Slide 1

ecosystems to cities

Resiliency theory originating from ecosystems science.

We will introduce five resiliency characteristics or strategies and demonstrate how they apply to urban design.

Learning Objectives:Assess the resiliency of the built environment on several scales using five resiliency characteristics.

Integrate resiliency into the architectural design process by converting the resiliency characteristics into process strategies.

Generate original approaches to integrated, adaptable design for cities through the creative application of resiliency strategies.

Participate more effectively in a multidisciplinary urban design or planning team by employing resiliency as a unifying concept.

global trends:70% urban worldwide by 2050mostly developing nationsloss of water quality and quantityresource degradation and lossclimate changemetro centersuburbiaouter ringurban region diagramCONTEXTflow toward urban centers

Most of us are aware of the migration of the global population to urban regions, and the growing focus on the viability of cities and their support systems as a result.

This diagram is the sort used by landscape ecologists to study the patterns of urban regions.

20th century environmental movement:CONTEXT

Historical context of sustainability concept.

the trends:OLD URBANISMNEW URBANISMLANDSCAPE URBANISMECOLOGICAL URBANISM

Resiliency theory transcends diverse design trends and stylistic approaches. (Define trends briefly.)

early sustainability models:sustainabledevelopmentsmartgrowthThe environment cannot be improved in conditions of poverty. Nor can poverty be eradicated without the use of science and technology. -Indira Gandhi, 1972.THE REALM OF HOW WE DO ITTHE REALM OF WHAT WE DO

The term sustainable development represents a political compromise. We have all been more focused on the meaning of sustainable than on what is meant by development. In the world of urban planning, this concept gave birth to the more digestible term smart growth. Smart growth is a developmental model that was essentially directed to a more conservative, synergistic use of resources.

early sustainability models:

The congress for the New Urbanism views divestment in central cities, the spread of placeless sprawl, increasing separation by race and income, environmental deterioration, loss of agricultural lands and wilderness, and the erosion of societys built heritage as one interrelated community-building challenge.

a movement called the New UrbanismCharter of the New Urbanism 1993

In the US, an important manifestation of smart growth was a movement called "the New Urbanism, established by a group of pro-European, neo-traditional architects, urban designers, and others who had been gathering momentum since the 70s. They drafted a charter at their first congress in 1993 that expresses some admirable sustainability goals. For the sake of argument, I am going to be a little critical of Smart Growth as it is put in practice, so that we can think about how we can do an even better job if we understand and integrate resiliency strategies.

high densitywalkable communitiesmixed use (live-work-play)early sustainability models:

surgical implant of traditional formextra-urbanconsumes landnot by physical solutions aloneSeaside, FL (1981)

Seaside, FL is the poster child for the New Urbanism. The New Urbanists believe that while community planning cannot be resolved by physical solutions alone, form is an essential ingredient of success. On the ground, the priority that architectural form ultimately took has led to the creation of elitist communities developed on greenfield sites.

Seaside lots sold for $15,000 in the early 80s, and today some houses there cost over $5 million.

The Woodlands, TX: Reduced iconic red-cockaded woodpecker habitatSeaside, FL: Beach key area for nesting sea turtles, constrains dunesKentlands, MD: Destroyed grasslands habitat of upland sandpiperCelebration, FL: Mature palms transplanted from distant, diverse savannaSiting and zoning?Jobs for residents?Social diversity?Public transportation?Landscape quality?

sustainability score:Celebration, FL

The most visible New Urbanist communities have not lived up to the values expressed in the Charter, especially in regard to regional ecological context.If we rate them according to this checklist, we may find that while they are new, they are not urban.

The Woodlands, TXsustainability marketing:manicured lawnwildernesswall to keep wild animals outnatural grasseswell-behaved deer

Photoshop edge

We also have to be careful of using the publics support of sustainability as a marketing ploy.The Woodlands is approximately 90% white, but it does have class diversity: the average female income is $40K less than the average male income.

