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Additive ManufacturingMIT 2.008x

Prof. John Hart

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E. Sachs, M. Cima, et al. MIT ~1990.

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Photo taken in Fall 2013 at MIT IDC

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Earlier AM parts (arguably not the earliest)PhotopolymerizationKodama, Rev Sci Instr. 1981

Sintering of metal/ceramic powderHousholder, 1979 (Patent)Image: http://nsfam.mae.ufl.edu/Slides/Beaman.pdf

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Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material.

The term ‘3D printing’ is increasingly used as a synonym for AM. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal.

From the International Committee F42 for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, ASTM.and http://www.eos.info/additive_manufacturing/for_technology_interested

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Material removal (“top-down”)

Material addition“bottom-up”

CNC machining image © 2016 Dungarvan Precision Engineeringhttp://dpe.ie/cnc-milling/

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Why is AM such a big deal now?

§ Wide availability of CAD/CAM software.

§ Improved automation and component technologies.

§ A growing library of ‘printable’ materials.

§ Major industry and government investment.

§ Freedom to operate enabled by patent expirations.

§ Momentum, confidence, and creative vision.

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Agenda: Additive Manufacturing

§ What and why?§ Overview of AM processes§ Extrusion AM (FFF/FDM)§ Photopolymerization (SLA)§ Powder bed fusion

(SLS/SLM)§ Emerging AM technologies§ Conclusion

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Additive Manufacturing:

2. What can AM do and why is it so important?

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The AM industry today

Wohlers report 2016

Machines

Services

2015: $5.2B AM machines and services2015 growth = 26%27-year CAGR = 26%

Worldwide mfg is ~$15 trillion (16% of the world economy)àà AM = 0.03%.

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The AM industry today“How do you use the parts made on your

industrial AM machines?”

Ti64 hip implant cups (Arcam)

Orthodontic aligners (Align Tech)

Wohlers report 2016

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Aston Martin DB7:

Skyfall

Custom airway stent: U. Michigan

Shoe cleats: NIKETooling: Linear Mold,

Triform

Airbus

GE leap fuel nozzle

The diverse industrial uses of AM

Modular products: Google Ara

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Why Additive Mfg?

§ Fast prototyping

§ Complex geometries

§ Mutiple materials; new materials§ Enhanced performance

§ Low-volume (personalized?) manufacturing

§ etc..

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Gibson, Rosen, and Stucker. Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Could this be machined?

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What additive manufacturing processes have you used?

What was your experience?

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How good (or bad) is additive manufacturing?(it depends on the process, machine, settings, and post-processing)

Rate LOW 0.01-1 kg/hr(getting better!)

Quality LOW ~0.1 mm resolution(rate-quality tradeoff)

Cost HIGH $0.1-10 per gram!(highly dependent on material and process)

Flexibility AMAZING (if you know what to do)

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Manufacturing: value at scale

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AM lets us redefine value and scale

àà How do we get there?

Conner et al. Additive Manufacturing, 2014

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AM lets us redefine value and scale

Conner et al. Additive Manufacturing, 2014

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R. D’Aveni, Harvard Business Review, May 2015

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Additive Manufacturing:

3. Overview of AM processes

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Fused filament fabrication (FFF/FDM)

Atlas V rocket component (Stratasys)

Stereolithography(SLA)

Formlabs / www.deschaud.fr

Materialise

http://www.c3plasticdesign.co.uk/stereolithography-process.html

Selective laser sintering / melting (SLS/SLM)

EOS

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Material and Binder Jetting

Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

Directed Energy Deposition

Stratasys/Objet

mCorFabrisonicSciaky

Optomec

Objet

Voxeljet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminated_object_manufacturing

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The 7 AM methods (from ASTM F42)

§ Vat photopolymerization (àà SLA): material is cured by light-activated polymerization.

§ Material jetting (à Objet): droplets of build material are jetted to form an object.

§ Binder jetting (à 3DP): liquid bonding agent is jetted to join powder materials.

§ Material extrusion (àà FFF/FDM): material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle and solidifies.

