DOE Fundamentals Handbook Mechanical Science v2

DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93JANUARY 1993

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOKMECHANICAL SCIENCE

Volume 2 of 2

U.S. Department of Energy FSC-6910Washington, D.C. 20585

Distribution Statement A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.

Welcome

This Portable Document Format (PDF) file contains bookmarks, thumbnails, and hyperlinks to help you navigate through the document. The modules listed in the Overview are linked to the corresponding pages. Text headings in each module are linked to and from the table of contents for that module. Click on the DOE seal below to move to the Overview.

This document has been reproduced directly from the best available copy.

Available to DOE and DOE contractors from the Office of Scientific andTechnical Information. P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37831.

Available to the public from the National Technical Information Service, U.S.Department of Commerce, 5285 Port Royal., Springfield, VA 22161.

Order No. DE93012226

DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93MECHANICAL SCIENCE

ABSTRACT

The Mechanical Science Handbook was developed to assist nuclear facility operatingcontractors in providing operators, maintenance personnel, and the technical staff with thenecessary fundamentals training to ensure a basic understanding of mechanical components andmechanical science. The handbook includes information on diesel engines, heat exchangers,pumps, valves, and miscellaneous mechanical components. This information will providepersonnel with a foundation for understanding the construction and operation of mechanicalcomponents that are associated with various DOE nuclear facility operations and maintenance.

Key Words: Training Material, Diesel Engine, Heat Exchangers, Pumps, Valves

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FOREWORD

The Department of Energy (DOE) Fundamentals Handbooks consist of ten academicsubjects, which include Mathematics; Classical Physics; Thermodynamics, Heat Transfer, andFluid Flow; Instrumentation and Control; Electrical Science; Material Science; MechanicalScience; Chemistry; Engineering Symbology, Prints, and Drawings; and Nuclear Physics andReactor Theory. The handbooks are provided as an aid to DOE nuclear facility contractors.

These handbooks were first published as Reactor Operator Fundamentals Manuals in 1985for use by DOE category A reactors. The subject areas, subject matter content, and level ofdetail of the Reactor Operator Fundamentals Manuals were determined from several sources.DOE Category A reactor training managers determined which materials should be included, andserved as a primary reference in the initial development phase. Training guidelines from thecommercial nuclear power industry, results of job and task analyses, and independent input fromcontractors and operations-oriented personnel were all considered and included to some degreein developing the text material and learning objectives.

The DOE Fundamentals Handbooks represent the needs of various DOE nuclear facilities'fundamental training requirements. To increase their applicability to nonreactor nuclearfacilities, the Reactor Operator Fundamentals Manual learning objectives were distributed to theNuclear Facility Training Coordination Program Steering Committee for review and comment.To update their reactor-specific content, DOE Category A reactor training managers alsoreviewed and commented on the content. On the basis of feedback from these sources,information that applied to two or more DOE nuclear facilities was considered generic and wasincluded. The final draft of each of the handbooks was then reviewed by these two groups. Thisapproach has resulted in revised modular handbooks that contain sufficient detail such that eachfacility may adjust the content to fit their specific needs.

Each handbook contains an abstract, a foreword, an overview, learning objectives, andtext material, and is divided into modules so that content and order may be modified byindividual DOE contractors to suit their specific training needs. Each handbook is supported bya separate examination bank with an answer key.

The DOE Fundamentals Handbooks have been prepared for the Assistant Secretary forNuclear Energy, Office of Nuclear Safety Policy and Standards, by the DOE TrainingCoordination Program. This program is managed by EG&G Idaho, Inc.

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OVERVIEW

The Department of Energy Fundamentals Handbook entitled Mechanical Science wasprepared as an information resource for personnel who are responsible for the operation of theDepartment's nuclear facilities. Almost all processes that take place in the nuclear facilitiesinvolve the use of mechanical equipment and components. A basic understanding of mechanicalscience is necessary for DOE nuclear facility operators, maintenance personnel, and the technicalstaff to safely operate and maintain the facility and facility support systems. The informationin the handbook is presented to provide a foundation for applying engineering concepts to thejob. This knowledge will help personnel more fully understand the impact that their actions mayhave on the safe and reliable operation of facility components and systems.

The Mechanical Science handbook consists of five modules that are contained in twovolumes. The following is a brief description of the information presented in each module ofthe handbook.

Volume 1 of 2

Module 1 - Diesel Engine Fundamentals

Provides information covering the basic operating principles of 2-cycle and4-cycle diesel engines. Includes operation of engine governors, fuel ejectors, andtypical engine protective features.

Module 2 - Heat Exchangers

Describes the construction of plate heat exchangers and tube and shell heatexchangers. Describes the flow patterns and temperature profiles in parallel flow,counter flow, and cross flow heat exchangers.

Module 3 - Pumps

Explains the operation of centrifugal and positive displacement pumps. Topicsinclude net positive suction head, cavitation, gas binding, and pump characteristiccurves.

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http://www.doe.gov/html/techstds/standard/hdbk1018/h1018v1.pdf




OVERVIEW (Cont.)

Volume 2 of 2

Module 4 - Valves

Introduces the functions of the basic parts common to most types of valves.Provides information on applications of many types of valves. Types of valvescovered include gate valves, globe valves, ball valves, plug valves, diaphragmvalves, reducing valves, pinch valves, butterfly valves, needle valves, checkvalves, and safety/relief valves.

Module 5 - Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

Provides information on significant mechanical devices that have widespreadapplication in nuclear facilities but do not fit into the categories of componentscovered by the other modules. These include cooling towers, air compressors,demineralizers, filters, strainers, etc.

The information contained in this handbook is not all encompassing. An attempt topresent the entire subject of mechanical science would be impractical. However, the MechanicalScience handbook presents enough information to provide the reader with the fundamentalknowledge necessary to understand the advanced theoretical concepts presented in other subjectareas, and to understand basic system and equipment operation.

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Department of EnergyFundamentals Handbook

MECHANICAL SCIENCEModule 4

Valves

Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Valve Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2Valve Bonnet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Valve Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Valve Actuator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Valve Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5Introduction to the Types of Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

TYPES OF VALVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Gate Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Gate Valve Disk Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Gate Valve Stem Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Gate Valve Seat Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Globe Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Globe Valve Body Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Globe Valve Disks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17Globe Valve Disk and Stem Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Globe Valve Seats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Globe Valve Direction of Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Ball Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Ball Valve Stem Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Ball Valve Bonnet Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Ball Valve Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Plug Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Plug Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Multiport Plug Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Plug Valve Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22Lubricated Plug Valve Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23Nonlubricated Plugs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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TABLE OF CONTENTS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)

Manually Operated Plug Valve Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Plug Valve Glands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Diaphragm Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Diaphragm Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Diaphragm Valve Stem Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Diaphragm Valve Bonnet Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Reducing Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Pinch Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Pinch Valve Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Butterfly Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Butterfly Valve Seat Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Butterfly Valve Body Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Butterfly Valve Disk and Stem Assemblies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32Needle Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Needle Valve Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Needle Valve Body Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Swing Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Tilting Disk Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Lift Check Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Piston Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Butterfly Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39Stop Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Relief And Safety Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Pilot-Operated Relief Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

VALVE ACTUATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Manual, Fixed, and Hammer Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Electric Motor Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Pneumatic Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Hydraulic Actuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47Self-Actuated Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Solenoid Actuated Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48Speed of Power Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Valve Position Indication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIG URES

Figure 1 Basic Parts of a Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 2 Rising Stems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 3 Nonrising Stems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 4 Gate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Figure 5 Solid Wedge Gate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Figure 6 Flexible Wedge Gate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Figure 7 Split Wedge Gate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Figure 8 Parallel Disk Gate Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Figure 9 Z-Body Globe Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 10 Y-Body Globe Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Figure 11 Angle Globe Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Figure 12 Typical Ball Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Figure 13 Plug Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Figure 14 Straight-Through Diaphragm Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Figure 15 Weir Diaphragm Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Figure 16 Variable Reducing Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Figure 17 Non-Variable Reducing Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Figure 18 Pinch Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Figure 19 Typical Butterfly Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Figure 20 Needle Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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LIST OF FIGURES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

LIST OF FIGURES (Cont.)

Figure 21 Bar-Stock Instrument Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Figure 22 Swing Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Figure 23 Operation of Tilting Disk Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 24 Lift Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 25 Piston Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Figure 26 Butterfly Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Figure 27 Stop Check Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Figure 28 Relief Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Figure 29 Safety Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Figure 30 Fixed Handwheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 31 Hammer Handwheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 32 Manual Gear Head. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 33 Electric Motor Actuator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Figure 34 Pneumatic Actuator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Figure 35 Solenoid Actuated Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES

None

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REFERENCES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

REFERENCES

Babcock & Wilcox, Steam, Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox Co., 1978.

Cheremisinoff, N. P., Fluid Flow, Pumps, Pipes and Channels, Ann Arbor Science.

Heat Transfer, Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow Fundamentals, Columbia, MD, GeneralPhysics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.

Schweitzer, Philip A., Handbook of Valves, Industrial Press Inc.

Stewart, Harry L., Pneumatics & Hydraulics, Theodore Audel & Company, 1984.

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE

1.0 Without references, DESCRIBE the construction and operation of a given type of valve,valve component, or valve actuator, as presented in this module.

ENABLING OBJECTIVES

1.1 DESCRIBE the four basic types of flow control elements employed in valve design.

1.2 DESCRIBE how valve stem leakage is controlled.

1.3 Given a drawing of a valve, IDENTIFY the following:

a. Bodyb. Bonnetc. Stemd. Actuator

e. Packingf. Seatg. Disk

1.4 Given a drawing of a valve, IDENTIFY each of the following types of valves:

a. Globeb. Gatec. Plugd. Balle. Needlef. Butterfly

g. Diaphragmh. Pinchi. Checkj. Stop checkk. Safety/reliefl. Reducing

1.5 DESCRIBE the application of the following types of valves:


g. Diaphragmh. Pinchi. Checkj. Safety/reliefk. Reducing

1.6 DESCRIBE the construction and principle of operation for the following types of valveactuators:

a. Manualb. Electric motorc. Pneumatic

d. Hydraulice. Solenoid

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DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

Intentionally Left Blank.

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS

VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS

Valves are the most common single piece of equipment found in DOE facilities.Although there are many types, shapes, and sizes of valves, they all have thesame basic parts. This chapter will review the common parts and functions of avalve.

EO 1.1 DESCRIBE the four basic types of flow control elementsemployed in valve design.

EO 1.2 DESCRIBE how valve stem leakage is controlled.

EO 1.3 Given a drawing of a valve, IDENTIFY the following:

a. Bodyb. Bonnetc. Stemd. Actuator

e. Packingf. Seatg. Disk

I ntr oduction

A valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow of fluid and pressure within a system orprocess. A valve controls system or process fluid flow and pressure by performing any of thefollowing functions:

Stopping and starting fluid flow

Varying (throttling) the amount of fluid flow

Controlling the direction of fluid flow

Regulating downstream system or process pressure

Relieving component or piping over pressure

There are many valve designs and types that satisfy one or more of the functions identifiedabove. A multitude of valve types and designs safely accommodate a wide variety of industrialapplications.

Regardless of type, all valves have the following basic parts: the body, bonnet, trim (internalelements), actuator, and packing. The basic parts of a valve are illustrated in Figure 1.

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VALVE FUNCTIONS AND BASIC PARTS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

Valve Body

The body, sometimes called the shell, is the primary pressure boundary of a valve. It serves asthe principal element of a valve assembly because it is the framework that holds everythingtogether.

The body, the first pressure boundary of a valve, resists fluid pressure loads from connectingpiping. It receives inlet and outlet piping through threaded, bolted, or welded joints.

Valve bodies are cast or forged into a

Figure 1 Basic Parts of a Valve

variety of shapes. Although a sphereor a cylinder would theoretically bethe most economical shape to resistfluid pressure when a valve is open,there are many other considerations.For example, many valves require apartition across the valve body tosupport the seat opening, which is thethrottling orifice. With the valveclosed, loading on the body isdifficult to determine. The valve endconnections also distort loads on asimple sphere and more complicatedshapes. Ease of manufacture,assembly, and costs are additionalimportant considerations. Hence, thebasic form of a valve body typicallyis not spherical, but ranges fromsimple block shapes to highlycomplex shapes in which the bonnet,a removable piece to make assemblypossible, forms part of the pressure-resisting body.

Narrowing of the fluid passage(venturi effect) is also a commonmethod for reducing the overall sizeand cost of a valve. In otherinstances, large ends are added to thevalve for connection into a largerline.

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Valve Bonnet

The cover for the opening in the valve body is the bonnet. In some designs, the body itself issplit into two sections that bolt together. Like valve bodies, bonnets vary in design. Somebonnets function simply as valve covers, while others support valve internals and accessoriessuch as the stem, disk, and actuator.

The bonnet is the second principal pressure boundary of a valve. It is cast or forged of the samematerial as the body and is connected to the body by a threaded, bolted, or welded joint. In allcases, the attachment of the bonnet to the body is considered a pressure boundary. This meansthat the weld joint or bolts that connect the bonnet to the body are pressure-retaining parts.

Valve bonnets, although a necessity for most valves, represent a cause for concern. Bonnets cancomplicate the manufacture of valves, increase valve size, represent a significant cost portionof valve cost, and are a source for potential leakage.

Valve T r im

The internal elements of a valve are collectively referred to as a valve's trim. The trim typicallyincludes a disk, seat, stem, and sleeves needed to guide the stem. A valve's performance isdetermined by the disk and seat interface and the relation of the disk position to the seat.

Because of the trim, basic motions and flow control are possible. In rotational motion trimdesigns, the disk slides closely past the seat to produce a change in flow opening. In linearmotion trim designs, the disk lifts perpendicularly away from the seat so that an annular orificeappears.

Disk and Seat

For a valve having a bonnet, the disk is the third primary principal pressure boundary.The disk provides the capability for permitting and prohibiting fluid flow. With the diskclosed, full system pressure is applied across the disk if the outlet side is depressurized.For this reason, the disk is a pressure-retaining part. Disks are typically forged and, insome designs, hard-surfaced to provide good wear characteristics. A fine surface finishof the seating area of a disk is necessary for good sealing when the valve is closed. Mostvalves are named, in part, according to the design of their disks.

The seat or seal rings provide the seating surface for the disk. In some designs, the bodyis machined to serve as the seating surface and seal rings are not used. In other designs,forged seal rings are threaded or welded to the body to provide the seating surface. Toimprove the wear-resistance of the seal rings, the surface is often hard-faced by weldingand then machining the contact surface of the seal ring. A fine surface finish of theseating area is necessary for good sealing when the valve is closed. Seal rings are notusually considered pressure boundary parts because the body has sufficient wall thicknessto withstand design pressure without relying upon the thickness of the seal rings.

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Stem

The stem, which connects the actuator and disk, is responsible for positioning the disk.Stems are typically forged and connected to the disk by threaded or welded joints. Forvalve designs requiring stem packing or sealing to prevent leakage, a fine surface finishof the stem in the area of the seal is necessary. Typically, a stem is not considered apressure boundary part.

Connection of the disk to the stem can allow some rocking or rotation to ease thepositioning of the disk on the seat. Alternately, the stem may be flexible enough to letthe disk position itself against the seat. However, constant fluttering or rotation of aflexible or loosely connected disk can destroy the disk or its connection to the stem.

Two types of valve stems are rising stems and nonrising stems. Illustrated in Figures 2and 3, these two types of stems are easily distinguished by observation. For a rising stemvalve, the stem will rise above the actuator as the valve is opened. This occurs becausethe stem is threaded and mated with the bushing threads of a yoke that is an integral partof, or is mounted to, the bonnet.

Figure 2 Rising Stems

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Figure 3 Nonrising Stems

There is no upward stem movement from outside the valve for a nonrising stem design.For the nonrising stem design, the valve disk is threaded internally and mates with thestem threads.

Valve Actuator

The actuator operates the stem and disk assembly. An actuator may be a manually operatedhandwheel, manual lever, motor operator, solenoid operator, pneumatic operator, or hydraulicram. In some designs, the actuator is supported by the bonnet. In other designs, a yokemounted to the bonnet supports the actuator.

Except for certain hydraulically controlled valves, actuators are outside of the pressure boundary.Yokes, when used, are always outside of the pressure boundary.

Valve Packing

Most valves use some form of packing to prevent leakage from the space between the stem andthe bonnet. Packing is commonly a fibrous material (such as flax) or another compound (suchas teflon) that forms a seal between the internal parts of a valve and the outside where the stemextends through the body.

Valve packing must be properly compressed to prevent fluid loss and damage to the valve'sstem. If a valve's packing is too loose, the valve will leak, which is a safety hazard. If thepacking is too tight, it will impair the movement and possibly damage the stem.

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I ntr oduction to the Types of Valves

Because of the diversity of the types of systems, fluids, and environments in which valves mustoperate, a vast array of valve types have been developed. Examples of the common types arethe globe valve, gate valve, ball valve, plug valve, butterfly valve, diaphragm valve, check valve,pinch valve, and safety valve. Each type of valve has been designed to meet specific needs.Some valves are capable of throttling flow, other valve types can only stop flow, others workwell in corrosive systems, and others handle high pressure fluids. Each valve type has certaininherent advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these differences and how they effect thevalve's application or operation is necessary for the successful operation of a facility. Although all valves have the same basic components and function to control flow in somefashion, the method of controlling the flow can vary dramatically. In general, there are fourmethods of controlling flow through a valve.

1. Move a disc, or plug into or against an orifice (for example, globe or needle typevalve).

2. Slide a flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface across an orifice (for example, gateand plug valves).

3. Rotate a disc or ellipse about a shaft extending across the diameter of an orifice(for example, a butterfly or ball valve).