20th century paradigms:equilibrium modelscience can solve everything fail-safe engineering

broader scientific evolution

Models focused on an abstract state of equilibrium. Anomalous influences are excluded and considered noise rather than part of the system.Non-equilibrium theory, recognized noise, turbulence and other unpredictable events.

multi-disciplinaryspatial patterns and processes across scalesno distinction between built and natural environmentsdisturbance is a givenlandscape ecology:Landscape Ecology diagram:edge types of urban-forest patches compared

The field of landscape ecology emerged at the same time, and because it focused on dynamic landscape patterns, disturbance was a given.

paradox of sustainability:New Urbanismdeterministicintegrates disturbance

early sustainability concepts

landscape ecology

how can a static condition be sustainable?

smart growth

Landscape ecologists believed that deterministic approaches to the built environment, under the guise of sustainable development, revealed a paradox: How can a static condition be sustainable? Lets jump to the next scale: urban regional planning.

SmartCode:Smart Growth grows up

Transect model based on diametric section of urban regioncharacter v. land usepromotes mixed usesurburban conundrum

The principles of SmartGrowth and the New Urbanism have been integrated into a larger-scale, form-based model that is called SmartCode. In this model, the dimensional characteristics of each zone are codified, and new development would follow the same spatial standards, rather than similar uses. SmartCode is based on the belief that the best urbanism requires the sequential influence of many participants. This type of model depends upon cooperation among multiple jurisdictions.

SmartCode:Watershed model

Transect based on river axis

SmartCode attempts to determine, or control, growth and yet falls short of considering natural features like rivers that require low density building and high density vegetation regardless of where they run. As our cities become more populated, we need to ramp up the protection of natural resources.

SmartCode:

existingproposedFollows existing density patterns.Follows dense zones.

Buildout scenarios

These diagrams show two buildout scenarios. The graphs show the density distribution across the urban region. By building on mixed-use village centers, suburban towns can develop in a more cost-effective way.

Powers of ten:Large-scale determinism

This map overlays the regions defined during the Ottoman Empire, and the current national boundaries. The current geopolitical boundaries dont correspond with historical and population patterns.17

THEORYBuilding it right is not enough.

Determinism belongs to a Cartesian paradigm where the built world is unconnected to dynamic natural systems. Resiliency theory was developed to resolve the paradox of sustainability.

Resiliency Theory:Resilience is the capacity of a system to respond to change or disturbance without changing its basic state." Walker and Salt (2006)C.S. Holling (1973)

resilienceTHEORY

The use of the term Resilience in the ecological sciences is attributed to the Canadian scientist C.S. Holling.

resilience:

absorb shocks and still maintain functionself-repair to equilibriumengineering resilience measured by return ratestill a command and control strategy

THEORYengineering model

With respect to built systems, resiliency was initially considered an engineering problem.

resiliency:Resiliency is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and re-organize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity and feedbacks.

THEORYrevised definition

This more dynamic definition of resiliency integrates change into the system, using it as an evolutionary lever.

persistence + new trajectories:

enabling recombination of evolved structures and processestrickle-up

Resiliency is not only about persistence; it is also about the ability to reorganize. The Piaggio fighter plane plant in Italy was destroyed during the Second World War, as were many of the roads. Enrico Piaggio and aeronautical engineer Corradino dAscanio developed the Vespa. The scooter enabled people to get on with their business and rebuild the economy; it remains a symbol of Italian freedom and ingenuity. TRICKLE UP

emerging sustainability model:sustaindeveloptwo sides of the sustainability currency

Resiliency theory suggests a shift from sustainable as an adjective and development as a noun, to two verbs: sustain and develop. The key lies in the meaning of the word, develop.