§ Sheet lamination (à LOM): sheets are bonded to form an object.

§ Powder bed fusion (àà SLS/SLM): energy (typically a laser or electron beam) is used to selectively fuse regions of a powder bed.

§ Directed energy deposition (à LENS): focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as deposition occurs.

Low

ene

rgy

Hig

h en

ergy

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We must master all the steps

Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies

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Additive Manufacturing:

4. Extrusion processes

(i.e., Fused Filament Fabrication, FFFFused Deposition Modeling, FDM)

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Nozzle

Build platform

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iPhone dockMatt Haughey (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Aircraft ductImage © WTWH Media LLC

Ultimaker 2~US$2,500: 10 x 9 x 8”

Stratasys Fortus~US$150,000: 16 x 14 x 16”~US$400,000: 36 x 24 x 36”

Imag

e ©

Ulti

mak

erB.

V.

Imag

e ©

Stra

tasy

sLt

d.

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from Solid Concepts: excerpt of https://youtu.be/WHO6G67GJbM

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

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Stratasys FDM materials

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Build plate

SupportRaft (base)

Part

FDM part nomenclature

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Discretization and toolpath effects

Diagrams from Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies

Accuracy Strength

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Polymer extrusion in FDMThermoplasticà amorphous polymer network, linear chain architecture

Comparison to injection into a mold

Tf = forming temp.

The chains align then slip during flowHeated bedABS ~80C

ExtruderABS ~260C

Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing

Osswald et al., International Plastics Handbook

Malloy, Plastic Part Design Injection Molding

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A dual extruder

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Extrusion force vs temperature

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Extruder(Force((N)

Feed(Rate((mm/s)

200+C

230+C

260+C

59+N

à Force increases with feed rateà Force is greater at lower temperatureà Force saturates at ~60 N

Extruder

Load+cell

Heaterassembly

Jamison Go

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Shear failure of the filament

Drive knurls(normal operation)

Material shear(extrusion failure)

1 mm

Drive&wheel

Filament&shear&area

Material&under&drive&wheel&teeth

Feed Direction

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Geometry of the FDM nozzle

𝑰𝑰

𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰𝑰

𝑙𝑙#

𝑙𝑙$

𝑑𝑑#

𝑑𝑑$

𝛽𝛽

Heater blockExtrusion nozzle

I

II, III

Zone I: heatingZone II: transitionZone III: area reduction (dominates pressure drop)

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Extrusion rate is limited by heat transferà Feed rates found to cause extrusion failure correspond with inadequate

filament core temperatures

3 mm/s 9 mm/s1 mm/s

Tem

pera

ture

(C)

1 mm/s

3 mm/s

9 mm/s

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ABS blended with chopped carbon fiber

~5 mm bead size

Big area additive manufacturing (BAAM!)

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2.008xStratasys Mojo = 65 min

BAAM ~30 min

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FDM: other topics§ Support criteria and

removal

§ Mechanics (= anisotropy)

§ Surface finishing

Smoothing FDM Images © Shapeways, Inc.

Ahn et al., “Anisotropic Material Properties of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) ABS,” 2002.

FDM figurine Image © 3D Genius

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Additive Manufacturing:

5. Photopolymerization

(Stereolithography, SLA)

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Materialise NV (Belgium): excerpt from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=98xG86GKj7A

à Material is cured by light-activated polymerization.

Stereolithography (SLA)

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Image © CustomPartNet

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Prototype parts

Applications of SLA

Presentation models

Personalized products

PhidgetsFOPAT Production Inc.

Tri-Tech 3DInnovated Solutions

© Moises Fernandez Acosta

Short-run tooling

Invisalign

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SLA vs FDM: layer thickness

Form1 (SLA) Stratasys Mojo (FDM)

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SLA vs FDM: toolpath

Form1 (SLA) Stratasys Mojo (FDM)

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How the flash of light works:photopolymerization (a.k.a photocuring)

àà Crosslinked network (thermoset)

Yagci Polymer Research Group, Istanbul Technical University

Image © Formlabs

PI R�hv

M+R� P1�k1

Pn�+M Pn+1�kp

Pn�+Pm� Mn+m /Mn+Mmktc

initiation

propagationtermination by combination

A photoinitiator (PI) turns into a primary radical (R�) through photon excitation. A chain grows by the addition of monomer units (M) to a polymeric radical of length n (Pn), finally forming stable polymer units of length n (Mn).