4. Move a flexible material into the flow passage (for example, diaphragm and pinchvalves).

Each method of controlling flow has characteristics that makes it the best choice for a givenapplication of function.

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Summary

The following important information in this chapter is summarized below:

Valve Functions and Basic Parts Summary

There are four basic types of flow control elements employed in valve design.

1. Move a disc, or plug into or against an orifice (for example, globe orneedle type valve).

2. Slide a flat, cylindrical, or spherical surface across an orifice (for example,gate and plug valves).

3. Rotate a disc or ellipse about a shaft extending across the diameter of anorifice (for example, a butterfly or ball valve).

4. Move a flexible material into the flow passage (for example, diaphragmand pinch valves).

Valve stem leakage is usually controlled by properly compressing the packingaround the valve stem.

There are seven basic parts common to most valves.

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TYPES OF VALVES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

TYPES OF VALVES

Due to the various environments, system fluids, and system conditions in whichflow must be controlled, a large number of valve designs have been developed.A basic understanding of the differences between the various types of valves, andhow these differences affect valve function, will help ensure the proper applicationof each valve type during design and the proper use of each valve type duringoperation.

EO 1.4 Given a drawing of a valve, IDENTIFY each of the followingtypes of valves:



EO 1.5 DESCRIBE the application of the following types of valves:



Gate Valves

A gate valve is a linear motion valve used to start or stop fluid flow; however, it does notregulate or throttle flow. The name gate is derived from the appearance of the disk in the flowstream. Figure 4 illustrates a gate valve.

The disk of a gate valve is completely removed from the flow stream when the valve is fullyopen. This characteristic offers virtually no resistance to flow when the valve is open. Hence,there is little pressure drop across an open gate valve.

When the valve is fully closed, a disk-to-seal ring contact surface exists for 360°, and goodsealing is provided. With the proper mating of a disk to the seal ring, very little or no leakageoccurs across the disk when the gate valve is closed.

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 TYPES OF VALVES

Figure 4 Gate Valve

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On opening the gate valve, the flow path is enlarged in a highly nonlinear manner with respectto percent of opening. This means that flow rate does not change evenly with stem travel.Also, a partially open gate disk tends to vibrate from the fluid flow. Most of the flow changeoccurs near shutoff with a relatively high fluid velocity causing disk and seat wear and eventualleakage if used to regulate flow. For these reasons, gate valves are not used to regulate orthrottle flow.

A gate valve can be used for a wide variety of fluids and provides a tight seal when closed. Themajor disadvantages to the use of a gate valve are:

It is not suitable for throttling applications.

It is prone to vibration in the partially open state.

It is more subject to seat and disk wear than a globe valve.

Repairs, such as lapping and grinding, are generally more difficult to accomplish.

Gate Valve Disk Design

Gate valves are available with a variety of disks. Classification of gate valves is usually madeby the type disk used: solid wedge, flexible wedge, split wedge, or parallel disk.

Solid wedges, flexible wedges, and split wedges are used in valves having inclined seats. Paralleldisks are used in valves having parallel seats.

Regardless of the style of wedge or disk used, the disk is usually replaceable. In services wheresolids or high velocity may cause rapid erosion of the seat or disk, these components shouldhave a high surface hardness and should have replacement seats as well as disks. If the seatsare not replaceable, seat damage requires removal of the valve from the line for refacing of theseat, or refacing of the seat in place. Valves being used in corrosion service should normallybe specified with replaceable seats.

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Solid W edge

Figure 5 Solid Wedge Gate Valve

The solid wedge gate valve shown in Figure 5 is the mostcommonly used disk because of its simplicity and strength.A valve with this type of wedge may be installed in anyposition and it is suitable for almost all fluids. It is practicalfor turbulent flow.

Flexible W edge

The flexible wedge gate valve illustrated in Figure 6 is aone-piece disk with a cut around the perimeter to improvethe ability to match error or change in the angle between theseats. The cut varies in size, shape, and depth. A shallow,narrow cut gives little flexibility but retains strength. Adeeper and wider cut, or cast-in recess, leaves little materialat the center, which allows more flexibility but compromisesstrength.

A correct profile of the disk half in the

Figure 6 Flexible Wedge Gate Valve

flexible wedge design can give uniformdeflection properties at the disk edge,so that the wedging force applied inseating will force the disk seatingsurface uniformly and tightly against the seat.

Gate valves used in steam systems have flexible wedges. Thereason for using a flexible gate is to prevent binding of the gatewithin the valve when the valve is in the closed position. Whensteam lines are heated, they expand and cause some distortion ofvalve bodies. If a solid gate fits snugly between the seat of a valvein a cold steam system, when the system is heated and pipeselongate, the seats will compress against the gate and clamp thevalve shut. This problem is overcome by using a flexible gate,whose design allows the gate to flex as the valve seat compresses it.

The major problem associated with flexible gates is that water tendsto collect in the body neck. Under certain conditions, the admissionof steam may cause the valve body neck to rupture, the bonnet to liftoff, or the seat ring to collapse. Following correct warmingprocedures prevent these problems.

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Split W edge

Figure 7 Split Wedge Gate Valve

Split wedge gate valves, as shown in Figure 7, are of theball and socket design. These are self-adjusting and self-aligning to both seating surfaces. The disk is free toadjust itself to the seating surface if one-half of the diskis slightly out of alignment because of foreign matterlodged between the disk half and the seat ring. Thistype of wedge is suitable for handling noncondensinggases and liquids at normal temperatures, particularlycorrosive liquids. Freedom of movement of the disk inthe carrier prevents binding even though the valve mayhave been closed when hot and later contracted due tocooling. This type of valve should be installed with thestem in the vertical position.

Parallel Disk

The parallel disk gate valve illustrated in Figure 8 isdesigned to prevent valve binding due to thermaltransients. This design is used in both low and highpressure applications.

The wedge surfaces between the parallel face disk halves are caused to press togetherunder stem thrust and spread apart the disks to seal against the seats. The taperedwedges may be part of the disk halves or they may be separate elements. The lowerwedge may bottom out on a rib at the valve bottom so that the stem can develop seatingforce. In one version, the wedge contact surfaces are curved to keep the point of contactclose to the optimum.

In other parallel disk gates, the two halves do not move apart under wedge action.Instead, the upstream pressure holds the downstream disk against the seat. A carrier ringlifts the disks, and a spring or springs hold the disks apart and seated when there is noupstream pressure.

Another parallel gate disk design provides for sealing only one port. In these designs,the high pressure side pushes the disk open (relieving the disk) on the high pressure side,but forces the disk closed on the low pressure side. With such designs, the amount ofseat leakage tends to decrease as differential pressure across the seat increases. Thesevalves will usually have a flow direction marking which will show which side is the highpressure (relieving) side. Care should be taken to ensure that these valves are notinstalled backwards in the system.

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Some parallel disk gate valves used in high pressure systems are made with an integral

Figure 8 Parallel Disk Gate Valve

bonnet vent and bypass line. A three-way valve is used to position the line to bypass inorder to equalize pressure across the disks prior to opening. When the gate valve isclosed, the three-way valve is positioned to vent the bonnet to one side or the other. This prevents moisture from accumulating in the bonnet. The three-way valve ispositioned to the high pressure side of the gate valve when closed to ensure that flowdoes not bypass the isolation valve. The high pressure acts against spring compressionand forces one gate off of its seat. The three-way valve vents this flow back to thepressure source.

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Gate Valve Stem Design

Gate valves are classified as either rising stem or nonrising stem valves. For the nonrising stemgate valve, the stem is threaded on the lower end into the gate. As the hand wheel on the stemis rotated, the gate travels up or down the stem on the threads while the stem remains verticallystationary. This type valve will almost always have a pointer-type indicator threaded onto theupper end of the stem to indicate valve position. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate rising-stem gatevalves and nonrising stem gate valves.

The nonrising stem configuration places the stem threads within the boundary established by thevalve packing out of contact with the environment. This configuration assures that the stemmerely rotates in the packing without much danger of carrying dirt into the packing from outsideto inside.

Rising stem gate valves are designed so that the stem is raised out of the flowpath when thevalve is open. Rising stem gate valves come in two basic designs. Some have a stem that risesthrough the handwheel while others have a stem that is threaded to the bonnet.

Gate Valve Seat Design

Seats for gate valves are either provided integral with the valve body or in a seat ring type ofconstruction. Seat ring construction provides seats which are either threaded into position or arepressed into position and seal welded to the valve body. The latter form of construction isrecommended for higher temperature service.

Integral seats provide a seat of the same material of construction as the valve body while thepressed-in or threaded-in seats permit variation. Rings with hard facings may be supplied forthe application where they are required.

Small, forged steel, gate valves may have hard faced seats pressed into the body. In someseries, this type of valve in sizes from 1/2 to 2 inches is rated for 2500 psig steam service. Inlarge gate valves, disks are often of the solid wedge type with seat rings threaded in, welded in,or pressed in. Screwed in seat rings are considered replaceable since they may be removed andnew seat rings installed.

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Globe Valves

Figure 9 Z-Body Globe Valve

A globe valve is a linear motion valveused to stop, start, and regulate fluid flow.A Z-body globe valve is illustrated inFigure 9.

As shown in Figure 9, the globe valvedisk can be totally removed from theflowpath or it can completely close theflowpath. The essential principle of globevalve operation is the perpendicularmovement of the disk away from the seat.This causes the annular space between thedisk and seat ring to gradually close as thevalve is closed. This characteristic givesthe globe valve good throttling ability,which permits its use in regulating flow.Therefore, the globe valve may be usedfor both stopping and starting fluid flowand for regulating flow.

When compared to a gate valve, a globevalve generally yields much less seatleakage. This is because the disk-to-seatring contact is more at right angles, whichpermits the force of closing to tightly seatthe disk.

Globe valves can be arranged so that the disk closes against or in the same direction of fluidflow. When the disk closes against the direction of flow, the kinetic energy of the fluid impedesclosing but aids opening of the valve. When the disk closes in the same direction of flow, thekinetic energy of the fluid aids closing but impedes opening. This characteristic is preferableto other designs when quick-acting stop valves are necessary.

Globe valves also have drawbacks. The most evident shortcoming of the simple globe valve isthe high head loss from two or more right angle turns of flowing fluid. Obstructions anddiscontinuities in the flowpath lead to head loss. In a large high pressure line, the fluid dynamiceffects from pulsations, impacts, and pressure drops can damage trim, stem packing, andactuators. In addition, large valve sizes require considerable power to operate and are especiallynoisy in high pressure applications.

Other drawbacks of globe valves are the large openings necessary for disk assembly, heavierweight than other valves of the same flow rating, and the cantilevered mounting of the disk tothe stem.

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Globe Valve Body Designs

The three primary body designs for globe valves are Z-body, Y-body, and Angle.

Z-Body Design

The simplest design and most common for water applications is the Z-body. The Z-bodyis illustrated in Figure 9. For this body design, the Z-shaped diaphragm or partitionacross the globular body contains the seat. The horizontal setting of the seat allows thestem and disk to travel at right angles to the pipe axis. The stem passes through thebonnet which is attached to a large opening at the top of the valve body. This providesa symmetrical form that simplifies manufacture, installation, and repair.

Y-Body Design

Figure 10 Y-Body Globe Valve

Figure 10 illustrates a typicalY-body globe valve. Thisdesign is a remedy for the highpressure drop inherent in globevalves. The seat and stem areangled at approximately 45°.The angle yields a straighterflowpath (at full opening) andprovides the stem, bonnet, andpacking a relatively pressure-resistant envelope.

Y-body globe valves are bestsuited for high pressure andother severe services. In smallsizes for intermittent flows,the pressure loss may not be asimportant as the otherconsiderations favoring theY-body design. Hence, theflow passage of small Y-bodyglobe valves is not as carefullystreamlined as that for largervalves.

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Angle Valve Design

Figure 11 Angle Globe Valve

The angle body globe valve design, illustratedin Figure 11, is a simple modification of thebasic globe valve. Having ends at rightangles, the diaphragm can be a simple flatplate. Fluid is able to flow through with onlya single 90° turn and discharge downwardmore symmetrically than the discharge froman ordinary globe. A particular advantage ofthe angle body design is that it can functionas both a valve and a piping elbow.

For moderate conditions of pressure,temperature, and flow, the angle valve closelyresembles the ordinary globe. The anglevalve's discharge conditions are favorablewith respect to fluid dynamics and erosion.

Globe Valve Disks

Most globe valves use one of three basic diskdesigns: the ball disk, the composition disk,and the plug disk.

Ball Disk

The ball disk fits on a tapered, flat-surfaced seat. The ball disk design is used primarilyin relatively low pressure and low temperature systems. It is capable of throttling flow,but is primarily used to stop and start flow.

Composition Disk

The composition disk design uses a hard, nonmetallic insert ring on the disk. The insertring creates a tighter closure. Composition disks are primarily used in steam and hotwater applications. They resist erosion and are sufficiently resilient to close on solidparticles without damaging the valve. Composition disks are replaceable.

Plug Disk

Because of its configuration, the plug disk provides better throttling than ball orcomposition designs. Plug disks are available in a variety of specific configurations. Ingeneral, they are all long and tapered.

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Globe Valve Disk and Stem Connections

Globe valves employ two methods for connecting disk and stem: T-slot construction and disknut construction. In the T-slot design, the disk slips over the stem. In the disk nut design, thedisk is screwed into the stem.

Globe Valve Seats

Globe valve seats are either integral with or screwed into the valve body. Many globe valveshave backseats. A backseat is a seating arrangement that provides a seal between the stem andbonnet. When the valve is fully open, the disk seats against the backseat. The backseat designprevents system pressure from building against the valve packing.

Globe Valve Dir ection of Flow

For low temperature applications, globe and angle valves are ordinarily installed so that pressureis under the disk. This promotes easy operation, helps protect the packing, and eliminates acertain amount of erosive action to the seat and disk faces. For high temperature steam service,globe valves are installed so that pressure is above the disk. Otherwise, the stem will contractupon cooling and tend to lift the disk off the seat.

Ball Valves

A ball valve is a rotational motion valve that uses a ball-shaped disk to stop or start fluid flow.The ball, shown in Figure 12, performs the same function as the disk in the globe valve. Whenthe valve handle is turned to open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where the hole throughthe ball is in line with the valve body inlet and outlet. When the valve is shut, the ball is rotatedso that the hole is perpendicular to the flow openings of the valve body and the flow is stopped.

Most ball valve actuators are of the quick-acting type, which require a 90° turn of the valvehandle to operate the valve. Other ball valve actuators are planetary gear-operated. This typeof gearing allows the use of a relatively small handwheel and operating force to operate a fairlylarge valve.

Some ball valves have been developed with a spherical surface coated plug that is off to one sidein the open position and rotates into the flow passage until it blocks the flowpath completely.Seating is accomplished by the eccentric movement of the plug. The valve requires nolubrication and can be used for throttling service.

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Figure 12 Typical Ball Valve

Advantages

A ball valve is generally the least expensive of any valve configuration and has lowmaintenance costs. In addition to quick, quarter turn on-off operation, ball valves arecompact, require no lubrication, and give tight sealing with low torque.

Disadvantages

Conventional ball valves have relatively poor throttling characteristics. In a throttlingposition, the partially exposed seat rapidly erodes because of the impingement of highvelocity flow.

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Por t Patter ns

Ball valves are available in the venturi, reduced, and full port pattern. The full portpattern has a ball with a bore equal to the inside diameter of the pipe.

Valve Mater ials

Balls are usually metallic in metallic bodies with trim (seats) produced from elastomeric(elastic materials resembling rubber) materials. Plastic construction is also available.

The resilient seats for ball valves are made from various elastomeric material. The mostcommon seat materials are teflon (TFE), filled TFE, Nylon, Buna-N, Neoprene, andcombinations of these materials. Because of the elastomeric materials, these valvescannot be used at elevated temperatures. Care must be used in the selection of the seatmaterial to ensure that it is compatible with the materials being handled by the valve.

Ball Valve Stem Design

The stem in a ball valve is not fastened to the ball. It normally has a rectangular portion at theball end which fits into a slot cut into the ball. The enlargement permits rotation of the ball asthe stem is turned.

Ball Valve Bonnet Design

A bonnet cap fastens to the body, which holds the stem assembly and ball in place. Adjustmentof the bonnet cap permits compression of the packing, which supplies the stem seal. Packing forball valve stems is usually in the configuration of die-formed packing rings normally of TFE,TFE-filled, or TFE-impregnated material. Some ball valve stems are sealed by means of O-ringsrather than packing.

Ball Valve Position

Some ball valves are equipped with stops that permit only 90° rotation. Others do not havestops and may be rotated 360°. With or without stops, a 90° rotation is all that is required forclosing or opening a ball valve.

The handle indicates valve ball position. When the handle lies along the axis of the valve, thevalve is open. When the handle lies 90° across the axis of the valve, the valve is closed. Someball valve stems have a groove cut in the top face of the stem that shows the flowpath throughthe ball. Observation of the groove position indicates the position of the port through the ball.This feature is particularly advantageous on multiport ball valves.

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Plug Valves

A plug valve is a rotational motion valve used to stop or start fluid flow. The name is derivedfrom the shape of the disk, which resembles a plug. A plug valve is shown in Figure 13. Thesimplest form of a plug valve is the petcock. The body of a plug valve is machined to receivethe tapered or cylindrical plug. The disk is a solid plug with a bored passage at a right angle tothe longitudinal axis of the plug.