Resiliency theory lies on the border between scientific evolution and sustainability science, promoting the advancement of the sustainability concept.

baseline of ecosystem services, HEALTHclimate change mitigation, HEDGINGadaptability, REGENERATIONresiliency goals:STRATEGIES

The design of resilient systems is driven by three fundamental goals: overall health, preparedness, and adaptability.

multifunctionality redundancy and modularization diversity and variability multi-scale networks and connectivity adaptive planning and designresiliency strategies:STRATEGIES

Here are the five characteristics or strategies that contribute to the resiliency of both ecosystems and the built environment.

1. multifunctionality:

STRATEGIESSwiss army knife modelintegrated model

Multifunctionality comes in different forms: the bundling of functions in what I call the Swiss army knife model, or the integrated model in which functions are combined.

1. multifunctionality:

Different approaches to multifunctionality.

1. multifunctionality:

shade humiditycarbon sequestrationhabitatstormwater interceptionnutrient (pollutant) absorptionfoodwind bufferingrecreationspatial definitionaesthetic qualityurban district model

A tree is a good model for an urban district.

1. multifunctionality:

a multifunctional rain garden

You dont need a what is now considered a raingarden to achieve groundwater recharge.

1. multifunctionality:

parking / market

The use of impervious surfaces should be maximized. Parking lot to Farmers Market.

1. multifunctionality:private "public" plaza in NYC

This is a plaza in NYC, created for the public on private land in exchange for zoning concessions. Plaza design, public access, and maintenance must comply with specific performance requirements.

1. multifunctionality:heat island mitigation and stormwater management

The same type of plaza could be modified for microclimate enhancement, stormwater management and flood storage, depending on circumstances.

Portland Green Streets:

nitrogen and sediment capturePortland, OR

Portland, OR has piloted a program called Green Streets that combines pedestrian infrastructure, storm water management, and planting into a unified system. CLICK The Green Streets program also provides employment and social interaction.

2. redundancy and modularization:

independent system elementsSTRATEGIESfailure is localized

Elements that provide a cumulative benefit while not suffering from the failure of any individual component may guarantee some continuance of ecosystem services.

2. redundancy and modularization:distributed, decentralized systemaquifer protectionvillage centerpark

Redundancy is NOT duplication. It is best when varied by context, scale and typology. Scale can be spatial or temporal.

2. redundancy and modularization:alternate transportation loops and merch depots

This diagram shows separate, integrated components of a transportation system. If one component fails, there are reasonably accessible alternatives. In a system of long routes, any impediment along the way will cause the whole line to break down.

2. redundancy and modularization :independent system elements

trickle-up

Jitney-style transportation is enjoying a resurgence (Uber and Lyft), supported by Transportation Network Companies or TNCs, and smart phones. This is a trickle up phenomenon, where the spontaneous appearance of these services map a communitys transportation needs. Bridj started with large buses following simpler routes and will develop toward more, smaller buses as ridership increases and routes diversify.

independent system elements

2. redundancy and modularization :

Shipping containers are designed as modules that can be stacked, transported by truck, or train; or loaded into a ships hold. This makes them ideal for pop-up structures. They can be used to create temporary shelters in disaster recovery, as well as for start-up and retrofitted markets. (Blxx design upper left)

2. modularization and redundancy:Rochester, NY : Food Truck Rodeo

trickle-up

These recycled shipping containers, easily moved by land or sea, exemplify this strategy well.

3. diversity:outer ring of urban region

STRATEGIESlife support landscape

This concept diagram shows diverse components of an urban regions outer ring landscape. It includes several cropland types, meadowland, aquifer protection, and forest. Diversity enables an urban region to maintain a minimal level of self sufficiency.

3. diversity:metro center scale

distribution of needsassetsschedules

Urban streets and districts that have diverse populations (age, socio-economic class, and ethnicity) are more resilient both because assets, vulnerability and usage schedules are distributed, and a range of social roles are guaranteed.