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1. The laser beam scans the surface of the resin

2. Each laser pass cures a parabolic cross-section of the resin

3. Resin properties determine the relationship between light exposure and cure depth

(1 m

il =

0.00

1”

= 25

.4 m

icro

ns)

From an example SLA resin

Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies

y

xv

(xstart, ystart)Point i (xi yi)

(xend, yend)yi

position x

Intensity [W/m2]Amplitude of electric field [V/m]

Figure 1 (b) from "Epoxy and Acrylate StereolithographyResins: In-Situ Measurements of Cure Shrinkage and

Stress Relaxation" by Guess, et al.

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Layers

The complete scan patternA ‘Star-weave’ pattern is used to raster the surfaceTop view

Side view

à This allows the resin to shrink locally while curing (it happens) while minimizing overall part shrinkage and residual stress.

hs

0.01 inch

Hatch Border

Side view

Gibson, Rosen and Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies

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?

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Inside the Form1

Formlabs

Laser

Andrew (bunnie) Huang (CC BY-SA 3.0)

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3D Systems, Inc. May 2016

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SLA: other topics§ Support criteria and

removal

§ Mechanics and durability

§ Surface finishing

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Additive Manufacturing:

6. Powder bed fusion

(i.e., Selective Laser Sintering, SLSSelective Laser Melting, SLM)

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Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Excerpt from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqWOrwBzOjU

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EOS GmbH Electro Optical Systems

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Applications of SLM partsAerospace

Medical

Manufacturing

SpaceX

EOS (Images © MachineDesign.com)

Airbus (Image © BBC)

Arcam AB

General ElectricCompany

AMG Advanced Metallurgical Group

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Powder fusion AM applies to many materialsDyson

From J.P. Kruth

Image © Best Vacuum Cleaners Reviews

Image from VintageHoover via YouTube

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at Nanyang Technological University (Singapore), August 2014

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Figure 1 from “Binding Mechanisms in Selective Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting” by Kruth, et al. 2004

Critical process parameters§ Laser power§ Laser scan speed§ Laser scan pattern§ Particle size and packing density§ Layer uniformity and thickness§ Bed temperature§ And more..

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Lasers: wavelength and absorption

Figure from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies" by Gibson, et al. (2010)

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What’s different for SLM? (vs. FDM, SLA)§ Powder = can be ~anything (flexibility, bulk properties!)à Typically ~10-100um diameter (wide size distribution)

§ Complexity of powder handling (why?)§ Flammable§ Inhalation risk§ Oxidation/contamination à often need inert atmosphere for metals

§ Energy required = high§ SLA: 0.1 W for photopolymerization (at ~1 m/s scan)§ FDM: 1-10 W for melting the filament§ SLM: 100-1000 W for melting the powder (at ~1-10 m/s scan)

§ Post-processing: powder removal, machining away metal support

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SLM: Mechanism Cross-section of SLM part

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Before and after

Figure 5 f) from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014)

Advanced Powders and Coatings Inc.

15-45 um 45-106 um0-25 um

Advanced Powders and Coatings Inc.

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Zone%II(subsurface%voids)

Zone%I%(fully%dense)

Process map: SLM of Ti64

Gong, et al, “Analysis of defect generation in Ti–6Al–4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes,” Additive Manufacturing, 2014.

Zone I: Fully dense (few defects)Zone II: Sub-surface porosity due to excess

heating (gas bubble generation, trapped, do not appear on surface)

Zone III: Insufficient meltingOH: Serious surface deformation (jams recoater)

Increasing energy density

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Process map: SLM of Ti64

Gong, et al, “Analysis of defect generation in Ti–6Al–4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes,” Additive Manufacturing, 2014.