In the open position, the passage in the plug lines up with the inlet and outlet ports of the valve

Figure 13 Plug Valve

body. When the plug is turned 90° from the open position, the solid part of the plug blocks theports and stops fluid flow.

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Plug valves are available in either a lubricated or nonlubricated design and with a variety ofstyles of port openings through the plug as well as a number of plug designs.

Plug Por ts

An important characteristic of the plug valve is its easy adaptation to multiport construction.Multiport valves are widely used. Their installation simplifies piping, and they provide a moreconvenient operation than multiple gate valves. They also eliminate pipe fittings. The use ofa multiport valve, depending upon the number of ports in the plug valve, eliminates the need ofas many as four conventional shutoff valves.

Plug valves are normally used in non-throttling, on-off operations, particularly where frequentoperation of the valve is necessary. These valves are not normally recommended for throttlingservice because, like the gate valve, a high percentage of flow change occurs near shutoff at highvelocity. However, a diamond-shaped port has been developed for throttling service.

Multipo r t Plug Valves

Multiport valves are particularly advantageous on transfer lines and for diverting services. Asingle multiport valve may be installed in lieu of three or four gate valves or other types ofshutoff valve. A disadvantage is that many multiport valve configurations do not completelyshut off flow.

In most cases, one flowpath is always open. These valves are intended to divert the flow of oneline while shutting off flow from the other lines. If complete shutoff of flow is a requirement,it is necessary that a style of multiport valve be used that permits this, or a secondary valveshould be installed on the main line ahead of the multiport valve to permit complete shutoff offlow.

In some multiport configurations, simultaneous flow to more than one port is also possible. Greatcare should be taken in specifying the particular port arrangement required to guarantee thatproper operation will be possible.

Plug Valve Disks

Plugs are either round or cylindrical with a taper. They may have various types of portopenings, each with a varying degree of area relative to the corresponding inside diameter of thepipe.

Rectangular Por t Plug

The most common port shape is the rectangular port. The rectangular port represents atleast 70% of the corresponding pipe's cross-sectional area.

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Round Por t Plug

Round port plug is a term that describes a valve that has a round opening through theplug. If the port is the same size or larger than the pipe's inside diameter, it is referredto as a full port. If the opening is smaller than the pipe's inside diameter, the port isreferred to as a standard round port. Valves having standard round ports are used onlywhere restriction of flow is unimportant.

Diamond Por t Plug

A diamond port plug has a diamond-shaped port through the plug. This design is forthrottling service. All diamond port valves are venturi restricted flow type.

L ubr icated Plug Valve Design

Clearances and leakage prevention are the chief considerations in plug valves. Many plug valvesare of all metal construction. In these versions, the narrow gap around the plug can allowleakage. If the gap is reduced by sinking the taper plug deeper into the body, actuation torqueclimbs rapidly and galling can occur. To remedy this condition, a series of grooves around thebody and plug port openings is supplied with grease prior to actuation. Applying greaselubricates the plug motion and seals the gap between plug and body. Grease injected into afitting at the top of the stem travels down through a check valve in the passageway, past the plugtop to the grooves on the plug, and down to a well below the plug. The lubricant must becompatible with the temperature and nature of the fluid. All manufacturers of lubricated plugvalves have developed a series of lubricants that are compatible with a wide range of media.Their recommendation should be followed as to which lubricant is best suited for the service.

The most common fluids controlled by plug valves are gases and liquid hydrocarbons. Somewater lines have these valves, provided that lubricant contamination is not a serious danger.Lubricated plug valves may be as large as 24 inches and have pressure capabilities up to 6000psig. Steel or iron bodies are available. The plug can be cylindrical or tapered.

Nonlubr icated Plugs

There are two basic types of nonlubricated plug valves: lift-type and elastomer sleeve or plugcoated. Lift-type valves provide a means of mechanically lifting the tapered plug slightly todisengage it from the seating surface to permit easy rotation. The mechanical lifting can beaccomplished with a cam or external lever.

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In a common, nonlubricated, plug valve having an elastomer sleeve, a sleeve of TFE completelysurrounds the plug. It is retained and locked in place by a metal body. This design results ina primary seal being maintained between the sleeve and the plug at all times regardless ofposition. The TFE sleeve is durable and inert to all but a few rarely encountered chemicals. Italso has a low coefficient of friction and is, therefore, self-lubricating.

Manually Oper ated Plug Valve I nstallation

When installing plug valves, care should be taken to allow room for the operation of the handle,lever, or wrench. The manual operator is usually longer than the valve, and it rotates to aposition parallel to the pipe from a position 90° to the pipe.

Plug Valve Glands

The gland of the plug valve is equivalent to the bonnet of a gate or globe valve. The glandsecures the stem assembly to the valve body. There are three general types of glands: singlegland, screwed gland, and bolted gland.

To ensure a tight valve, the plug must be seated at all times. Gland adjustment should be kepttight enough to prevent the plug from becoming unseated and exposing the seating surfaces tothe live fluid. Care should be exercised to not overtighten the gland, which will result in ametal-to-metal contact between the body and the plug. Such a metal-to-metal contact creates anadditional force which will require extreme effort to operate the valve.

Diaphr agm Valves

A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop fluid flow.The name is derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the open area atthe top of the valve body to form a seal. A diaphragm valve is illustrated in Figure 14.

Figure 14 Straight Through Diaphragm Valve

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Diaphragm valves are, in effect, simple "pinch clamp" valves. A resilient, flexible diaphragm isconnected to a compressor by a stud molded into the diaphragm. The compressor is moved upand down by the valve stem. Hence, the diaphragm lifts when the compressor is raised. As thecompressor is lowered, the diaphragm is pressed against the contoured bottom in the straightthrough valve illustrated in Figure 14 or the body weir in the weir-type valve illustrated inFigure 15.

Diaphragm valves can also be used for throttling service. The weir-type is the better throttlingvalve but has a limited range. Its throttling characteristics are essentially those of a quick-opening valve because of the large shutoff area along the seat.

A weir-type diaphragm valve is available to control small flows. It uses a two-piece compressorcomponent. Instead of the entire diaphragm lifting off the weir when the valve is opened, thefirst increments of stem travel raise an inner compressor component that causes only the centralpart of the diaphragm to lift. This creates a relatively small opening through the center of thevalve. After the inner compressor is completely open, the outer compressor component is raisedalong with the inner compressor and the remainder of the throttling is similar to the throttling thattakes place in a conventional valve.

Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for the handling of corrosive fluids, fibrous slurries,radioactive fluids, or other fluids that must remain free from contamination.

Diaphr agm Constr uction

The operating mechanism of a diaphragm valve is not exposed to the media within the pipeline.Sticky or viscous fluids cannot get into the bonnet to interfere with the operating mechanism.Many fluids that would clog, corrode, or gum up the working parts of most other types of valveswill pass through a diaphragm valve without causing problems. Conversely, lubricants used forthe operating mechanism cannot be allowed to contaminate the fluid being handled. There areno packing glands to maintain and no possibility of stem leakage. There is a wide choice ofavailable diaphragm materials. Diaphragm life depends upon the nature of the material handled,temperature, pressure, and frequency of operation.

Some elastomeric diaphragm materials may be unique in their excellent resistance to certainchemicals at high temperatures. However, the mechanical properties of any elastomeric materialwill be lowered at the higher temperature with possible destruction of the diaphragm at highpressure. Consequently, the manufacturer should be consulted when they are used in elevatedtemperature applications.

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Figure 15 Weir Diaphragm Valve

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All elastomeric materials operate best below 150°F. Some will function at higher temperatures.Viton, for example, is noted for its excellent chemical resistance and stability at hightemperatures. However, when fabricated into a diaphragm, Viton is subject to lowered tensilestrength just as any other elastomeric material would be at elevated temperatures. Fabricbonding strength is also lowered at elevated temperatures, and in the case of Viton, temperaturesmay be reached where the bond strength could become critical.

Fluid concentrations is also a consideration for diaphragm selection. Many of the diaphragmmaterials exhibit satisfactory corrosion resistance to certain corrodents up to a specificconcentration and/or temperature. The elastomer may also have a maximum temperaturelimitation based on mechanical properties which could be in excess of the allowable operatingtemperature depending upon its corrosion resistance. This should be checked from a corrosiontable.

Diaphr agm Valve Stem Assemblies

Diaphragm valves have stems that do not rotate. The valves are available with indicating andnonindicating stems. The indicating stem valve is identical to the nonindicating stem valveexcept that a longer stem is provided to extend up through the handwheel. For the nonindicatingstem design, the handwheel rotates a stem bushing that engages the stem threads and moves thestem up and down. As the stem moves, so does the compressor that is pinned to the stem. Thediaphragm, in turn, is secured to the compressor.

Diaphr agm Valve Bonnet Assemblies

Some diaphragm valves use a quick-opening bonnet and lever operator. This bonnet isinterchangeable with the standard bonnet on conventional weir-type bodies. A 90° turn of thelever moves the diaphragm from full open to full closed. Diaphragm valves may also beequipped with chain wheel operators, extended stems, bevel gear operators, air operators, andhydraulic operators.

Many diaphragm valves are used in vacuum service. Standard bonnet construction can beemployed in vacuum service through 4 inches in size. On valves 4 inches and larger, a sealed,evacuated, bonnet should be employed. This is recommended to guard against prematurediaphragm failure.

Sealed bonnets are supplied with a seal bushing on the nonindicating types and a seal bushingplus O-ring on the indicating types. Construction of the bonnet assembly of a diaphragm valveis illustrated in Figure 15. This design is recommended for valves that are handling dangerousliquids and gases. In the event of a diaphragm failure, the hazardous materials will not bereleased to the atmosphere. If the materials being handled are extremely hazardous, it isrecommended that a means be provided to permit a safe disposal of the corrodents from thebonnet.

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Reducing Valves

Reducing valves automatically reduce supply pressure to a preselected pressure as long as thesupply pressure is at least as high as the selected pressure. As illustrated in Figure 16, theprincipal parts of the reducing valve are the main valve; an upward-seating valve that has apiston on top of its valve stem, an upward-seating auxiliary (or controlling) valve, a controllingdiaphragm, and an adjusting spring and screw.

Figure 16 Variable Reducing Valve

Reducing valve operation is controlled by high pressure at the valve inlet and the adjusting screwon top of the valve assembly. The pressure entering the main valve assists the main valvespring in keeping the reducing valve closed by pushing upward on the main valve disk.However, some of the high pressure is bled to an auxiliary valve on top of the main valve. Theauxiliary valve controls the admission of high pressure to the piston on top of the main valve.The piston has a larger surface area than the main valve disk, resulting in a net downward forceto open the main valve. The auxiliary valve is controlled by a controlling diaphragm locateddirectly over the auxiliary valve.

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The controlling diaphragm transmits a downward force that tends to open the auxiliary valve.The downward force is exerted by the adjusting spring, which is controlled by the adjustingscrew. Reduced pressure from the main valve outlet is bled back to a chamber beneath thediaphragm to counteract the downward force of the adjusting spring. The position of theauxiliary valve, and ultimately the position of the main valve, is determined by the position ofthe diaphragm. The position of the diaphragm is determined by the strength of the opposingforces of the downward force of the adjusting spring versus the upward force of the outletreduced pressure. Other reducing valves work on the same basic principle, but may use gas,pneumatic, or hydraulic controls in place of the adjusting spring and screw.

Non-variable reducing valves, illustrated in Figure 17, replace the adjusting spring and screwwith a pre-pressurized dome over the diaphragm. The valve stem is connected either directlyor indirectly to the diaphragm. The valve spring below the diaphragm keeps the valve closed.As in the variable valve, reduced pressure is bled through an orifice to beneath the diaphragmto open the valve. Valve position is determined by the strength of the opposing forces of thedownward force of the pre-pressurized dome versus the upward force of the outlet-reducedpressure.

Figure 17 Non-Variable Reducing Valve

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Non-variable reducing valves eliminate the need for the intermediate auxiliary valve found invariable reducing valves by having the opposing forces react directly on the diaphragm.Therefore, non-variable reducing valves are more responsive to large pressure variations and areless susceptible to failure than are variable reducing valves.

Pinch Valves

The relatively inexpensive pinch valve,

Figure 18 Pinch Valves

illustrated in Figure 18, is the simplestin any valve design. It is simply anindustrial version of the pinch cockused in the laboratory to control theflow of fluids through rubber tubing.

Pinch valves are suitable for on-offand throttling services. However, theeffective throttling range is usuallybetween 10% and 95% of the ratedflow capacity.

Pinch valves are ideally suited for thehandling of slurries, liquids with largeamounts of suspended solids, andsystems that convey solidspneumatically. Because the operatingmechanism is completely isolated fromthe fluid, these valves also findapplication where corrosion or metalcontamination of the fluid might be aproblem.

The pinch control valve consists of a sleeve molded of rubber or other synthetic material anda pinching mechanism. All of the operating portions are completely external to the valve. Themolded sleeve is referred to as the valve body.

Pinch valve bodies are manufactured of natural and synthetic rubbers and plastics which havegood abrasion resistance properties. These properties permit little damage to the valve sleeve,thereby providing virtually unimpeded flow. Sleeves are available with either extended hubs andclamps designed to slip over a pipe end, or with a flanged end having standard dimensions.

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Pinch Valve Bodies

Pinch valves have molded bodies reinforced with fabric. Pinch valves generally have amaximum operating temperature of 250oF. At 250oF, maximum operating pressure variesgenerally from 100 psig for a 1-inch diameter valve and decreases to 15 psig for a 12-inchdiameter valve. Special pinch valves are available for temperature ranges of -100oF to 550oFand operating pressures of 300 psig.

Most pinch valves are supplied with the sleeve (valve body) exposed. Another style fullyencloses the sleeve within a metallic body. This type controls flow either with the conventionalwheel and screw pinching device, hydraulically, or pneumatically with the pressure of the liquidor gas within the metal case forcing the sleeve walls together to shut off flow.

Most exposed sleeve valves have limited vacuum application because of the tendency of thesleeves to collapse when vacuum is applied. Some of the encased valves can be used on vacuumservice by applying a vacuum within the metal casing and thus preventing the collapse of thesleeve.

Figure 19 Typical Butterfly Valve

Butter fly Valves

A butterfly valve, illustrated inFigure 19, is a rotary motionvalve that is used to stop,regulate, and start fluid flow.Butterfly valves are easily andquickly operated because a 90o

rotation of the handle moves thedisk from a fully closed to fullyopened position. Larger butterflyvalves are actuated by handwheelsconnected to the stem throughgears that provide mechanicaladvantage at the expense of speed.

Butterfly valves possess manyadvantages over gate, globe, plug,and ball valves, especially forlarge valve applications. Savingsin weight, space, and cost are themost obvious advantages. Themaintenance costs are usually lowbecause there are a minimalnumber of moving parts and thereare no pockets to trap fluids.

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Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the handling of large flows of liquids or gases atrelatively low pressures and for the handling of slurries or liquids with large amounts ofsuspended solids.

Butterfly valves are built on the principle of a pipe damper. The flow control element is a diskof approximately the same diameter as the inside diameter of the adjoining pipe, which rotateson either a vertical or horizontal axis. When the disk lies parallel to the piping run, the valveis fully opened. When the disk approaches the perpendicular position, the valve is shut.Intermediate positions, for throttling purposes, can be secured in place by handle-lockingdevices.

Butter fly Valve Seat Constr uction

Stoppage of flow is accomplished by the valve disk sealing against a seat that is on the insidediameter periphery of the valve body. Many butterfly valves have an elastomeric seat againstwhich the disk seals. Other butterfly valves have a seal ring arrangement that uses a clamp-ringand backing-ring on a serrated edged rubber ring. This design prevents extrusion of the O-rings.In early designs, a metal disk was used to seal against a metal seat. This arrangement did notprovide a leak-tight closure, but did provide sufficient closure in some applications (i.e., waterdistribution lines).

Butter fly Valve Body Constr uction

Butterfly valve body construction varies. The most economical is the wafer type that fitsbetween two pipeline flanges. Another type, the lug wafer design, is held in place between twopipe flanges by bolts that join the two flanges and pass through holes in the valve's outer casing.Butterfly valves are available with conventional flanged ends for bolting to pipe flanges, and ina threaded end construction.

Butter fly Valve Disk and Stem Assemblies

The stem and disk for a butterfly valve are separate pieces. The disk is bored to receive thestem. Two methods are used to secure the disk to the stem so that the disk rotates as the stemis turned. In the first method, the disk is bored through and secured to the stem with bolts orpins. The alternate method involves boring the disk as before, then shaping the upper stem boreto fit a squared or hex-shaped stem. This method allows the disk to "float" and seek its centerin the seat. Uniform sealing is accomplished and external stem fasteners are eliminated. Thismethod of assembly is advantageous in the case of covered disks and in corrosive applications.

In order for the disk to be held in the proper position, the stem must extend beyond the bottomof the disk and fit into a bushing in the bottom of the valve body. One or two similar bushingsare along the upper portion of the stem as well. These bushings must be either resistant to themedia being handled or sealed so that the corrosive media cannot come into contact with them.

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Stem seals are accomplished either with packing in a conventional stuffing box or by means ofO-ring seals. Some valve manufacturers, particularly those specializing in the handling ofcorrosive materials, place a stem seal on the inside of the valve so that no material beinghandled by the valve can come into contact with the valve stem. If a stuffing box or externalO-ring is employed, the fluid passing through the valve will come into contact with the valvestem.

Needle Valves

Figure 20 Needle Valve

A needle valve, as shown in Figure 20, isused to make relatively fine adjustmentsin the amount of fluid flow.

