

• Individual characteristics of users, for example, Motivation professional orientation etc.

• The social, cultural, political and economic factors that may affect the work of the user and his/her

information needs, information seeking behavior and use patterns.

• The consequence and impact of information use, for example increase in work productivity.

Persistent person is strong willed to search information. He tries again and again and in case of failure

he applies new strategies. Some people search comprehensively on a topic. Their search is exhaustive in

nature. Some people keep all their information systematically in files and use it in time of need. A

motivated person has strong desire to search. So many factors create motivation, job; he/she would do

better work (competition with other employ); job perfection promotion or financial matters, several other

factors also contribute in creating motivation. Moreover, people do not get time in their busy schedule to

meet their information needs. They need concise, precise and ready mode information urgently. Access to

information, sources and systems is very important.

Information need is a relative concept. Different authors describe different factors but almost all of

them agree on these factors: Work activity/ job or subject field, motivation, willingness to search and use

information, personal characteristics, availability of information sources.

3.2. Identification of Information Need

Hale (1986)27

summarized the purpose of identifying information needs for:

• Optimizing the allocation of operating resources by customizing services to selected clientele.

• Fine tuning the delivery of information within existing system.

Although, the identification of information need is a complex process, it is a crucial job, because it

depends on different variables such as subject interest of user, nature of his work, motivation etc .Tom

Wilson presented a paper in Association of Caribbean University, research and Institutional libraries, XXV

conference, 1997, on the topic of “Information Seeking

Behavior: designing information system to meet our clients’ needs”. According to (Wilson.)28

Information recognized if we understand,

• The nature of organization.

• Organizational information need.

• Work in the organization.

• Personal Information needs.

Every individual performs different types of activities in the organizations to fulfill his responsibilities.

To understand the work in the organizations their activities must be observed. Interaction with people is

the best method to comprehend the work in the organization. (Wilson)29

“Talking to people about their

problems, observe flow of information, find out how information sources are used, what are the methods

by which information manager keeps himself. Every person has working responsibilities, their working

activities constitute some needs and these needs are related to fill a knowledge gap, to resolve any

problem.”



4. INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIORS

In order to satisfy the information need, the user actively undergoes the information seeking processes. It is

the “Complex pattern of action and interactions which people engage in when seeking information of

whatever kind and for whatever purpose”. (Ellis 1997, P.216)30

The following process takes place in the information seeking behavior.

• Identifying objective’

• Defining need.

• Accessing information system

• Establishing sources of information

• Information acquisition

• Use of Information

• Satisfaction/ dissatisfaction

(Solomon, 1997).31

Kuhlthav (1993)32

describes information seeking as a cognitive and emotional

process of constructing a personal understanding of a topic. Personality traits play an important role in the

learning process. Seeking process and seeking strategies reflect personality characteristics.

CONCLUSION

Summarizing the compiled ideas and thoughts presented by various experts, one can say that information

seeking behavior is a multidimensional process and its dimensions are mental, linguistic, cognitive, social

and psychological.

The process starts when a person perceives a need in his mind and for satisfaction of need he interacts

with library, information centers, internet or a person. An interaction causes social relationship in turn.

Thinking, perception, memory and learning are involved in cognitive process. Language is used to convey

the message which appears in the mind. It is a learning process in which thinking, dealing and acting is

involved.

Information seeking behavior undertakes under certain circumstances, e.g. time, background,

conditions, etc. so it is considered to be a context based process. One of its important dimensions is

psychological in nature. An individual’s type of personality has a great impact on his seeking process.

Accessibility and reliability of an information source or channel is also quite important in this process.

Ever increasing number of sources and channels of information are not easily accessible by users. Users

often do not have knowledge regarding how to make best use of many sources of information. Consequent

user’s demands for various types of information are increasing continuously. There is an urgent need to

assess and analyze the real and current information needs of users.

In this regard the development of powerful information system/centers, strong collection and

development of library, designing of services and planning is quite important. The effectiveness of an

information system/Center or any other channel depends on user’s satisfaction. User’s information need

study is the only way to measure the effectiveness of any information system. This area of the subject

requires continuous research to cope with the demands of the changing information environment.

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