Zone I: Fully dense (few defects)Zone II: Sub-surface porosity due to excess

heating (gas bubble generation, trapped, do not appear on surface)

Zone III: Insufficient meltingOH: Serious surface deformation (jams recoater)

Overheated)

Zone)III(underheat)

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Prof. JP Kruth says…

During SLM, the short interaction of powder bed and heat source caused by the high scanning speed of the laser beam leads to rapid heating, melting followed by drastic shrinkage (from 50% powder apparent density to ~100% density in one step), and circulation of the molten metal driven by surface tension gradients coupled with temperature gradients.

The resulting heat transfer and fluid flow affect the size and shape of the melt pool, the cooling rate, and the transformation reactions in the melt pool and heat-affected zone.

The melt pool geometry, in turn, influences the grain growth and the resulting microstructure of the part.

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Chaos in the melt pool!à Evaporation and recoilà Ejection of ‘sparks’ (hot droplets)

Presented by Dr. Wayne King (LLNL) at ASME AM3D 2015

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Typical (general) scan patterns

Carter et al. J. Alloys and Compounds 2014.

Gibson et al. 2015

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Ti frame = 1400gRenishaw Plc; http://www.core77.com/blog/digital_fabrication/from_the_uk_the_worlds_first_3d-printed_bike_frame_26463.asp

Success! Lots of parts in close proximity.

Renishaw plc

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Vrancken, et al. (2012) doi:10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.07.022

Mechanical properties of SLM Ti64à Fine microstructure = high strengthà Small defects = lower ductility than standard (wrought) materialà Highly dependent on process parameters including post-print annealing!

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SLM market dynamics

From manufacturer data, 2015.

EOS M 400

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Ti6Al4V hip implant cups§ >40,000 acetabular (hip cup) implants in patients (Wohlers 2014);

approved in Europe and US.§ Surface texture promotes osseointegration (bone attachment).§ Arcam (EBM):

§ “now allows the ability to specify pore geometry, pore size, and density and roughness of structures for trabecular structures and surfaces.”

§ 16 cups built simultaneously in 8 hours à then post-processing (intensive).

EOS/Arcam/Within; orthoinfo.aaos.org/topic.cfm?topic=a00377

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Additive Manufacturing:

7. Emerging Process Technologies

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High speed SLA: Carbon3D ‘Continuous liquid interphase production’ (CLIP)

Carbon3D, Inc. / Tumbleston et al. Science, 2015.TED talk by Prof. Joe DeSimone: https://www.ted.com/talks/joe_desimone_what_if_3d_printing_was_25x_faster?language=en

Legacy effects / carbon3D

Ford / carbon3D

Dead zone thickness ~20-30 μm

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Industrial automation of AMAdditive Industries: http://additiveindustries.com/Industrial-am-systems/Metalfab1

screenshot from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TssX2JsL0uk

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MoriHybrid AM and machining

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2.008xFiber composites (Markforged) Integrated electronics (Voxel8)

Images © www.3Ders.org, Voxel8

© MarkForged, Inc.

© MarkForged, Inc.

© MarkForged, Inc.

AM of advanced materials

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Additive Manufacturing:

8. Conclusion

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RateCost

Quality Flexibility

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Challenges to accelerate AM

§ Design tools and data management to fully realize the potential of AM.

§ Process control; higher quality at faster rate and process/part qualification.

§ Standards.

§ Education!

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(IBM report)

http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/gbs/thoughtleadership/software-defined-supply-chain/

AM will catalyze digital supply chains

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References1 Introduction

Image of GE fuel nozzle airflow diagram © 2016 General Electric

GE leap fuel nozzle image Copyright © 2016 Penton

Titanium aircraft brackets produced by conventional manufacturing and additive manufacturing © 2016 Business Wire

Aston Martin DB5 prop from the movie "Skyfall" Photo © Voxeljet AG

X-ray of a child's airway and a 3D printed bioresorbable airway stent, Image Copyright © 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Tooling inserts with internal cooling channels ©Linear AMS All Rights Reserved

Tooling mold for sheet metal forming, photo © Dave Pierson.