The distinguishing characteristic of aneedle valve is the long, tapered, needle-like point on the end of the valve stem.This "needle" acts as a disk. The longerpart of the needle is smaller than theorifice in the valve seat and passesthrough the orifice before the needleseats. This arrangement permits a verygradual increase or decrease in the size ofthe opening. Needle valves are oftenused as component parts of other, morecomplicated valves. For example, theyare used in some types of reducingvalves.

Needle Valve Applications

Most constant pressure pump governorshave needle valves to minimize the effectsof fluctuations in pump dischargepressure. Needle valves are also used insome components of automaticcombustion control systems where veryprecise flow regulation is necessary.

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Needle Valve Body Designs

One type of body design for a needle valve is the bar stock body. Bar stock bodies arecommon, and, in globe types, a ball swiveling in the stem provides the necessary rotation forseating without damage. The bar stock body is illustrated in Figure 21.

Figure 21 Bar-Stock Instrument Valve

Needle valves are frequently used as metering valves. Metering valves are used for extremelyfine flow control. The thin disk or orifice allows for linear flow characteristics. Therefore, thenumber of handwheel turns can be directly correlated to the amount of flow. A typical meteringvalve has a stem with 40 threads per inch.

Needle valves generally use one of two styles of stem packing: an O-ring with TFE backingrings or a TFE packing cylinder. Needle valves are often equipped with replaceable seats forease of maintenance.

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Check Valves

Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These valves areactivated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid passing through thesystem opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve. Closure is accomplishedby the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure, by a spring, or by a combination ofthese means. The general types of check valves are swing, tilting-disk, piston, butterfly, andstop.

Swing Check Valves

A swing check valve is illustrated in Figure 22. The valve allows full, unobstructed flow andautomatically closes as pressure decreases. These valves are fully closed when the flow reacheszero and prevent back flow. Turbulence and pressure drop within the valve are very low.

A swing check valve is normally recommended for use in systems employing gate valves because

Figure 22 Swing Check Valve

of the low pressure drop across the valve. Swing check valves are available in either Y-patternor straight body design. A straight check valve is illustrated in Figure 22. In either style, thedisk and hinge are suspended from the body by means of a hinge pin. Seating is either metal-to-metal or metal seat to composition disk. Composition disks are usually recommended forservices where dirt or other particles may be present in the fluid, where noise is objectionable,or where positive shutoff is required.

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Straight body swing check valves contain a disk that is hinged at the top. The disk seals againstthe seat, which is integral with the body. This type of check valve usually has replaceable seatrings. The seating surface is placed at a slight angle to permit easier opening at lower pressures,more positive sealing, and less shock when closing under higher pressures.

Swing check valves are usually installed in conjunction with gate valves because they providerelatively free flow. They are recommended for lines having low velocity flow and should notbe used on lines with pulsating flow when the continual flapping or pounding would bedestructive to the seating elements. This condition can be partially corrected by using anexternal lever and weight.

T iltin g Disk Check Valves

The tilting disk check valve, illustrated in Figure 23, is similar to the swing check valve. Likethe swing check, the tilting disk type keeps fluid resistance and turbulence low because of itsstraight-through design.

Tilting disk check valves can be installed in horizontal lines and vertical lines having upward

Figure 23 Operation of Tilting Disk Check Valve

flow. Some designs simply fit between two flange faces and provide a compact, lightweightinstallation, particularly in larger diameter valves.

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The disk lifts off of the seat to open the valve. The airfoil design of the disk allows it to "float"on the flow. Disk stops built into the body position the disk for optimum flow characteristics.A large body cavity helps minimize flow restriction. As flow decreases, the disk starts closingand seals before reverse flow occurs. Backpressure against the disk moves it across the soft sealinto the metal seat for tight shutoff without slamming. If the reverse flow pressure is insufficientto cause a tight seal, the valve may be fitted with an external lever and weight.

These valves are available with a soft seal ring, metal seat seal, or a metal-to-metal seal. Thelatter is recommended for high temperature operation. The soft seal rings are replaceable, butthe valve must be removed from the line to make the replacement.

L if t Check Valves

A lift check valve, illustrated in Figure 24, is commonly used in piping systems in which globevalves are being used as a flow control valve. They have similar seating arrangements as globevalves.

Lift check valves are suitable for installation in horizontal or vertical lines with upward flow.They are recommended for use with steam, air, gas, water, and on vapor lines with high flowvelocities. These valves are available in three body patterns: horizontal, angle, and vertical.

Figure 24 Lift Check Valve

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Flow to lift check valves must always enter below the seat. As the flow enters, the disk or ballis raised within guides from the seat by the pressure of the upward flow. When the flow stopsor reverses, the disk or ball is forced onto the seat of the valve by both the backflow andgravity.

Some types of lift check valves may be installed horizontally. In this design, the ball issuspended by a system of guide ribs. This type of check valve design is generally employed inplastic check valves.

The seats of metallic body lift check valves are either integral with the body or containrenewable seat rings. Disk construction is similar to the disk construction of globe valves witheither metal or composition disks. Metal disk and seat valves can be reground using the sametechniques as is used for globe valves.

Piston Check Valves

Figure 25 Piston Check Valve

A piston check valve, illustrated inFigure 25, is essentially a liftcheck valve. It has a dashpotconsisting of a piston and cylinderthat provides a cushioning effectduring operation. Because of thesimilarity in design to lift checkvalves, the flow characteristicsthrough a piston check valve areessentially the same as through alift check valve.

Installation is the same as for a liftcheck in that the flow must enterfrom under the seat. Constructionof the seat and disk of a pistoncheck valve is the same as for liftcheck valves.

Piston check valves are used primarily in conjunction with globe and angle valves in pipingsystems experiencing very frequent changes in flow direction. Valves of this type are used onwater, steam, and air systems.

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Butter fly Check Valves

Figure 26 Butterfly Check Valve

Butterfly check valves have a seatingarrangement similar to the seatingarrangement of butterfly valves. Flowcharacteristics through these check valvesare similar to the flow characteristicsthrough butterfly valves. Consequently,butterfly check valves are quite frequentlyused in systems using butterfly valves.In addition, the construction of thebutterfly check valve body is such thatample space is provided for unobstructedmovement of the butterfly valve diskwithin the check valve body without thenecessity of installing spacers.

The butterfly check valve design is basedon a flexible sealing member against thebore of the valve body at an angle of 45o.The short distance the disk must movefrom full open to full closed inhibits the"slamming" action found in some othertypes of check valves. Figure 26

illustrates the internal assembly of the butterfly check valve.

Because the flow characteristics are similar to the flow characteristics of butterfly valves,applications of these valves are much the same. Also, because of their relatively quiet operationthey find application in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. Simplicity of designalso permits their construction in large diameters - up to 72 inches.

As with butterfly valves, the basic body design lends itself to the installation of seat linersconstructed of many materials. This permits the construction of a corrosion-resistant valve atless expense than would be encountered if it were necessary to construct the entire body of thehigher alloy or more expensive metal. This is particularly true in constructions such as thoseof titanium.

Flexible sealing members are available in Buna-N, Neoprene, Nordel, Hypalon, Viton, Tyon,Urethane, Butyl, Silicone, and TFE as standard, with other materials available on special order.

The valve body essentially is a length of pipe that is fitted with flanges or has threaded, grooved,or plain ends. The interior is bored to a fine finish. The flanged end units can have liners ofvarious metals or plastics installed depending upon the service requirements. Internals andfasteners are always of the same material as the liner.

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Butterfly check valves may be

Figure 27 Stop Check Valve

installed horizontally orvertically with the vertical floweither upward or downward.Care should be taken to ensurethat the valve is installed sothat the entering flow comesfrom the hinge post end of thevalve; otherwise, all flow willbe stopped.

Stop Check Valves

A stop check valve, illustratedin Figure 27, is a combinationof a lift check valve and aglobe valve. It has a stemwhich, when closed, preventsthe disk from coming off theseat and provides a tight seal(similar to a globe valve).When the stem is operated tothe open position, the valveoperates as a lift check. Thestem is not connected to thedisk and functions to close thevalve tightly or to limit thetravel of the valve disk in the

open direction.

Relief and Safety Valves

Relief and safety valves prevent equipment damage by relieving accidental over-pressurizationof fluid systems. The main difference between a relief valve and a safety valve is the extent ofopening at the setpoint pressure.

A relief valve, illustrated in Figure 28, gradually opens as the inlet pressure increases above thesetpoint. A relief valve opens only as necessary to relieve the over-pressure condition. A safetyvalve, illustrated in Figure 29, rapidly pops fully open as soon as the pressure setting is reached.A safety valve will stay fully open until the pressure drops below a reset pressure. The resetpressure is lower than the actuating pressure setpoint. The difference between the actuatingpressure setpoint and the pressure at which the safety valve resets is called blowdown.Blowdown is expressed as a percentage of the actuating pressure setpoint.

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Figure 28 Relief Valve

Relief valves are typically used for incompressible fluids such as water or oil. Safety valves aretypically used for compressible fluids such as steam or other gases. Safety valves can often bedistinguished by the presence of an external lever at the top of the valve body, which is used asan operational check.

As indicated in Figure 29, system pressure provides a force that is attempting to push the diskof the safety valve off its seat. Spring pressure on the stem is forcing the disk onto the seat.At the pressure determined by spring compression, system pressure overcomes spring pressureand the relief valve opens. As system pressure is relieved, the valve closes when springpressure again overcomes system pressure. Most relief and safety valves open against the forceof a compression spring. The pressure setpoint is adjusted by turning the adjusting nuts on topof the yoke to increase or decrease the spring compression.

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Figure 29 Safety Valve

Pilot-Oper ated Relief Valves

Pilot-operated relief valves are designed to maintain pressure through the use of a small passageto the top of a piston that is connected to the stem such that system pressure closes the mainrelief valve. When the small pilot valve opens, pressure is relieved from the piston, and systempressure under the disk opens the main relief valve. Such pilot valves are typically solenoid-operated, with the energizing signal originating from pressure measuring systems.

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Summary

The following important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Types of Valves Summary

Gate valves are generally used in systems where low flow resistance for a fullyopen valve is desired and there is no need to throttle the flow.

Globe valves are used in systems where good throttling characteristics and lowseat leakage are desired and a relatively high head loss in an open valve isacceptable.

Ball valves allow quick, quarter turn on-off operation and have poor throttlingcharacteristics.

Plug valves are often used to direct flow between several different ports throughuse of a single valve.

Diaphragm valves and pinch valves are used in systems where it is desirable forthe entire operating mechanism to be completely isolated from the fluid.

Butterfly valves provide significant advantages over other valve designs in weight,space, and cost for large valve applications.

Check valves automatically open to allow flow in one direction and seat to preventflow in the reverse direction.

A stop check valve is a combination of a lift check valve and a globe valve andincorporates the characteristics of both.

Safety/relief valves are used to provide automatic overpressurization protection fora system.

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VALVE ACTUATORS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Valves

VALVE ACTUATORS

Some type of actuator is necessary to allow for the positioning of a valve.Actuators vary from simple manual handwheels to relatively complex electricaland hydraulic manipulators.

EO 1.6 DESCRIBE the construction and principle of operation for thefollowing types of valve actuators:

a. Manualb. Electric motorc. Pneumaticd. Hydraulice. Solenoid

I ntr oduction

Valve actuators are selected based upon a number of factors including torque necessary to operatethe valve and the need for automatic actuation. Types of actuators include manual handwheel,manual lever, electrical motor, pneumatic, solenoid, hydraulic piston, and self-actuated. Allactuators except manual handwheel and lever are adaptable to automatic actuation.

Manual, Fixed, and Hammer Actuator s

Manual actuators are capable of

Figure 30 Fixed Handwheel

placing the valve in any position butdo not permit automatic operation.The most common type mechanicalactuator is the handwheel. Thistype includes handwheels fixed tothe stem, hammer handwheels, andhandwheels connected to the stemthrough gears.

Handwheels Fixed to Stem

As illustrated in Figure 30,handwheels fixed to the stemprovide only the mechanicaladvantage of the wheel. Whenthese valves are exposed to high operating temperatures, valve binding makes operation difficult.

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Valves DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 VALVE ACTUATORS

Hammer Handwheel

Figure 31 Hammer Handwheel

As illustrated in Figure 31, thehammer handwheel moves freelythrough a portion of its turn andthen hits against a lug on asecondary wheel. The secondarywheel is attached to the valvestem. With this arrangement, thevalve can be pounded shut fortight closure or pounded open if itis stuck shut.

Gears

Figure 32 Manual Gear Head

If additional mechanical advantage isnecessary for a manually-operatedvalve, the valve bonnet is fitted withmanually-operated gear heads asillustrated in Figure 32. A specialwrench or handwheel attached to thepinion shaft permits one individual tooperate the valve when twoindividuals might be needed withoutthe gear advantage. Because severalturns of the pinion are necessary toproduce one turn of the valve stem,the operating time of large valves isexceptionally long. The use ofportable air motors connected to thepinion shaft decreases the valveoperating time.

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Electr ic Motor Actuator s

Electric motors permit manual, semi-automatic, and automatic operation of the valve. Motorsare used mostly for open-close functions, although they are adaptable to positioning the valveto any point opening as illustrated in Figure 33. The motor is usually a, reversible, high speedtype connected through a gear train to reduce the motor speed and thereby increase the torqueat the stem. Direction of motor rotation determines direction of disk motion. The electricalactuation can be semi-automatic, as when the motor is started by a control system. Ahandwheel, which can be engaged to the gear train, provides for manual operating of the valve.Limit switches are normally provided to stop the motor automatically at full open and full closedvalve positions. Limit switches are operated either physically by position of the valve ortorsionally by torque of the motor.

Figure 33 Electric Motor Actuator

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Pneumatic Actuator s

Figure 34 Pneumatic Actuator

Pneumatic actuators asillustrated in Figure 34 providefor automatic or semi-automatic valve operation.These actuators translate an airsignal into valve stem motionby air pressure acting on adiaphragm or piston connectedto the stem. Pneumaticactuators are used in throttlevalves for open-closepositioning where fast action isrequired. When air pressurecloses the valve and springaction opens the valve, theactuator is termed direct-acting. When air pressureopens the valve and springaction closes the valve, theactuator is termed reverse-acting. Duplex actuators haveair supplied to both sides ofthe diaphragm. Thedifferential pressure across thediaphragm positions the valvestem. Automatic operation isprovided when the air signalsare automatically controlled bycircuitry. Semi-automaticoperation is provided bymanual switches in thecircuitry to the air controlvalves.

Hydraulic Actuator s

Hydraulic actuators provide for semi-automatic or automatic positioning of the valve, similar tothe pneumatic actuators. These actuators use a piston to convert a signal pressure into valvestem motion. Hydraulic fluid is fed to either side of the piston while the other side is drainedor bled. Water or oil is used as the hydraulic fluid. Solenoid valves are typically used forautomatic control of the hydraulic fluid to direct either opening or closing of the valve. Manualvalves can also be used for controlling the hydraulic fluid; thus providing semi-automaticoperation.

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Self-Actuated Valves

Self-actuated valves use the system

Figure 35 Solenoid Actuated Valve

fluid to position the valve. Reliefvalves, safety valves, checkvalves, and steam traps areexamples of self-actuated valves.All of these valves use somecharacteristic of the system fluid toactuate the valve. No source ofpower outside the system fluidenergy is necessary for operationof these valves.

Solenoid Actuated Valves

Solenoid actuated valves providefor automatic open-close valvepositioning as illustrated inFigure 35. Most solenoid actuatedvalves also have a manual overridethat permits manual positioning ofthe valve for as long as theoverride is manually positioned.Solenoids position the valve byattracting a magnetic slug attachedto the valve stem. In singlesolenoid valves, spring pressureacts against the motion of the slugwhen power is applied to thesolenoid. These valves can be arranged such that power to the solenoid either opens or closesthe valve. When power to the solenoid is removed, the spring returns the valve to the oppositeposition. Two solenoids can be used to provide for both opening and closing by applying powerto the appropriate solenoid.

Single solenoid valves are termed fail open or fail closed depending on the position of the valvewith the solenoid de-energized. Fail open solenoid valves are opened by spring pressure andclosed by energizing the solenoid. Fail closed solenoid valves are closed by spring pressure andopened by energizing the solenoid. Double solenoid valves typically fail "as is." That is, thevalve position does not change when both solenoids are de-energized.

One application of solenoid valves is in air systems such as those used to supply air to pneumaticvalve actuators. The solenoid valves are used to control the air supply to the pneumatic actuatorand thus the position of the pneumatic actuated valve.

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Speed of Power Actuator s

Plant safety considerations dictate valve speeds for certain safety-related valves. Where a systemmust be very quickly isolated or opened, very fast valve actuation is required. Where theopening of a valve results in injection of relatively cold water to a hot system, slower openingis necessary to minimize thermal shock. Engineering design selects the actuator for safety-related valves based upon speed and power requirements and availability of energy to theactuator.

In general, fastest actuation is provided by hydraulic, pneumatic, and solenoid actuators.However, solenoids are not practical for large valves because their size and power requirementswould be excessive. Also, hydraulic and pneumatic actuators require a system for providinghydraulic or pneumatic energy. The speed of actuation in either case can be set by installingappropriately sized orifices in the hydraulic or pneumatic lines. In certain cases, the valve isclosed by spring pressure, which is opposed by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure to keep thevalve open.

Electrical motors provide relatively fast actuation. Actual valve speed is set by the combinationof motor speed and gear ratio. This combination can be selected to provide full valve travelwithin a range from about two seconds to several seconds.