Image in Fast Company & Inc © 2016 Mansueto Ventures, LLC

Project Ara modular smartphone components, photo © Google, Inc.

Google Ara modular smartphone photo © 2016 AOL Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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References3D printed MIT dome © John Hart

Hagia Sofia, Istanbul, photo on boisestate.edu by E.L. Skip Knox

Cima, Micheal, et al. "Three-dimensional printing techniques: US 5387380 [P]."

Photo of first 3D printer at MIT © John Hart

Clear printed part: Figure 7 from "Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer" by Kodama, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 52 (11), November 1981, 1770-1773; © 1981 American Institute of Physics

Patent schematic: Figure 1 from "Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer" by Kodama, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 52 (11), November 1981, 1770-1773; © 1981 American Institute of Physics

Molding Process US Patent 4247508 schematic, figure 15. This work is in the public domain.

Photos from slide presentation by Joseph Beaman, University of Texas at Austin.

CNC machining photo © Dungarvan Precision Engineering

FDM printing with a Solidoodle 3D printer © John Hart

Article Copyright by ASTM Int'l (All Rights Reserved).

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References2 Importance of Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing analytics, Image © Wohlers Associates, Inc.

Image of GE fuel nozzle airflow diagram © 2016 General Electric

GE leap fuel nozzle image Copyright © 2016 Penton

Titanium aircraft brackets produced by conventional manufacturing and additive

manufacturing © 2016 Business Wire

Aston Martin DB5 prop from the movie "Skyfall" Photo © Voxeljet AG

X-ray of a child's airway and a 3D printed bioresorbable airway stent, Image Copyright © 2016 Massachusetts Medical Society. All Rights Reserved.

Image of tooling with cooling channels ©Linear AMS All Rights Reserved

Photo of tooling mold for sheet metal forming © Dave Pierson.

Image in Fast Company & Inc © 2016 Mansueto Ventures, LLC

Project Ara modular smartphone components, photo © Google, Inc.

Google Ara modular smartphone photo © 2016 AOL Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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ReferencesImage of pie chart © Wohlers Associates, Inc.

Invisalign clear dental braces, image © invisalign.com 2016

Titanium hip implant, image © Arcam AB.

3D printing potato chips, video ©1996-2016 TheStreet, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 1.3 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015) © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

iPhone 5, photo by Justin Sullivan © Getty Images.

Volvo C30 T5 R-design hatchback, photo © Auto-Power-Girl.com 2006-2015. All Rights Reserved.

Water desalination facility, photo © F.D.W.A. All Rights Reserved.

Froti-Lay potato chip production, photo by Peter Desilva of the New York Times. © 2016 The New York Times Company.

Lays potato chips, image © 2016 Frito-Lay North America, Inc.

DePuy hip implant, image © DePuy Synthes 2014-2016. All Rights Reserved.

Bathroom sink, photo by User: Tomwsulcer via wikimedia - CC0. This work is in the public domain.

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References"Making sense of 3-D printing: Creating a map of additive manufacturing products and services" Figures 2 and 6, by Conner, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). © Elsevier B.V.

Photo of Harvard Business Review Cover by Bruce Peterson. Copyright © 2016 Harvard Business School Publishing. All Rights Reserved.

3 Overview

Rocket air duct printed by FDM image copyright © 2016 Stratasys Direct, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Video if Solidoodle FDM printer, © John Hart

Stereolithography process, image © www.C3plasticdesign.co.uk

Large scale stereolithography, Video by Materialise NV © 2016

SLS diagram Figure 1 from Title: Binding Mechanisms in Selective Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting; Authors: P. Kruth, P. Mercelis, L. Froyen, Marleen Rombouts; Journal: SSF 2004 Proceedings; Year: August 4, 2004; Pages: 44-59. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Photo of EOS selective laser sintered parts © John Hart

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ReferencesInkjet droplet impact on a glass sheet, image Copyright © Shimadzu Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Objet digital material composition, image Copyright © 2016 Stratasys Direct, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fabrisonic lamintated object manufacturing sample, photo © Fabrisonic 2016

Laminated object manufacturing printing head, photo Copyright © 2016 ENGINEERING.com, Inc.

Photo oF Optomec LENS metal laser deposition copyright 2016 Optomec. All Rights Reserved

Directed energy deposition schematic, image © Oerlikon Corporation AG, Metco

Electron beam additive manufacturing of a metal bowl, photo © 2016 Sciaky Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Schematic of the vat photopolymerization process, image © 2016 LoughboroughUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

Schematic of the fused deposition modeling process, image © 2016 LoughboroughUniversity. All Rights Reserved.

Material jetting combined with photopolymerization, image Copyright © 2009 CustomPartNet. All Rights Reserved.

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ReferencesSheet lamination schematic. image © 2016 Loughborough University. All rights reserved.

Selective laser sintering schematic, image © 2016 Loughborough University. All Rights Reserved.

Directed energy deposition schematic, image © 2016 Loughborough University. All Rights Reserved.

CAD to part process, Figure 1.2 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

FDM process diagram © John Hart

3D printed Poseidon sculpture, photo © Gilles-Alexandre Deschaud.

Selective laser melting in action, video © John Hart

Binder jetting process schematic, image Copyright © 2016 Penton

Sand mold core made by binder jetting and cast part, photo © Voxeljet AG

Soft polymer heart printed by binder jetting © John Hart

Ultrasonic additive manufacturing, image © Copyright 2016, Peerless Media, LLC. All Rights Reserved

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ReferencesLaminated object manufacturing process schematic, image by User: Laurens van Lieshout (LaurensvanLieshout) via Wikimedia. (CC BY-SA) 3.0

4 Extrusion Processes

FDM printing using the Solidoodle printer, video © John Hart

FDM process diagram © John Hart

Ultimaker FDM printer, image © 2016 Ultimaker B.V.

3D printed iPhone 5 dock, image by Matt Haughey (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

Stratasys Fortus 400mc printer, image Copyright © 2016 Stratasys Direct, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Aircraft air duct, image Copyright © 2016 · All Rights Reserved WTWH Media LLC

Fused deposition modeling, video Copyright © 2016 Stratasys Direct, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Stratasys FDM materials list, image Copyright © 2016 Stratasys Direct, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

UP Mini time lapse video © John Hart

3D printed ship wheel, image © John Hart

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ReferencesCAD rendering of a Yo-Yo assembly © MIT

FDM filament path, Figures 6.3 and 6.5 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

Amorphous polymer network, Figure 1.2 from "Plastic Part Design Injection Molding (2nd edition)" by Malloy (1994). © Hanser Publishers (1994)

Photo of FDM printed part on a Solidoodle printer © John Hart

Injection molding machine diagram, Figure 13.21 from Title: Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing; Author: Mikell P. Groover; © Wiley; (2010);

Tensile stress and strain as a function of temperature for an amorphous thermoplastic, Figure 2.26 from "International Plastics Handbook" by Osswald et al. © HanserPublishers (2006).

Photograph of dual nozzle extruder © John Hart

Extrusion force versus feed rate, Image by Jamison Go © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

Pinch wheel teeth and shear area CAD schematic, image by Jamison Go © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

Picture of sheared filament, image by Jamison Go © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

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ReferencesDiagram of filament material flow, mage by Jamison Go © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

Big Area Additive Manufacturing system printing a chair, video © John Hart

Big Area Additive Manufacturing feedstock, image © John Hart

Layering in 3D printed chair with measuring tape reference, image © John Hart

Big Area Additive Manufacturing Facility, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, image © John Hart

Willys Jeep 3D printed model, image © John Hart

Scale model of 3D printed chair, printed on the Mojo FDM printer, © John Hart

Chair printed by Big Area Additive Manufacturing, © John Hart

FDM overhang angle illustration, image © John Hart

Image © 2015 3D Genius – The Home of 3D Printing.