Valve Position I ndication

Operators require indication of the position of certain valves to permit knowledgeable operationof the plant. For such valves, remote valve position indication is provided in the form ofposition lights that indicate if valves are open or closed. Remote valve position indicationcircuits use a position detector that senses stem and disk position or actuator position. One typeof position detector is the mechanical limit switch, which is physically operated by valvemovement.

Another type is magnetic switches or transformers that sense movement of their magnetic cores,which are physically operated by valve movement.

Local valve position indication refers to some visually discernable characteristic of the valve thatindicates valve position. Rising stem valve position is indicated by the stem position. Nonrisingstem valves sometimes have small mechanical pointers that are operated by the valve actuatorsimultaneously with valve operation. Power actuated valves typically have a mechanical pointerthat provides local valve position indication. On the other hand, some valves do not have anyfeature for position indication.

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Summary

The important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Valve Actuators Summary

Manual actuators are the most common type of valve actuators. Manual actuatorsinclude handwheels attached to the valve stem directly and handwheels attachedthrough gears to provide a mechanical advantage.

Electric motor actuators consist of reversible electric motors connected to thevalve stem through a gear train that reduces rotational speed and increases torque.

Pneumatic actuators use air pressure on either one or both sides of a diaphragmto provide the force to position the valve.

Hydraulic actuators use a pressurized liquid on one or both sides of a piston toprovide the force required to position the valve.

Solenoid actuators have a magnetic slug attached to the valve stem. The force toposition the valve comes from the magnetic attraction between the slug on thevalve stem and the coil of the electromagnet in the valve actuator.

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Department of EnergyFundamentals Handbook

MECHANICAL SCIENCEModule 5

Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viii

AIR COMPRESSORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Reciprocating Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Rotary Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Centrifugal Compressors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Compressor Coolers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Hazards of Compressed Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

HYDRAULICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Pressure and Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10Hydraulic Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

BOILERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Fuel Boiler Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

COOLING TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Induced Draft Cooling Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Forced Draft Cooling Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Natural Convection Cooling Towers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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TABLE OF CONTENTS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components


DEMINERALIZERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

Purpose of Demineralizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Demineralizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Single-Bed Demineralizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Single-Bed Regeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Mixed-Bed Demineralizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Mixed-Bed Regeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26External Regeneration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

PRESSURIZERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Dynamic Pressurizers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

STEAM TRAPS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

General Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Ball Float Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35Bucket Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Thermostatic Steam Traps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Bellows-Type Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36Impulse Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Orifice-Type Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 TABLE OF CONTENTS


FILTERS AND STRAINERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Cartridge Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40Precoat Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Backwashing Precoat Filters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Deep-Bed Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44Metal-Edge Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Strainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Backwashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

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LIST OF FIGURES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Reciprocating Air Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Figure 2 Single-Acting Air Compressor Cylinder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Figure 3 Rotary Slide Vane Air Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Figure 4 Rotary Lobe Air Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 5 Rotary Liquid Seal Ring Air Compressor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Figure 6 Simplified Centrifugal Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Figure 7 Compressor Air Cooler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Figure 8 Basic Hydraulic System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Figure 9 Typical Fuel Boiler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Figure 10 Cooling System Containing Cooling Tower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Figure 11 Induced Draft Cooling Tower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Figure 12 Natural Convection Cooling Tower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Figure 13 Single-Bed Demineralizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Figure 14 Regeneration of a Mixed-Bed Demineralizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Figure 15 A Basic Pressurizer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Figure 16 Ball Float Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Figure 17 Bucket Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 18 Bellows-Type Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Figure 19 Impulse Steam Trap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Figure 20 Typical Multiline-Cartridge Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES (Cont.)

Figure 21 Cartridge Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Figure 22 Deep-Bed Filter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Figure 23 Y-strainer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Figure 24 Common Strainers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

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LIST OF TABLES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

LIST OF TABLES

NONE

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 REFERENCES

REFERENCES

Babcock & Wilcox, Steam, Its Generations and Use, Babcock & Wilcox Co.

Benson & Whitehouse, Internal Combustion Engines, Pergamon.

Bureau of Naval Personnel, Principles of Naval Engineering, Training PublicationDivision, Naval Personnel Program Support Activity, Washington D.C., 1970.

Cheremisinoff, N. P., Fluid Flow, Pumps, Pipes and Channels, Ann Arbor Science.

E.E.U.A., Steam Trapping and Condensate Removal, Constable & Company.

Engineering Service Division, Power Orientation Program, E.I.du Pont de Nemours andCompany, Inc., 1952.

Heat Transfer, Thermodynamics and Fluid Flow Fundamentals, Columbia, MD,General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517.

General Physics, Volume IV, Chemistry, Health Physics and Nuclear Instrumentation,General Physics Corporation.

Marley, Cooling Tower Fundamentals and Applications, The Marley Company.

NUS Training Corporation, Nuclear Energy Training, NUS Corporation, 1977.

Scheel, Gas and Air Compression Machinery, McGraw/Hill.

Stewart, Harry L., Pneumatics & Hydraulics, Theodore Audel & Company.

Westinghouse Technical Manual 1440-C307, SNUPPS, Pressurizer Instructions,Westinghouse.

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OBJECTIVES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE

1.0 Without references, DESCRIBE the purpose, construction, and operation of miscellaneousmechanical components.

ENABLING OBJECTIVES

1.1 STATE the three common types of air compressors.

1.2 DESCRIBE the basic operation of the following types of air compressors:

a. Reciprocatingb. Centrifugalc. Rotary

1.3 STATE the reason for using cooling systems in air compressors.

1.4 STATE three hazards associated with pressurized air systems.

1.5 Given the appropriate information, CALCULATE the pressure or force achieved in ahydraulic piston.

1.6 DESCRIBE the basic operation of a hydraulic system.

1.7 DESCRIBE the basic operation of a boiler.

1.8 IDENTIFY the following components of a typical boiler:

a. Steam drum d. Downcomerb. Distribution header(s) e. Risersc. Combustion chamber

1.9 STATE the purpose of cooling towers.

1.10 DESCRIBE the operation of the following types of cooling towers.

a. Forced draftb. Natural convection

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 OBJECTIVES

ENABLING OBJECTIVES (Cont.)

1.11 STATE the purpose of a demineralizer.

1.12 STATE the four purposes of a pressurizer.

1.13 DEFINE the following terms attributable to a dynamic pressurizer:

a. Spray nozzle c. Outsurgeb. Insurge d. Surge volume

1.14 STATE the purpose and general operation of a steam trap.

1.15 IDENTIFY the following types of steam traps:

a. Ball float steam trap c. Bucket steam trapb. Bellow steam trap d. Impulse steam trap

1.16 DESCRIBE each of the following types of strainers and filters, including an example oftypical use.

a. Cartridge filters d. Bucket strainerb. Precoated filters e. Duplex strainerc. Deep-bed filters

1.17 EXPLAIN the application and operation of a strainer or filter backwash.

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OBJECTIVES DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

Intentionally Left Blank

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 AIR COMPRESSORS

AIR COMPRESSORS

The purpose of an air compressor is to provide a continuous supply of pressurizedair. This chapter will describe the various types of compressors and their basicoperation.

EO 1.1 STATE the three common types of air compressors.

EO 1.2 DESCRIBE the basic operation of the following types of aircompressors:

a. Reciprocatingb. Centrifugalc. Rotary

EO 1.3 STATE the reason for using cooling systems in aircompressors.

EO 1.4 STATE three hazards associated with pressurized air systems.

I ntr oduction

Air compressors of various designs are used widely throughout DOE facilities in numerousapplications. Compressed air has numerous uses throughout a facility including the operation ofequipment and portable tools. Three types of designs include reciprocating, rotary, andcentrifugal air compressors.

Recipr ocating Compressor s

The reciprocating air compressor, illustrated in Figure 1, is the most common design employedtoday.

The reciprocating compressor normally consists of the following elements.

a. The compressing element, consisting of air cylinders, heads and pistons, and airinlet and discharge valves.

b. A system of connecting rods, piston rods, crossheads, and a crankshaft andflywheel for transmitting the power developed by the driving unit to the aircylinder piston.

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AIR COMPRESSORS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

c. A self-contained lubricating system for bearings, gears, and cylinder walls,

Figure 1 Reciprocating Air Compressor

including a reservoir or sump for the lubricating oil, and a pump, or other meansof delivering oil to the various parts. On some compressors a separate force-fedlubricator is installed to supply oil to the compressor cylinders.

d. A regulation or control system designed to maintain the pressure in the dischargeline and air receiver (storage tank) within a predetermined range of pressure.

e. An unloading system, which operates in conjunction with the regulator, to reduceor eliminate the load put on the prime mover when starting the unit.

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A section of a typical reciprocating single-stage, single-acting compressor cylinder is shown inFigure 2. Inlet and discharge valves are located in the clearance space and connected throughports in the cylinder head to the inlet and discharge connections.

During the suction stroke the compressor piston starts its downward stroke and the air under

Figure 2 Single-Acting Air Compressor Cylinder

pressure in the clearance space rapidly expands until the pressure falls below that on the oppositeside of the inlet valve (Figures 2B and 2C). This difference in pressure causes the inlet valveto open into the cylinder until the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke (Figure 2C).

During the compression stroke the piston starts upward, compression begins, and at point D hasreached the same pressure as the compressor intake. The spring-loaded inlet valve then closes.As the piston continues upward, air is compressed until the pressure in the cylinder becomesgreat enough to open the discharge valve against the pressure of the valve springs and thepressure of the discharge line (Figure 2E). From this point, to the end of the stroke (Figures 2Eand 2A), the air compressed within the cylinder is discharged at practically constant pressure.

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Rotary Compressor s

The rotary compressor is adaptable to direct drive by induction motors or multicylinder gasolineor diesel engines. The units are compact, relatively inexpensive, and require a minimum ofoperating attention and maintenance. They occupy a fraction of the space and weight of areciprocating machine of equivalent capacity. Rotary compressor units are classified into threegeneral groups, slide vane-type, lobe-type, and liquid seal ring-type.

The rotary slide vane-type, as illustrated in Figure 3, has longitudinal vanes, sliding radially ina slotted rotor mounted eccentrically in a cylinder. The centrifugal force carries the slidingvanes against the cylindrical case with the vanes forming a number of individual longitudinalcells in the eccentric annulus between the case and rotor. The suction port is located where thelongitudinal cells are largest. The size of each cell is reduced by the eccentricity of the rotoras the vanes approach the discharge port, thus compressing the air.

Figure 3 Rotary Slide Vane Air Compressor

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The rotary lobe-type, illustrated in Figure

Figure 4 Rotary Lobe Air Compressor

4, features two mating lobe-type rotorsmounted in a case. The lobes are geardriven at close clearance, but withoutmetal-to-metal contact. The suction to theunit is located where the cavity made bythe lobes is largest. As the lobes rotate,the cavity size is reduced, causingcompression of the vapor within. Thecompression continues until the dischargeport is reached, at which point the vaporexits the compressor at a higher pressure.

The rotary liquid seal ring-type,illustrated in Figure 5, features a forwardinclined, open impeller, in an oblongcavity filled with liquid. As the impellerrotates, the centrifugal force causes theseal liquid to collect at the outer edge ofthe oblong cavity. Due to the oblong configuration of the compressor case, large longitudinalcells are created and reduced to smaller ones. The suction port is positioned where thelongitudinal cells are the largest, and for the discharge port, where they are smallest, thuscausing the vapor within the cell to compress as the rotor rotates. The rotary liquid sealcompressor is frequently used in specialized applications for the compression of extremelycorrosive and exothermic gasses and is commonly used in commercial nuclear plants as a meansof establishing initial condenser vacuum.

Figure 5 Rotary Liquid Seal Ring Air Compressor

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Centr ifugal Compressor s

Figure 6 Simplified Centrifugal Pump

The centrifugal compressor, originallybuilt to handle only large volumes of lowpressure gas and air (maximum of 40psig), has been developed to enable it tomove large volumes of gas with dischargepressures up to 3,500 psig. However,centrifugal compressors are now mostfrequently used for medium volume andmedium pressure air delivery. Oneadvantage of a centrifugal pump is thesmooth discharge of the compressed air.

The centrifugal force utilized by thecentrifugal compressor is the same forceutilized by the centrifugal pump. The airparticles enter the eye of the impeller,designated D in Figure 6. As theimpeller rotates, air is thrown against thecasing of the compressor. The airbecomes compressed as more and more air is thrown out to the casing by the impeller blades.The air is pushed along the path designated A, B, and C in Figure 6. The pressure of the airis increased as it is pushed along this path. Note in Figure 6 that the impeller blades curveforward, which is opposite to the backward curve used in typical centrifugal liquid pumps.Centrifugal compressors can use a variety of blade orientation including both forward andbackward curves as well as other designs.

There may be several stages to a centrifugal air compressor, as in the centrifugal pump, and theresult would be the same; a higher pressure would be produced. The air compressor is used tocreate compressed or high pressure air for a variety of uses. Some of its uses are pneumaticcontrol devices, pneumatic sensors, pneumatic valve operators, pneumatic motors, and startingair for diesel engines.

Compressor Cooler s

The amount of moisture that air can hold is inversely proportional to the pressure of the air. Asthe pressure of the air increases, the amount of moisture that air can hold decreases. The amountof moisture that air can hold is also proportional to the temperature of the air. As thetemperature of the air increases, the amount of moisture it can hold increases. However, thepressure change of compressed air is larger than the temperature change of the compressed air.This causes the moisture in the air to condense. Moisture in compressed air systems can causeserious damage. The condensed moisture can cause corrosion, water hammers, and freezedamage; therefore, it is important to avoid moisture in compressed air systems. Coolers are usedto minimize the problems caused by heat and moisture in compressed air systems.

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Coolers used on the discharge of a compressor are called aftercoolers. Their purpose is toremove the heat generated during the compression of the air. The decrease in temperaturepromotes the condensing of any moisture present in the compressed air. This moisture iscollected in condensate traps that are either automatically or manually drained.

If the compressor is multi-staged, there may be an intercooler, which is usually located after thefirst stage discharge and before the second stage suction. The principle of the intercooler is thesame as that of the aftercoolers. The result is drier, cooler, compressed air. The structure ofa particular cooler depends on the pressure and volume of the air it cools. Figure 7 illustratesa typical compressor air cooler. Air coolers are used because drier compressed air helps preventcorrosion and cooler compressed air allows more air to be compressed for a set volume.

Figure 7 Compressor Air Cooler

Hazards of Compressed A ir

People often lack respect for the power in compressed air because air is so common and is oftenviewed as harmless. At sufficient pressures, compressed air can cause serious damage if handledincorrectly. To minimize the hazards of working with compressed air, all safety precautionsshould be followed closely.

Small leaks or breaks in the compressed air system can cause minute particles to be blown atextremely high speeds. Always wear safety glasses when working in the vicinity of anycompressed air system. Safety goggles are recommended if contact lenses are worn.

Compressors can make an exceptional amount of noise while running. The noise of thecompressor, in addition to the drain valves lifting, creates enough noise to require hearingprotection. The area around compressors should normally be posted as a hearing protectionzone.

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Pressurized air can do the same type of damage as pressurized water. Treat all operations oncompressed air systems with the same care taken on liquid systems. Closed valves should beslowly cracked open and both sides should be allowed to equalize prior to opening the valvefurther. Systems being opened for maintenance should always be depressurized before workbegins.

Great care should be taken to keep contaminants from entering air systems. This is especiallytrue for oil. Oil introduced in an air compressor can be compressed to the point wheredetonation takes place in a similar manner as that which occurs in a diesel engine. Thisdetonation can cause equipment damage and personnel injury.

Summary


Air Compressors Summary

The three common types of air compressors are reciprocating, rotary, andcentrifugal.

The single-stage reciprocating compressor has a piston that movesdownward during the suction stroke, expanding the air in the cylinder. Theexpanding air causes pressure in the cylinder to drop. When the pressurefalls below the pressure on the other side of the inlet valve, the valveopens and allows air in until the pressure equalizes across the inlet valve.The piston bottoms out and then begins a compression stroke. The upwardmovement of the piston compresses the air in the cylinder, causing thepressure across the inlet valve to equalize and the inlet valve to reseat.The piston continues to compress air during the remainder of the upwardstroke until the cylinder pressure is great enough to open the dischargevalve against the valve spring pressure. Once the discharge valve is open,the air compressed in the cylinder is discharged until the piston completesthe stroke.

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Air Compressors Summary (Cont.)

The centrifugal force utilized by the centrifugal compressors is the sameforce utilized by the centrifugal pumps. The air particles enter the eye ofthe impeller. As the impeller rotates, air is thrown against the casing ofthe compressor. The air becomes compressed as more and more air isthrown out to the casing by the impeller blades. The air is pushed alongthe path on the inner wall of the casing. The pressure of the air isincreased as it is pushed along this path. There could be several stages toa centrifugal air compressor just as in the centrifugal pump, resulting inhigher pressure.

Rotary compressors are driven by a direct drive that rotates a mechanism(impellers, vanes, or lobes) that compresses the air being pumped. Theactual compression of the air takes place due either to centrifugal forcesor a diminishing air space as the impellers rotate.

Cooling systems are required in compressed air systems to remove anyheat added by the compression. The advantages to cooling the compressedair are that cool air takes less space and holds less moisture. This reducescorrosion and allows more air to be compressed into a given volume.

Hazards associated with compressed air are similar to hazards of any highpressure system. Three general hazards include the following.

Small leaks or breaks can cause minute particles to be blown at speedshigh enough to cause damage. Goggles or safety glasses should be wornwhen working around compressed gas.