Fracture surface SEM image of FDM ABS specimen, figure 11 from Title: Anisotropic Material Properties of Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) ABS; Authors: S. H. Ahn, M. Montero, D. Odell, S. Roundy, and P. K. Wright; Journal: Rapid Prototyping Journal; Volume: 8; Number: 4; Year: 2002; Pages: 248-257. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited

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ReferencesSEM images showing the effect of Stratasys vapor smoothing on FDM part surfaces, photo © 2016 Shapeways, Inc.

5 Photopolymerization

Materialise large scale SLA, video by Materialise NV © 2016

Prototype SLA enclosure, image © 2016 Phidgets

Short-run SLA tooling, image © 2016 FOPAT

Engine block printed by binder jetting, Image © Tri-Tech3D

SLA city scape, image © Copyright - Innovated Solutions

Invisalign clear braces, image © invisalign.com 2016

Stereolithography process diagram, image Copyright © 2009 CustomPartNet. All Rights Reserved.

Materialise large scale SLA, still from video by Materialise NV © 2016

3D printed prototype hamster and hamster wheel, image © John Hart

SLA and FDM printed salt shakers, photo © John Hart

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ReferencesPhotopolymerization, diagram by Dr. Yusuf Yagci of Istanbul Technical University. Copyright 2010 All Rights Reserved.

Thermoset polymer structure, Figure 7.5d from Title: Manufacturing Engineering & Technology (6th Edition); Authors: Serope Kalpakjian, Steven Schmid; © Prentice Hall; (2009)

Light exposure intensity distribution, © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

Cure depth in photopolymerization, Figures 4.6 and 4.7 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

Laser scanning patterns, Figures 4.10 b) and 4.12 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

Time lapse of 3D printing using a Form 1, video © John Hart

Formlabs photoresin, photo © Formlabs 2016, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Exposure at a point in SLA, © MIT. All Rights Reserved.

Cured resin cross-section, figure 1 (b) from Title: Epoxy and Acrylate StereolithographyResins: In-Situ Property Measurements; Authors: T. R. Guess, R. S. Chambers, T. D. Hinnerichs; Year: January 1996; Journal: Sandia Report SAND95-2871. This work is in the public domain.

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ReferencesSEM image and turbine blade photo, image © John Hart

Formlabs Form 1 printer specifications, article © Formlabs 2016, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Formlabs Form 1 teardown, photo by (bunnie) Andrew Huang is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

3D Systems ProX 950 specifications, article © 2014 by 3D Systems Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6 Powder Bed Fusion

EOS tooling, video © EOS GmbH Electro Optical Systems

EOS rook made by selective laser sintering, image © EOS GmbH Electro Optical Systems

Jet engine cross-section, image ©AMG Advanced Metallurgical Group, 2010 All Rights Reserved.

GE LEAP fuel nozzle, image © 2016 General Electric

Low pressure turbine blade, photo © Arcam A.B.

SpaceX inconel rocket chamber, photo © Elon Musk via Twitter.

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ReferencesAirbus bracket manufactured by conventional manufacturing and 3D printing, photo Copyright © 2016 BBC.

EOS tooling with integrated cooling channels, image Copyright © 2016 Penton

Hip implant, image Copyright ©1995-2016 by the American Academy of OrthopaedicSurgeons.

Arcam 3D printed implant, image © Arcam AB.

Arcam skull remodeling implant, image © Arcam AB.

Polyamide, steel, titanium, composite and ceramic parts, image © Prof. Dr. Ir. Jean-Pierre Kruth; KU Leuven university, Belgium

Dyson DC25, image Copyright © 2011-2014 Best Vacuum Cleaners Reviews

Dyson rapid prototype SLS, image from www.vintagehooveremporium.com © 2005 All Rights Reserved.