The compressors, especially larger ones, can be quite noisy when running.The cycling of automatic drain valves contributes noise as well. Hearingprotection should be worn around compressors.

Pressure swings may cause system damage. Closed valves in acompressed air system should be slowly cracked open and the pressureshould be allowed to equalize prior to opening the valve further. Systemsshould be depressurized prior to opening for maintenance. Oil should bekept out of air systems to prevent possible explosions.

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HYDRAULICS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

HYDRAULICS

Many machines and processes use a fluid for developing a force to move or holdan object, or to control an action. The term hydraulic refers to a liquid. Anumber of fluids can be used for developing the force. In a hydraulic system, oil,water, or other liquids can be used. Oil is the most common.

EO 1.5 Given the appropriate information, CALCULATE the pressureor force achieved in a hydraulic piston.

EO 1.6 DESCRIBE the basic operation of a hydraulic system.

I ntr oduction

Although any liquid can be used in a hydraulic system, some liquids have advantages overothers. Oil is a liquid often preferred as the working fluid. Oil helps to lubricate the varioussliding parts, prevents rust, and is readily available. For practical purposes, oil does not changeits volume in the hydraulic system when the pressure is changed.

Pr essur e and For ce

The foundation of modern hydraulic powered systems was established when a scientist namedBlaise Pascal discovered that pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions. This concept isknown as Pascal's Law. The application of Pascal's Law requires the understanding of therelationship between force and pressure.

Force may be defined as a push or pull exerted against the total area of a surface. It isexpressed in pounds. Pressure is the amount of force on a unit area of the surface. That is,pressure is the force acting upon one square inch of a surface.

The relationship between pressure and force is expressed mathematically.

F = P x A

where:F = force in lbfP = pressure in lbf/in.2, (psi)A = area in in.2

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 HYDRAULICS

Example 1:

In a hydraulic system, the oil pressure at the inlet to the cylinder is 1500 psi, andthe area of the piston over which the oil pressure acts is two square inches.Calculate the force exerted on the piston.

Solution:

Since F = P x A, the force of the oil on the piston is calculated as follows.

F = 1500 lbf/in.2 x 2 in.2

= 3000 lbf

Example 2:

A hydraulic valve requires a force of 1848 lbf to be opened. The piston area is 3 squareinches. How much pressure does the hydraulic fluid have to exert for the valve to move?

Solution:

Since F = P x A, then .P FA

P 1848 lbf

3 in.2

P 616 lbf/in.2

Hydraulic Oper ation

The operation of a typical hydraulic system is illustrated in Figure 8. Oil from a tank orreservoir flows through a pipe into a pump. Often a filter is provided on the pump suction toremove impurities from the oil. The pump, usually a gear-type, positive displacement pump, canbe driven by an electric motor, air motor, gas or steam turbine, or an internal combustion engine.The pump increases the pressure of the oil. The actual pressure developed depends upon thedesign of the system.

Most hydraulic systems have some method of preventing overpressure. As seen in Figure 8, onemethod of pressure control involves returning hydraulic oil to the oil reservoir. The pressurecontrol box shown on Figure 8 is usually a relief valve that provides a means of returning oil tothe reservoir upon overpressurization.

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HYDRAULICS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

The high pressure oil flows through a control valve (directional control). The control valve

Figure 8 Basic Hydraulic System

changes the direction of oil flow, depending upon the desired direction of the load. In Figure8 the load can be moved to the left or to the right by changing the side of the piston to whichthe oil pressure is applied. The oil that enters the cylinder applies pressure over the area of thepiston, developing a force on the piston rod. The force on the piston rod enables the movementof a load or device. The oil from the other side of the piston returns to a reservoir or tank.

Hazards

The hazards and precautions listed in the previous chapter on air compressors are applicable tohydraulic systems as well, because most of the hazards are associated with high pressureconditions. Any use of a pressurized medium can be dangerous. Hydraulic systems carry all thehazards of pressurized systems and special hazards that are related directly to the compositionof the fluid used.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 HYDRAULICS

When using oil as a fluid in a high pressure hydraulic system, the possibility of fire or anexplosion exists. A severe fire hazard is generated when a break in the high pressure pipingoccurs and the oil is vaporized into the atmosphere. Extra precautions against fire should bepracticed in these areas.

If oil is pressurized by compressed air, an explosive hazard exists if the high pressure air comesinto contact with the oil, because it may create a diesel effect and subsequent explosion. Acarefully followed preventive maintenance plan is the best precaution against explosion.

Summary


Hydraulics Summary

The relationship between pressure and force in a hydraulic pistonis expressed mathematically as:

F = P x A where:

F = forceP = pressureA = area

Oil from a tank or reservoir flows through a pipe into a pump. Thepump can be driven by a motor, turbine, or an engine. The pumpincreases the pressure of the oil.

The high pressure oil flows in the piping through a control valve. Thecontrol valve changes the direction of the oil flow. A relief valve, set ata desired safe operating pressure, protects the system from an over-pressure condition. Oil entering the cylinder applies pressure to thepiston, developing a force on the piston rod.

The force on the piston rod enables the movement of a load or device. The oil from the other side of the piston returns to a reservoir or tankvia a filter, which removes foreign particles.

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BOILERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

BOILERS

Boilers are commonly used at large facilities to act as primary or backup steamsources. The source of heat that generates the steam varies, but the basicoperation of the boiler is the same. This chapter will summarize the operationof a boiler.

EO 1.7 DESCRIBE the basic operation of a boiler.

EO 1.8 IDENTIFY the following components of a typical boiler:

a. Steam drum d. Downcomerb. Distribution header(s) e. Risersc. Combustion chamber

I ntr oduction

The primary function of a boiler is to produce steam at a given pressure and temperature. Toaccomplish this, the boiler serves as a furnace where air is mixed with fuel in a controlledcombustion process to release large quantities of heat. The pressure-tight construction of aboiler provides a means to absorb the heat from the combustion and transfer this heat to raisewater to a temperature such that the steam produced is of sufficient temperature and quality(moisture content) for steam loads.

Boiler s

Two distinct heat sources used for boilers are electric probes and burned fuel (oil, coal, etc.)This chapter will use fuel boilers to illustrate the typical design of boilers. Refer to Figure 9during the following discussion.

The boiler has an enclosed space where the fuel combustion takes place, usually referred to asthe furnace or combustion chamber. Air is supplied to combine with the fuel, resulting incombustion. The heat of combustion is absorbed by the water in the risers or circulating tubes.The density difference between hot and cold water is the driving force to circulate the waterback to the steam drum. Eventually the water will absorb sufficient heat to produce steam.

Steam leaves the steam drum via a baffle, which causes any water droplets being carried by thesteam to drop out and drain back to the steam drum. If superheated steam is required, the steammay then travel through a superheater. The hot combustion gasses from the furnace will heatthe steam through the superheater's thin tube walls. The steam then goes to the steam supplysystem and the various steam loads.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 BOILERS

Some boilers have economizers to improve cycle efficiency by preheating inlet feedwater to theboiler. The economizer uses heat from the boiler exhaust gasses to raise the temperature of theinlet feedwater.

Figure 9 Typical Fuel Boiler

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BOILERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

Fuel Boiler Components

Figure 9 illustrates a typical fuel boiler. Some of the components are explained below.

Steam drum - The steam drum separates the steam from the heated water. Thewater droplets fall to the bottom of the tank to be cycled again,and the steam leaves the drum and enters the steam system.Feedwater enters at the bottom of the drum to start the heatingcycle.

Downcomers - Downcomers are the pipes in which the water from the steamdrum travels in order to reach the bottom of the boiler where thewater can enter the distribution headers.

Distribution headers - The distribution headers are large pipe headers that carry thewater from the downcomers to the risers.

Risers - The piping or tubes that form the combustion chamber enclosureare called risers. Water and steam run through these to beheated. The term risers refers to the fact that the water flowdirection is from the bottom to the top of the boiler. From therisers, the water and steam enter the steam drum and the cyclestarts again.

Combustion chamber - Located at the bottom of a boiler, the combustion chamber iswhere the air and fuel mix and burn. It is lined with the risers.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 BOILERS

Summary


Boilers Summary

Boilers are vessels that allow water in contained piping to be heated to steamby a heat source internal to the vessel. The water is heated to the boilingpoint. The resulting steam separates, and the water is heated again. Someboilers use the heat from combustion off-gasses to further heat the steam(superheat) and/or to preheat the feedwater.

The following components were discussed:

The steam drum is where the steam is separated from the heated water.

Downcomers are the pipes in which the water from the steam drum travels toreach the bottom of the boiler.

Distribution headers are large pipe headers that carry the water from thedowncomers to the risers.

Risers are the piping or tubes that form the combustion chamber enclosure. Water and steam run through the risers to be heated.

The combustion chamber is located at the bottom of the boiler and is wherethe air and fuel mix and burn.

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COOLING TOWERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

COOLING TO WERS

In an effort to lower costs and meet new environmental regulations, companies aredeveloping new ways to do things. One of the developments which meets bothcost decrease and environmental awareness is the cooling tower. This chapter willsummarize the advantages of cooling towers and how they function.

EO 1.9 STATE the purpose of cooling towers.

EO 1.10 DESCRIBE the operation of the following types of coolingtowers:

a. Forced draftb. Natural convection

Purpose

Before the development of cooling towers, rivers, lakes, and cooling ponds were required tosupply cooling. Through the development of the mechanical draft cooling tower, as little as onesquare foot of area is needed for every 1000 square feet required for a cooling pond or lake.Cooling towers minimize the thermal pollution of the natural water heat sinks and allow thereuse of circulating water. An example of the manner in which a cooling tower can fit into asystem is shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Cooling System Containing Cooling Tower

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 COOLING TOWERS

The cooling of the water in a cooling tower is accomplished by the direct contact of water andair. This cooling effect is provided primarily by an exchange of latent heat of vaporizationresulting from evaporation of a small amount of water and by a transfer of sensible heat, whichraises the temperature of the air. The heat transferred from the water to the air is dissipated tothe atmosphere.

Induced Draft Cooling Towers

Induced draft cooling towers, illustrated in Figure 11, are constructed such that the incomingcirculating water is dispersed throughout the cooling tower via a spray header. The spray isdirected down over baffles that are designed to maximize the contact between water and air. Theair is drawn through the baffled area by large circulating fans and causes the evaporation andthe cooling of the water.

Figure 11 Induced Draft Cooling Tower

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The nomenclature for induced draft cooling towers, including some items not illustrated inFigure 11 is summarized below.

Casing - The casing encloses the walls of the cooling tower, exclusive offan deck and louvers.

Collecting basin - The collecting basin is a receptacle beneath the cooling towerfor collecting the water cooled by the cooling tower. It can bemade of concrete, wood, metal, or an alternative material.Certain necessary accessories are required such as sump,strainers, overflow, drain, and a makeup system.

Drift eliminators - The drift eliminators are parallel blades of PVC, wood, metal,or an alternative material arranged on the air discharge side ofthe fill to remove entrained water droplets from the leaving airstream.

Driver - The driver is a device that supplies power to turn the fan. It isusually an electric motor, but turbines and internal combustionengines are occasionally used.

Drive shaft - The drive shaft is a device, including couplings, whichtransmits power from the driver to the speed reducer.

Fan - The fan is a device used to induce air flow through the coolingtower.

Fan deck - The fan deck is a horizontal surface enclosing the top of thecooling tower above the plenum that serves as a workingplatform for inspection and maintenance.

Fan stack - The fan stack is a cylinder enclosing the fan, usually with aneased inlet and an expanding discharge for increased fanefficiency.

Fill - The fill is PVC, wood, metal, or an alternative material thatprovides extended water surface exposure for evaporative heattransfer.

Intake louvers - The intake louvers are an arrangement of horizontal blades atthe air inlets that prevent escape of falling water while allowingthe entry of air.

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Makeup valve - The makeup valve is a valve that introduces fresh water into thecollection basin to maintain the desired collecting basin waterlevel.

Overflow - The overflow is a drain that prevents the collecting basin fromoverflowing.

Partition - The partition is a baffle within a multicell cooling tower that isused to prevent air and/or water flow between adjacent cells.

Plenum - The plenum is the internal cooling tower area between the drifteliminators and the fans.

Speed reducer - The speed reducer is a right-angle gear box that transmitspower to the fan while reducing the driver speed to thatrequired for optimal fan performance.

Sump - The sump is a depressed portion of the collecting basin fromwhich cold water is drawn to be returned to the connectedsystem. The sump usually contains strainer screens, antivortexdevices, and a drain or cleanout connection.

Distribution system - The distribution system is that portion of a cooling tower thatdistributes water over the fill area. It usually consists of one ormore flanged inlets, flow control valves, internal headers,distribution basins, spray branches, metering orifices, and otherrelated components.

Forced Draft Cooling Towers

Forced draft cooling towers are very similar to induced draft cooling towers. The primarydifference is that the air is blown in at the bottom of the tower and exits at the top. Forced draftcooling towers are the forerunner to induced draft cooling towers. Water distribution problemsand recirculation difficulties discourage the use of forced draft cooling towers.

Natural Convection Cooling Towers

Natural convection cooling towers, illustrated in Figure 12, use the principle of convective flowto provide air circulation. As the air inside the tower is heated, it rises through the tower. Thisprocess draws more air in, creating a natural air flow to provide cooling of the water. The basinat the bottom of the tower is open to the atmosphere. The cooler, more dense air outside the

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tower will flow in at the bottom and contribute to the air circulation within the tower. The aircirculation will be self perpetuating due to the density difference between the warmer air insideand the cooler air outside.

Figure 12 Natural Convection Cooling Tower

The incoming water is sprayed around the circumference of the tower and cascades to thebottom. The natural convection cooling towers are much larger than the forced draft coolingtowers and cost much more to construct. Because of space considerations and cost, naturalconvection cooling towers are built less frequently than other types.

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Summary


Cooling Towers Summary

The cooling tower removes heat from water used in cooling systems withinthe plant. The heat is released to the air rather than to a lake or stream.This allows facilities to locate in areas with less water available becausethe cooled water can be recycled. It also aids environmental efforts by notcontributing to thermal pollution.

Induced draft cooling towers use fans to create a draft that pulls airthrough the cooling tower fill. Because the water to be cooled isdistributed such that it cascades over the baffles, the air blows through thewater, cooling it.

Forced draft cooling towers blow air in at the bottom of the tower. Theair exits at the top of the tower. Water distribution and recirculationdifficulties limit their use.

Natural convection cooling towers function on the basic principle that hotair rises. As the air inside the tower is heated, it rises through the tower.This process draws more air in, creating a natural air flow to providecooling of the water.

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DEMINERALIZERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

DEMINERALIZERS

The cost of corrosion and radioactive contamination caused by poor water qualityin nuclear facilities is enormous. Demineralizers are an intricate part of waterquality control. The chemical theory of demineralizers is detailed in theChemistry Fundamentals Handbook. This chapter will address the mechanics ofhow demineralizers operate.

EO 1.11 STATE the purpose of a demineralizer.

Pur pose of Deminer alizer s

Dissolved impurities in power plant fluid systems generate corrosion problems and decreaseefficiency due to fouled heat transfer surfaces. Demineralization of the water is one of the mostpractical and common methods available to remove these dissolved impurities.

In the plant, demineralizers (also called ion-exchangers) are used to hold ion exchange resins andtransport water through them. Ion exchangers are generally classified into two groups: single-bed ion exchangers and mixed-bed ion exchangers.

Deminer alizer s

A demineralizer is basically a cylindrical tank with connections at the top for water inlet andresin addition, and connections at the bottom for the water outlet. The resin can usually bechanged through a connection at the bottom of the tank. The resin beads are kept in thedemineralizer by upper and lower retention elements, which are strainers with a mesh sizesmaller then the resin beads. The water to be purified enters the top at a set flow rate and flowsdown through the resin beads, where the flow path causes a physical filter effect as well as achemical ion exchange.

Single-Bed Deminer alizer s

A single-bed demineralizer contains either cation or anion resin beads. In most cases, there aretwo, single-bed ion exchangers in series; the first is a cation bed and the second is an anion bed.Impurities in plant water are replaced with hydrogen ions in the cation bed and hydroxyl ionsin the anion bed. The hydrogen ions and the hydroxyl ions then combine to form pure water.The Chemistry Handbook, Module 4, Principles of Water Treatment, addresses the chemistry ofdemineralizers in more detail.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 DEMINERALIZERS

Figure 13 illustrates a single-bed demineralizer. When in use, water flows in through the inletto a distributor at the top of the tank. The water flows down through the resin bed and exits outthrough the outlet. A support screen at the bottom prevents the resin from being forced out ofthe demineralizer tank.

Single-Bed Regener ation

Figure 13 Single-Bed Demineralizer

The regeneration of a single-bed ion exchanger is a three-step process. The first step is abackwash, in which water is pumped into the bottom of the ion exchanger and up through theresin. This fluffs the resin and washes out any entrained particles. The backwash water goesout through the normal inlet distributor piping at the top of the tank, but the valves are set todirect the stream to a drain so that the backwashed particles can be pumped to a container forwaste disposal.

The second step is the actual regeneration step, which uses an acid solution for cation units andcaustic solution for anion units. The concentrated acid or caustic is diluted to approximately10% with water by opening the dilution water valve, and is then introduced through adistribution system immediately above the resin bed. The regenerating solution flows throughthe resin and out the bottom of the tank to the waste drain.

The final step is a rinsing process, which removes any excess regenerating solution. Water ispumped into the top of the tank, flows down through the resin bed and out at the bottom drain.

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To return the ion exchanger to service, the drain valve is closed, the outlet valve is opened, andthe ion exchanger is ready for service.

Single-bed demineralizers are usually regenerated "in place." The resins are not pumped out toanother location for regeneration. The regeneration process is the same for cation beds and foranion beds; only the regenerating solution is different. It is important to realize that if the ionexchanger has been exposed to radioactive materials, the backwash, regeneration, and rinsesolutions may be highly radioactive and must be treated as a radioactive waste.

Mix ed-Bed Deminer alizer

A mixed-bed demineralizer is a demineralizer in which the cation and anion resin beads aremixed together. In effect, it is equivalent to a number of two-step demineralizers in series. Ina mixed-bed demineralizer, more impurities are replaced by hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, andthe water that is produced is extremely pure. The conductivity of this water can often be lessthan 0.06 micromhos per centimeter.

Mix ed-Bed Regener ation

The mixed-bed demineralizer shown in Figure 14 is designed to be regenerated in place, but theprocess is more complicated than the regeneration of a single-bed ion exchanger. The steps inthe regeneration are shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14a shows the mixed-bed ion exchanger in the operating, or on-line mode. Water entersthrough a distribution header at the top and exits through the line at the bottom of the vessel.Regeneration causes the effluent water to increase in electrical conductivity.

The first regeneration step is backwash, as shown in Figure 14b. As in a single-bed unit,backwash water enters the vessel at the bottom and exits through the top to a drain. In additionto washing out entrained particles, the backwash water in a mixed-bed unit must also separatethe resins into cation and anion beds. The anion resin has a lower specific gravity than thecation resin; therefore, as the water flows through the bed, the lighter anion resin beads floatupward to the top. Thus, the mixed-bed becomes a split bed. The separation line between theanion bed at the top and the cation bed at the bottom is called the resin interface. Some resinscan be separated only when they are in the depleted state; other resins separate in either thedepleted form or the regenerated form.

The actual regeneration step is shown in Figure 14c. Dilution water is mixed with causticsolution and introduced at the top of the vessel, just above the anion bed. At the same time,dilution water is mixed with acid and introduced at the bottom of the vessel, below the cationbed. The flow rate of the caustic solution down to the resin interface is the same as the flow rateof the acid solution up to the resin interface. Both solutions are removed at the interface anddumped to a drain.

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Figure 14 Regeneration of a Mixed-Bed Demineralizer

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During the regeneration step, it is important to maintain the cation and anion resins at theirproper volume. If this is not done, the resin interface will not occur at the proper place in thevessel, and some resin will be exposed to the wrong regenerating solution. It is also importantto realize that if the ion exchanger has been involved with radioactive materials, both thebackwash and the regenerating solutions may be highly radioactive and must be treated as liquidradioactive waste.

The next step is the slow rinse step, shown in Figure 14d, in which the flow of dilution wateris continued, but the caustic and acid supplies are cut off. During this two-direction rinse, thelast of the regenerating solutions are flushed out of the two beds and into the interface drain.Rinsing from two directions at equal flow rates keeps the caustic solution from flowing downinto the cation resin and depleting it.

In the vent and partial drain step, illustrated in Figure 14e, the drain valve is opened, and someof the water is drained out of the vessel so that there will be space for the air that is needed tore-mix the resins. In the air mix step, (Figure 14f) air is usually supplied by a blower, whichforces air in through the line entering the bottom of the ion exchanger. The air mixes the resinbeads and then leaves through the vent in the top of the vessel. When the resin is mixed, it isdropped into position by slowly draining the water out of the interface drain while the air mixcontinues.

In the final rinse step, shown in Figure 14g, the air is turned off and the vessel is refilled withwater that is pumped in through the top. The resin is rinsed by running water through the vesselfrom top to bottom and out the drain, until a low conductivity reading indicates that the ionexchanger is ready to return to service.

Exter nal Regener ation

Some mixed-bed demineralizers are designed to be regenerated externally, with the resins beingremoved from the vessel, regenerated, and then replaced. With this type of demineralizer, thefirst step is to sluice the mixed bed with water (sometimes assisted by air pressure) to a cationtank in a regeneration facility. The resins are backwashed in this tank to remove suspendedsolids and to separate the resins. The anion resins are then sluiced to an anion tank. The twobatches of separated resins are regenerated by the same techniques used for single-bed ionexchangers. They are then sluiced into a holding tank where air is used to remix them. Themixed, regenerated, resins are then sluiced back to the demineralizer.

External regeneration is typically used for groups of condensate demineralizers. Having onecentral regeneration facility reduces the complexity and cost of installing several demineralizers.External regeneration also allows keeping a spare bed of resins in a holding tank. Then, whena demineralizer needs to be regenerated, it is out of service only for the time required to sluiceout the depleted bed and sluice a fresh bed in from the holding tank. A central regenerationfacility may also include an ultrasonic cleaner that can remove the tightly adherent coating ofdirt or iron oxide that often forms on resin beads. This ultrasonic cleaning reduces the need forchemical regeneration.

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Summary


Demineralizers Summary

Demineralization of water is one of the most practical and commonmethods used to remove dissolved contaminates. Dissolved impuritiesin power plant fluid systems can generate corrosion problems anddecrease efficiency due to fouled heat transfer surfaces. Demineralizers(also called ion-exchangers) are used to hold ion exchange resins andtransport water through them. Ion exchangers are generally classifiedinto two groups: single-bed ion exchangers and mixed-bed ionexchangers.

A demineralizer is basically a cylindrical tank with connections at thetop for water inlet and resin addition, and connections at the bottom forthe water outlet. The resin can usually be changed out through aconnection at the bottom of the tank. The resin beads are kept in thedemineralizer by upper and lower retention elements, which are strainerswith a mesh size smaller then the resin beads.

The water to be purified enters the top at a set flow rate, flows downthrough the resin beads where the flow path causes a physical filtereffect as well as a chemical ion exchange. The chemistry of the resinexchange is explained in detail in the Chemistry FundamentalsHandbook.

There are two types of demineralizers, single-bed and mixed-bed. Single-bed demineralizers have resin of either cation or anion exchangesites. Mixed-bed demineralizers contain both anion and cation resin.

All demineralizers will eventually be exhausted from use. To regenerate the resin and increase the demineralizer's efficiency, thedemineralizers are regenerated. The regeneration process is slightlydifferent for a mixed-bed demineralizer compared to the single-beddemineralizer. Both methods were explained in this chapter.

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PRESSURIZERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

PRESSURIZERS

Pressurizers are used for reactor system pressure control. The pressurizer is thecomponent that allows a water system, such as the reactor coolant system in aPWR facility, to maintain high temperatures without boiling. The function ofpressurizers is discussed in this chapter.

EO 1.12 STATE the four purposes of a pressurizer.

EO 1.13 DEFINE the following terms attributable to a dynamicpressurizer system:

a. Spray nozzle c. Outsurgeb. Insurge d. Surge volume

I ntr oduction

There are two types of pressurizers: static and dynamic. A static pressurizer is a partially filledtank with a required amount of gas pressure trapped in the void area. A dynamic pressurizeris a tank in which its saturated environment is controlled through use of heaters (to controltemperature) and sprays (to control pressure).

This chapter focuses on the dynamic pressurizer. A dynamic pressurizer utilizes a controlledpressure containment to keep high temperature fluids from boiling, even when the systemundergoes abnormal fluctuations.

Before discussing the purpose, construction, and operation of a pressurizer, some preliminaryinformation about fluids will prove helpful.

The evaporation process is one in which a liquid is converted into a vapor at temperatures belowthe boiling point. All the molecules in the liquid are continuously in motion. The moleculesthat move most quickly possess the greatest amount of energy. This energy occasionally escapesfrom the surface of the liquid and moves into the atmosphere. When molecules move into theatmosphere, the molecules are in the gaseous, or vapor, state.

Liquids at a high temperature have more molecules escaping to the vapor state, because themolecules can escape only at higher speeds. If the liquid is in a closed container, the spaceabove the liquid becomes saturated with vapor molecules, although some of the molecules returnto the liquid state as they slow down. The return of a vapor to a liquid state is calledcondensation. When the amount of molecules that condense is equal to the amount of moleculesthat evaporate, there is a dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and the vapor.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 PRESSURIZERS

Pressure exerted on the surface of a liquid by a vapor is called vapor pressure. Vapor pressureincreases with the temperature of the liquid until it reaches saturation pressure, at which timethe liquid boils. When a liquid evaporates, it loses its most energetic molecules, and the averageenergy per molecule in the system is lowered. This causes a reduction in the temperature of theliquid.

Boiling is the activity observed in a liquid when it changes from the liquid phase to the vaporphase through the addition of heat. The term saturated liquid is used for a liquid that exists atits boiling point. Water at 212oF and standard atmospheric pressure is an example of a saturatedliquid.

Saturated steam is steam at the same temperature and pressure as the water from which it wasformed. It is water, in the form of a saturated liquid, to which the latent heat of vaporizationhas been added. When heat is added to a saturated steam that is not in contact with liquid, itstemperature is increased and the steam is superheated. The temperature of superheated steam,expressed as degrees above saturation, is called degrees of superheat.

Gener al Descr iption

The pressurizer provides a point in the reactor system where liquid and vapor can be maintainedin equilibrium under saturated conditions, for control purposes. Although designs differ fromfacility to facility, a typical pressurizer is designed for a maximum of about 2500 psi and 680°F.

Dynamic Pr essur izer s

A dynamic pressurizer serves to:

maintain a system's pressure above its saturation point,

provide a means of controlling system fluid expansion and contraction,

provide a means of controlling a system's pressure, and

provide a means of removing dissolved gasses from the system by venting thevapor space of the pressurizer.

Constr uction

A dynamic pressurizer is constructed from a tank equipped with a heat source such as electricheaters at its base, a source of cool water, and a spray nozzle. A spray nozzle is a devicelocated in the top of the pressurizer that is used to atomize the incoming water.

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A dynamic pressurizer must be connected in the system to allow a differential pressure to existacross it. The bottom connection, also called the surge line, is the lower of the two pressurelines. The top connection, referred to as the spray line, is the higher pressure line. Differentialpressure is obtained by connecting the pressurizer to the suction and discharge sides of the pumpservicing the particular system. Specifically, the surge (bottom connection) is connected to thepump's suction side; the spray line (top connection) is connected to the pump's discharge side.A basic pressurizer is illustrated in Figure 15.

The hemispherical top and bottom

Figure 15 Basic Pressurizer

heads are usually constructed ofcarbon steel, with austenitic stainlesssteel cladding on all surfaces exposedto the reactor system water.

The pressurizer can be activated intwo ways. Partially filling thepressurizer with system water is thefirst. After the water reaches apredetermined level, the heaters areengaged to increase watertemperature. When the water reachessaturation temperature, it begins toboil. Boiling water fills the voidabove the water level, creating asaturated environment of water andsteam. The other method involvesfilling the pressurizer completely,heating the water to the desiredtemperature, then partially drainingthe water and steam mixture to createa steam void at the top of the vessel.

Water temperature determines theamount of pressure developed in thesteam space, and the greater theamount of time the heaters areengaged, the hotter the environmentbecomes. The hotter theenvironment, the greater the amountof pressure.

Installing a control valve in the sprayline makes it possible to admit cooler water from the top of the pressurizer through the spraynozzle. Adding cooler water condenses the steam bubble, lowers the existing water temperature,and reduces the amount of system pressure.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 PRESSURIZERS

Oper ation

The level of water within a pressurizer is directly dependant upon the temperature, and thus thedensity, of the water in the system to which the pressurizer is connected. An increase in systemtemperature causes the density of the water to decrease. This decreased density causes the waterto expand, causing the level of water to increase in the vessel. The increased level of water ina pressurizer is referred to as an insurge. An insurge compresses the vapor space, which in turncauses the system pressure to rise. This results in slightly superheated steam in contact with thesubcooled pressurizer liquid. The superheated steam transfers heat to the liquid and to thepressurizer walls. This re-establishes and maintains the saturated condition.

A decrease in system temperature causes the density to increase which causes the system watervolume to contract. The contraction (drop) in pressurizer water level and increase in vapor spaceis referred to as an outsurge. The increase in vapor space causes the pressure to drop, flashingthe heated water volume and creating more steam. The increased amount of steam re-establishesthe saturated state. Flashing continues until the decrease in water level ceases and saturatedconditions are restored at a somewhat lower pressure.

In each case, the final conditions place the pressurizer level at a new value. The system pressureremains at approximately its previous value, with relatively small pressure variations during thelevel change, provided that the level changes are not too extreme.

In actual application, relying on saturation to handle all variations in pressure is not practical.In conditions where the system water is surging into the pressurizer faster than the pressurizercan accommodate for example, additional control is obtained by activating the spray. This spraycauses the steam to condense more rapidly, thereby controlling the magnitude of the pressurerise.

When a large outsurge occurs, the level can drop rapidly and the water cannot flash to steam fastenough. This results in a pressure drop. The installed heaters add energy to the water and causeit to flash to steam faster, thereby reducing the pressure drop. The heaters can also be left onto re-establish the original saturation temperature and pressure. In certain designs, pressurizerheaters are energized continuously to make up for heat losses to the environment.

The pressurizer's heater and spray capabilities are designed to compensate for the expected surgevolume. The surge volume is the volume that accommodates the expansion and contraction ofthe system, and is designed to be typical of normal pressurizer performance. Plant transients mayresult in larger than normal insurges and outsurges. When the surge volume is exceeded, thepressurizer may fail to maintain pressure within normal operating pressures.

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Pressurizer operation, including spray and heater operation, is usually automatically controlled.Monitoring is required in the event the control features fail, because the effect on the systemcould be disastrous without operator action.

Summary


Pressurizer Summary

Two types of pressurizers -- static and dynamic

Purposes of a pressurizer:

Maintains system pressure above saturation

Provides a surge volume for system expansion and contraction

Provides a means of controlling system pressure

Provides a means of removing dissolved gases

A spray nozzle is a device located in the top of the pressurizer, used to atomizeincoming water to increase the effects of spraying water into the top of thepressurizer to reduce pressure by condensing steam.

Insurge is the volume absorbed within the pressurizer during a level increase tocompensate for a rise in the system's temperature.

Outsurge is the volume released from the pressurizer during a level decrease tocompensate for a reduction in the system's temperature.

The surge volume is the volume of water that accommodates the expansion andcontraction of the system, and is designed to be typical of normal pressurizerperformance.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 STEAM TRAPS

STEAM TRAPS

Steam traps are installed in steam lines to drain condensate from the lines withoutallowing the escape of steam. There are many designs of steam traps for highand low pressure use.

EO 1.14 STATE the purpose and general operation of a steam trap.

EO 1.15 IDENTIFY the following types of steam traps:

a. Ball float steam trap c. Bucket steam trapb. Bellow steam trap d. Impulse steam trap

Gener al Oper ation

In general, a steam trap consists of a

Figure 16 Ball Float Steam Trap

valve and a device or arrangement thatcauses the valve to open and close asnecessary to drain the condensate frompiping without allowing the escape ofsteam. Steam traps are installed at lowpoints in the system or machinery to bedrained. Some types of steam traps thatare used in DOE facilities are describedin this chapter.

Ball Float Steam T r ap

A ball float steam trap is illustrated inFigure 16. The valve of this trap isconnected to the float in such a way thatthe valve opens when the float rises.When the trap is in operation, the steamand any water that may be mixed with itflows into the float chamber. The water,being heavier than the steam, falls to the bottom of the trap, causing the water level to rise. Asthe water level rises, it lifts the float; thus lifting the valve plug and opening the valve. Thecondensate drains out and the float moves down to a lower position, closing the valve before thecondensate level gets low enough to allow steam to escape. The condensate that passes out ofthe trap is returned to the feed system.

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STEAM TRAPS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

Bucket Steam T r ap

Figure 17 Bucket Steam Trap

A bucket steam trap is illustrated inFigure 17. As condensate enters the trapbody, the bucket floats. The valve isconnected to the bucket in such a way thatthe valve closes as the bucket rises. Ascondensate continues to flow into the trapbody, the valve remains closed until thebucket is full. When the bucket is full, itsinks and thus opens the valve. Thevalve remains open until enoughcondensate has passed out to allow thebucket to float, and closing the valve.

Ther mostatic Steam T r aps

There are several kinds of thermostatic steam traps in use. In general, these traps are morecompact and have fewer moving parts than most mechanical steam traps.

Bellows-Type Steam T r ap

A bellows-type steam trap is illustrated in Figure 18. The operation of this trap is controlled bythe expansion of the vapor of a volatile liquid, which is enclosed in a bellows-type element.Steam enters the trap body and heats the volatile liquid in the sealed bellows, causing expansionof the bellows.

Figure 18 Bellows-Type Steam Trap

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The valve is attached to the bellows in such a way that the valve closes when the bellowsexpands. The valve remains closed, trapping steam in the valve body. As the steam cools andcondenses, the bellows cools and contracts, thereby opening the valve and allowing thecondensate to drain.

I mpulse Steam T r ap

Impulse steam traps, illustrated in Figure 19, pass steam and condensate through a strainer beforeentering the trap. A circular baffle keeps the entering steam and condensate from impinging onthe cylinder or on the disk. The impulse type of steam trap is dependent on the principle thathot water under pressure tends to flash into steam when the pressure is reduced.

The only moving part in the steam trap is the disk. A flange near the top of the disk acts as a

Figure 19 Impulse Steam Trap

piston. As demonstrated in Figure 19, the working surface above the flange is larger than theworking surface below the flange.