SLM solutions 250HL printer, image © John Hart

SLS diagram figure 1 from Title: Binding Mechanisms in Selective Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting; Authors: P. Kruth, P. Mercelis, L. Froyen, Marleen Rombouts; Journal: SSF 2004 Proceedings; Year: August 4, 2004; Pages: 44-59. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited

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ReferencesAbsorptivity of various metals, Figure 5.10 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies" by Gibson, et al. (2010). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

Side view of an SLM micrograph figure 15 c) from Title: Part and material properties in selective laser melting of metals; Authors: J.-P. Kruth, M. Badrossamay, E.Yasa, J. Deckers, L. Thijs, J. Van Humbeeck; Journal: Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Electromachining; Year: 19-23 April, 2010. © Shanghai JiaotongUniversity Press, Shang Hai, 2010

Epitaxial growth during selective laser sintering, Figure 2 from "Physical Aspects of Process Control in Selective Laser Sintering of Metals" by Das, Advanced Engineering Materials 5(10), 2003. © Shanghai Jiaotong University Press, Shang Hai

SLM processed Ti-6Al-4V powder, Figure 5 f) from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

SEM images of SLM processed Ti-6Al-4V powder, Figure 5 a) and f) from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

SLM process window, Figure 4 from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

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ReferencesSEM images of Ti-6Al-4V powder, Figure 5 d) and k) from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

Schematic of the laser melt pool, Figure 16 from "Analysis of defect generation in Ti-6Al-4V parts made using powder bed fusion additive manufacturing processes" by Gong, et al., Additive Manufacturing (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

Title crop of paper: Part and material properties in selective laser melting of metals; Authors: J.-P. Kruth, M. Badrossamay, E.Yasa, J. Deckers, L. Thijs, J. Van Humbeeck; Journal: Proceedings of the 16th International Symposium on Electromachining; Year: 19-23 April, 2010. © Shanghai Jiaotong University Press, Shang Hai

Prof. J.P. Kruth, Photo Copyright © KU Leuven

Video by A.J. Hart, of Wayne King at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Energy. This work is in the public domain.

Island scan strategy in SLM, Figure 3 from "The influence of the laser scan strategy on grain structure and cracking behaviour in SLM powder-bed fabricated nickel superalloy" by Carter, et al., Journal of Alloys and Compounds (2014). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

Scanning path for powder bed fusion, Figure 5.7 from "Additive Manufacturing Technologies (2nd Edition)" by Gibson, et al. (2015). © Springer International Publishing AG, Part of Springer Science+Business Media

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ReferencesEmpire 3D printed bicycle frame, Photo © 2001-2016 Renishaw plc. All Rights Reserved.

Picture of Tim Simpson, Photo © Tim Simpson.

Mechanical test of SLM printed specimens before and after heat treating, Figure 8 from "Heat treatment of Ti6Al4V produced by Selective Laser Melting: Microstructure and Mechanical properties" by Vrancken, et al., Journal of Alloys and Compounds (2012). Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors

EOS M400 printer, photo © EOS GmbH Electro Optical Systems

Machine cost versus build volume, image © John Hart

Titanium hip implant, image © Arcam AB.

7 Emerging Technologies

Continuous liquid interface printing of an Eifel Tower model, video © Carbon

Continuous Liquid Interface Production, Figure 1 (A) and (C 3) from "Continuous liquid interface production of 3D objects" by Tumbleston, et al., Science Magazine 347(6228), March 20, 2015. © 2016 EBSCO Industries, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Rapid prototype of oil fill tube, Photo © Carbon

3D printed "Iron Man" articles Image Copyright © 2016. 3DR Holdings, LLC, All Rights Reserved.

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ReferencesRendering of Additive Industries MetalFAB1 copyright © Additive Industries

Still of Additive Industries MetalFAB1 copyright © Additive Industries

DMG Mori Lasertec 65 additive and subtractive manufacturing machine, Video Copyright © 2016 DMG MORI All Rights Reserved.

DMG Mori Research Facility, image © John Hart

Turbine blades manufactured by DMG MORI © John Hart

Mark One composite 3D printer, photo Copyright ©2016 - 3D Printing Blog -

FDM printed bike crank with continuous carbon fiber reinforcement, image ©2016 Markforged, Inc.

Kevlar reinforced 3D printed pipe bender, Image ©2016 Markforged, Inc.

Volex 8 quadrotor photo and X-ray image Copyright © 2011-2016. www.3Ders.org All Rights Reserved.

8 Conclusion

Part printed on a Solidoodle FDM printer © John Hart

Supply chain of the future article © IBM