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STEAM TRAPS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

A control orifice runs through the disk from top to bottom, which is considerably smaller at thetop than at the bottom. The bottom part of the disk extends through and beyond the orifice inthe seat. The upper part of the disk (including the flange) is inside a cylinder. The cylindertapers inward, so the amount of clearance between the flange and the cylinder varies accordingto the position of the valve. When the valve is open, the clearance is greater than when thevalve is closed.

When the trap is first placed in service, pressure from the inlet (chamber A) acts against theunderside of the flange and lifts the disk off the valve seat. Condensate is thus allowed to passout through the orifice in the seat; and, at the same time, a small amount of condensate (calledcontrol flow) flows up past the flange and into chamber B. The control flow discharges throughthe control orifice, into the outlet side of the trap, and the pressure in chamber B remains lowerthan the pressure in chamber A.

As the line warms up, the temperature of the condensate flowing through the trap increases. Thereverse taper of the cylinder varies the amount of flow around the flange until a balancedposition is reached in which the total force exerted above the flange is equal to the total forceexerted below the flange. It is important to note that there is still a pressure difference betweenchamber A and chamber B. The force is equalized because the effective area above the flangeis larger than the effective area below the flange. The difference in working area is such that thevalve maintains at an open, balanced, position when the pressure in chamber B is approximately86% of the pressure in chamber A.

As the temperature of the condensate approaches its boiling point, some of the control flowgoing to chamber B flashes into steam as it enters the low pressure area. Because the steam hasa much greater volume than the water from which it is generated, pressure builds up in the spaceabove the flange (chamber B). When the pressure in this space is 86% of the inlet pressure(chamber A), the force exerted on the top of the flange pushes the entire disk downward andcloses the valve. With the valve closed, the only flow through the trap is past the flange andthrough the control orifice. When the temperature of the condensate entering the trap dropsslightly, condensate enters chamber B without flashing into steam. Pressure in chamber B isthus reduced to the point where the valve opens and allows condensate to flow through theorifice in the valve seat. The cycle is repeated continuously.

With a normal condensate load, the valve opens and closes at frequent intervals, discharging asmall amount of condensate at each opening. With a heavy condensate load, the valve remainsopen and allows a continuous discharge of condensate.

Or if ice-Type Steam T r ap

DOE facilities may use continuous-flow steam traps of the orifice type in some constant servicesteam systems, oil-heating steam systems, ventilation preheaters, and other systems or servicesin which condensate forms at a fairly constant rate. Orifice-type steam traps are not suitable forservices in which the condensate formation is not continuous.

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Although there are several variations of the orifice-type steam trap, each has one thing incommon; it contains no moving parts. One or more restricted passageways or orifices allowcondensate to trickle through, but do not allow steam to flow through. Some orifice-type steamtraps have baffles in addition to orifices.

Summary

The following important information in this chapter is summarized below.

Steam Traps Summary

A steam trap consists of a valve and a device or arrangement that causes the valveto open and close as necessary to drain the condensate from the lines withoutallowing the escape of steam. Steam traps are installed at low points in the systemor machinery to be drained.

The type of steam trap used depends primarily on its application. Types include ballfloat, bucket traps, thermostatic traps, bellows-type traps, impulse traps, and orifice-type traps.

Impulse steam traps pass steam and condensate through a strainer before entering thetrap. A circular baffle keeps the entering steam and condensate from impinging onthe cylinder or on the disk. The impulse type of steam trap is dependent on the factthat hot water under pressure tends to flash into steam when the pressure is reduced.

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FILTERS AND STRAINERS DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 Miscellaneous Mechanical Components

FILTERS AND STRAINERS

When it is necessary to remove suspended solids from a liquid, the usual methodis to filter or strain the liquid. The two methods differ only in the size of themesh being used. Filtering removes the very small solids, and straining removesthe larger solids. Because filtering and straining are for all practical purposesthe same, this chapter will differentiate the two terms on the basis of applicationof the filter or strainer.

EO 1.16 DESCRIBE each of the following types of strainers and filters,including an example of typical use.

a. Cartridge filters d. Bucket strainerb. Precoated filters e. Duplex strainerc. Deep-bed filters

EO 1.17 EXPLAIN the application and operation of a strainer or filterbackwash.

I ntr oduction

Filtration is a process used to remove suspended solids from a solution. Other processes suchas demineralization remove ions or dissolved ions. Different filters and strainers are used fordifferent applications. In general, the filter passage must be small enough to catch the suspendedsolids but large enough that the system can operate at normal system pressures and flows. Filtersand strainers are used throughout most DOE facilities. They are used in hydraulic systems, oilsystems, cooling systems, liquid waste disposal, water purification, and reactor coolant systems.

Cartr idge Filter s

Figure 20 illustrates a typical multi-cartridge filter. The cartridges are cylinders and usuallyconsist of a fiber yarn wound around a perforated metal core. The liquid being filtered is forcedthrough the yarn, which is approximately 1/2 inch thick, and then through the perforations in themetal core to the filter outlet, which can be at either end. A cartridge filter may include severalcartridges, the exact number depending on the liquid flow rate that must be handled.

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Miscellaneous Mechanical Components DOE-HDBK-1018/2-93 FILTERS AND STRAINERS

In the filter assembly illustrated in Figure 21, the cartridges are held between plates so that the

Figure 20 Typical Multi-Cartridge Filter

water must pass through the layer of yarn to reach the filter outlet. The type of yarn that is useddepends on the application. Some of the fibers commonly used include resin-impregnated woolor cellulose, cotton-viscose, polypropylene, nylon, and glass. In some applications that involvehigh temperatures or pressures, porous metal cartridges are used. These cartridges are usuallymade of 316 stainless steel, but inconel, monel, and nickel are also used.

Depending on the fiber or metal that is used,

Figure 21 Cartridge Filter

cartridges are available that will filter out allparticle matter down to a specified size. Forexample, a certain cartridge might bedesigned to remove all particles larger than10 microns, one micron, or even 0.1 micron.(A micron is 10-3 millimeters.)

Cartridge filters have the advantage of beingrelatively inexpensive to install and operate.Instruments measure the differential pressureacross these filters to let the operator knowwhen a filter is plugged and must bereplaced. When the cartridges are removedfrom radioactive systems, the radiation levelscan be very high. For this reason, the

cartridges may be withdrawn into a shielded cask for moving to a storage area or a solid wasteprocessing area. When the porous metal cartridges become plugged, they can be cleanedultrasonically and reused. When this is done, the cleaning solution becomes contaminated andmust be processed as liquid radioactive waste.

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Another type of cartridge filter is the wafer, or disk filter. In this filter, disks are stacked toform a cartridge and placed down over a central perforated pipe. Each disk is typically 1/8 inchto 1/4 inch thick and made of cellulose or asbestos fibers.

Liquid that enters the disk filter moves up around the outside of the stack of disks, is forcedbetween the disks, travels through the perforations in the central pipe, and then leaves the filter.The filtering action takes place as the liquid is forced between the disks.

As with the smaller cartridges, if a disk filter is used to filter radioactive water, it may be veryradioactive when it is removed, and must be handled very carefully. One way to remove a diskfilter is by means of a crane, which lifts the filter out of its housing and moves it to a shieldedcontainer. The disposal problem is one of the major disadvantages of cartridge and disk-cartridge filters.

Pr ecoat Filter s

A precoat filter eliminates the problem of physically handling radioactive materials, because thefilter material (called the medium) can be installed and removed remotely. Inside the filterhousing is a bundle of septums (vertical tubes, on which the filter medium is deposited). Theseptums in some filters are approximately 1 inch in diameter and 3 feet long and are usuallymade of perforated or porous metal (normally stainless steel). There may be several hundredof these septums in a filter. Septums in other filters are approximately 3 inches in diameter and3 feet long and are made of porous stone or porous ceramic material. There are usually lessthan 100 of these larger septums in a filter.

The filtering medium fibers may be finely divided diatomite, perlite, asbestos, or cellulose.Diatomite, the least expensive medium, is used to filter liquid waste that will be discharged fromthe plant. Cellulose is generally used for processing water that will be returned to a reactor,because diatomite can allow silica leaching.

When a precoat filter is in use, water that enters the filter vessel passes through the filtermedium that is deposited on the septums and then leaves through the outlet. Before the filtercan be placed into operation, however, the filter medium must be installed; that is, the filter mustbe precoated.

The first step in precoating the filter is to close the inlet and outlet valves to the filter. The filtermedium used is mixed with demineralized water in an external mixing tank to form a slurry,which is pumped through the filter. Some of the filter medium deposits on the septums and isheld there by the pressure of water on the outside of the septums. At the beginning of theprecoating process, some of the fibers of the filter medium pass through the septums, eitherbecause they are smaller than the openings or because they pass through lengthwise. Thus, thereis still some filter medium in the water as it leaves the filter, so the slurry is recirculated againand again until the water is clear. Clear water indicates that all of the filter medium is depositedon the septums, and the filter is precoated.

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One characteristic of the precoating process is that a very even layer of filter medium(approximately 1/8 inch thick) is deposited on the septums. This occurs because the circulatingslurry follows the path of least resistance. When the coating at one point reaches a certainthickness, the slurry takes the fibers to another point, and this process continues until precoatingis complete.

Because water pressure holds the filter in place, flow must be maintained through therecirculating loop to keep the medium from falling off. This is called a holding flow. As theinlet and outlet valves are opened for normal usage, called service flow, the holding flow isgradually cut off.

Backwashing Pr ecoat Filter s

After a filter has been precoated, it is put into service and kept on line until the pressuredifferential indicates that the filter medium is becoming plugged. When this occurs, the old filtermedium is removed and the filter is precoated again. Filters are usually installed in pairs, so thatone filter can remain in service while the other is undergoing the filter backwashing andprecoating process.

Since water pressure helps to hold the filter medium against the septums, some of the old filtermedium will fall off as soon as this pressure is removed. Backwashing is used to remove thefilter medium that does not fall off. Backwashing is usually done in one of two ways. Withsome filters, demineralized water is pumped backwards through the center of the septums, andthe filter medium coating is knocked off by the water as it comes out through the septums.

Most filters use a multi-step backwashing procedure. First, the inlet valve and the outlet valveare closed, and the drain valve and the top vent are opened to allow the water to drain. Thenthe drain valve and the vent are closed, and the inlet water valve is opened to raise the waterlevel. The filter is equipped with a special high-domed top to trap and compress air. When thewater inlet valve is closed and the drain valve is opened quickly, the compressed air forces waterdown through the center of the septums. This water knocks the filter medium off of theseptums.

With both types of backwashing, the filter medium coating that is removed is sluiced out througha drain line to a filter sludge tank, where it is stored for further processing. The filter is thenprecoated again and put back into service.

With precoat filters, the type and quantity of filter medium is critical. If too little material ortoo coarse a material is used, some of the finely divided crud in the water may get into theopenings of the septums. When the filter is backwashed, this crud is usually not removed. Itcontinues to build up during subsequent use of the filter until the septums become so pluggedthat they have to be replaced.

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If too much filter medium is used, the layer that builds up on the septums will bridge the areabetween the septums. When the filter is backwashed, these bridges are usually not removed.Therefore the bridging continues, and the filter runs become progressively shorter. Eventually,the filter must be opened and the filter medium must be removed manually.

Precoat filters are much more complicated than cartridge filters, and the equipment required ismuch more expensive to install and maintain. The major advantage of precoat filters is theremote operation, which eliminates the physical handling of highly radioactive filter cartridges.

Deep-Bed Filter s

Deep-bed filters are usually found only in makeup water systems, where they are used to filterwater after it has been treated in a clarifier. They are used to remove organic matter, chlorine,and very fine particulate matter.

A deep-bed filter is based on a support

Figure 22 Deep-Bed Filter

screen (decking), which is mounted afew inches above the bottom of thetank. The screen is perforated toallow water to flow through it. Acoarse, aggregate layer of crushed rockor large lumps of charcoal is placedon top of the screen, and the deep beditself (2 to 4 feet of granular anthraciteor charcoal) is placed on top of theaggregate. The filter is sized so thatthere is 1 to 2 feet of "free board"above the deep bed.

When the filter is in service, rawwater is pumped in through a pipe thatfeeds a distribution pipe above thedeep bed. The water is filtered as itpercolates down through the granules.(Charcoal granules will filter outorganic matter, chlorine, and fineparticulates, while anthracite granulesremove only the particulates.) Thewater collects in the bottom of thetank, below the support screen, andleaves the filter through a pipe in thebottom of the filter vessel.

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Deep-bed filters, like precoat filters, are cleaned by backwashing. Water is pumped through thedistribution piping near the top of the filter. The flow rate of the water is kept high enough tolift the granulated charcoal or anthracite up into the free space. The water washes away thedeposits that have accumulated. When the backwash cycle is completed, the flow is stopped, andthe granules settle back down into the filter bed. The filter can then be put back into service.

Metal-Edged Filter s

Metal-edged filters are used in the lubrication (oil) systems of many auxiliary units. A metal-edged filter consists of a series of metal plates or disks. Turning a handle moves the plates ordisks across each other in a manner that removes any particles that have collected on the metalsurfaces. Some metal-edged type filters have magnets to aid in removing fine particles ofmagnetic materials.

Strainer s

Strainers are fitted in many piping lines to prevent the passage of grit, scale, dirt, and otherforeign matter, which could obstruct pump suction valves, throttle valves, or other machineryparts. One of the simplest and most common types of strainers found in piping systems is theY-strainer, which is illustrated in Figure 23.

Figure 23 Y-strainer

Figure 24 illustrates three additional common types of strainers. Part A shows a typical sumppump suction bucket strainer located in the sump pump suction line between the suction manifoldand the pump. Any debris that enters the piping is collected in the strainer basket. The basketcan be removed for cleaning by loosening the strongback screws, removing the cover, and liftingthe basket out by its handle.

Part B of Figure 24 shows a duplex oil strainer commonly used in fuel oil and lubricating oillines, where it is essential to maintain an uninterrupted flow of oil. The flow may be divertedfrom one basket to the other, while one is being cleaned.

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Part C of Figure 24 shows a manifold steam strainer. This type of strainer is desirable wherespace is limited, because it eliminates the use of separate strainers and their fittings. The coveris located so that the strainer basket can be removed for cleaning.

Backwashing

Figure 24 Common Strainers

If the filter or strainer cannot be easily removed for cleaning, the system design will usuallyinclude a flowpath for backwashing. The backwashing of precoated filters has already beenexplained because it is more complex than a typical backwash. The intent of a backwash is toflow liquid in the opposite direction of normal flow, creating a pressure that pushes the debrisoff the strainer or filter. The debris is flushed to a waste tank or drain.

Normally, to establish a backwash lineup, the flowpath upstream of the inlet to the strainer orfilter is closed, the flow path downstream of the outlet is closed, and a drain flowpath is opened.

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The flush source is then opened and the flow goes into the outlet of the strainer or filter, throughthe strainer or filter, and exits the inlet to the backwash drain or waste tank, carrying the debriswith it.

Summary


Filters and Strainers Summary

A cartridge filter may be a single cartridge or multi-cartridge filter. Thecartridges are cylinders that usually consist of a fiber yarn wound around aperforated metal core. The liquid being filtered is forced through the yarn andthen through the perforations in the metal core to the filter outlet, which can beat either end. This type of filter is used to remove fine particles in any flowcondition. Radioactive systems may use these because they are inexpensive andeasy to replace.

Precoat filters consists of a filter housing that contains a bundle of septums,(vertical tubes, on which the filter medium is deposited) usually made ofperforated or porous metal (normally stainless steel), porous stone, or porousceramic material. The filtering medium fibers may be finely divided diatomite,perlite, asbestos, or cellulose. Diatomite, the least expensive medium, is used tofilter liquid waste that will be discharged from the plant. Cellulose is generallyused for processing water that will be returned to the reactor, because diatomitecan allow silica leaching.

A deep-bed filter is based on a support screen (decking), which is mounted a fewinches above the bottom of the tank. The screen is perforated to allow water toflow through it. A coarse, aggregate layer of crushed rock or large lumps ofcharcoal is placed on top of the screen, and the deep bed itself (2 to 4 feet ofgranular anthracite or charcoal) is placed on top of the aggregate. This type offilter is frequently used in raw water treatment.

The bucket strainer is literally a bucket to catch debris. The bucket can beremoved for cleaning by loosening the strongback screws, removing the cover,and lifting the bucket out by its handle. It is usually used in systems expected tohave larger debris.

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Filters and Strainers Summary (Cont.)

A duplex strainer is a strainer consisting of two sides with a basket in each side.Only one side is placed in service at a time. These are commonly used in fueloil and lubricating oil lines, where it is essential to maintain an uninterrupted flowof oil. The flow may be diverted from one basket to the other, while one is beingcleaned.

If the filter or strainer cannot be easily removed for cleaning, the system designwill usually include a flowpath for backwashing. The intent of a backwash is toflow liquid in the opposite direction of normal flow, creating a pressure thatpushes the debris off the strainer or filter. The debris is flushed to a waste tankor drain.

Normally, to establish a backwash lineup, the flowpath upstream of the inlet tothe strainer or filter is closed, the flow path down stream of the outlet is closed,and a drain flowpath is opened. The flush source is then opened and the flowgoes into the outlet of the strainer or filter, through the strainer or filter, and exitsthe inlet to the backwash drain or waste tank, carrying the debris with it.

end of text.

CONCLUDING MATERIAL

Review activities: Preparing activity:

DOE - ANL-W, BNL, EG&G Idaho, DOE - NE-73EG&G Mound, EG&G Rocky Flats, Project Number 6910-0024LLNL, LANL, MMES, ORAU, REECo,WHC, WINCO, WEMCO, and WSRC.

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