3. diversity:

social structure modelsustained diversity of componentslocalized action among componentsautonomous selection processtrickle-up compositionpremeditated uncertainty

Today, built meadows are designed for uncertainty. While planted in a structured layout, the plants interact and evolve into a pattern that is responsive to changing site characteristics. TRICKLE UP

3. diversity:human (experiential) scale, High Line, NYC

context, content, and opportunity

3. diversity:

Malmo, Swedenrecognition, expression, and choice

Intended and spontaneous diversity in residential housing. Malmo, Sweden.

4. multi-scale networks and connectivity:modular networkcloud networkvisceral networkhybrid visceral networkconnectordiplomathubdiplomatic channelmonitorSTRATEGIES

Resilient networks feature multiple connected systems with alternating backup. This could be a diagram of a digital city, a system of community services, stakeholder groups, or an ecosystem.

4. multi-scale networks and connectivity:layered urban hydrology system

two-way transfer and storage

Resilient networks feature multiple connected systems with alternating backup. Stormwater systems may be designed as two-way transfer and storage networks.

4. multi-scale networks and connectivity:

Malmo, Sweden

Turning Torso, Santiago Calatrava

These images of Malmo, Sweden, show an articulated open stormwater network with interesting design implications for future sea level scenarios.

Bostons Emerald Necklace4. multi-scale networks and connectivity:

Frederick Law Olmsted was successful in securing land for the public realm in Boston while preserving and enhancing wetland systems that provide flood storage and biodiversity. The range of scale and types is evident, as well as connectivity.

5. adaptive planning and design:continuous feedback mechanism

123456

STRATEGIES

This is a typical sequential model of the design process. It becomes adaptive when each stage may provide feedback or backloops to previous phases of the process.

analysis

5. adaptive planning and design:proposalassessmentdesigndevelopmentimplementationphased practice model

In the workplace, the design process is segmented into distinct phases that are assigned a percentage of resources. Returning to a previous phase requires uncompensated overtime, cannibalizing the budget of a successive phase, or returning to the client hat in hand. The early phases are often considered preliminary to the real work. Lets zoom into the analysis phase

Adapted from Steinitzanalysis modelsGIS workflowsScale zoomingRepresentationMonitoringSpatial-functionalcomparisonAssessmentObservationExperienceSynergiesidentificationMappingScenarioconceptualizationImplementation5. adaptive planning and design:DesignAnalysisfrom analysis paralysis to pervasive analysis

Designers and planners apply a number of analytical models and use many tools. Analysis, like design, is an ongoing process. It cant be relegated to a single phase of the design process.

project timelinecontract budget5. adaptive planning and design:phases or variables become layers of a mosaic

This was my first attempt to diagram the adaptive design process. Every contributor is active to varying degrees throughout the process, and there are critical moments of constant exchange.

Adaptability to changeTechnologyGround layout

Manual drawing

Analog reproduction

5. adaptive planning and design:Digital drawingsSeparation of layers2D to 3D generationParametric design

representational models: increasing adaptability

Representational technology has evolved to increasingly accommodate change during the process, facilitating adaptive design.

Voronoi regions (openings) are generated according to number of points or seedsOpenings are regulated according to height from groundMingo Peng5. adaptive planning and design:parametric design

This is a simple example of parametric design using Rhino software with the plugin Grasshopper. Revisions to the mathematical input in Grasshopper generate changes in the model.

Le Corbusiers machine--habiter

form follows processform follows functionlooks like machineacts like organism

Mingo Peng5. adaptive planning and design:formal evolution

Design and representational methods influence the evolution of form.

from mimicry of form process systems3.8 billion years of adaptive design research species extinction is a loss of heritage5. adaptive planning and design:

solar-powered Italian Sugar Factory

Biological systems are models of evolved, complex, and adaptive function.

SEA (Street Edge Alternatives), Seattlenatural drainage systemsno curbsreinforced turf shoulderbiochannels with weirsrain gardens

5. adaptive planning and design:innovation and monitoring

Innovation and monitoring are two sides of the same coin in adaptive design. Seattle has used a street-by-street design approach with its SEA Initiative. A tool kit of tactics is selectively applied according to each neighborhood context.

11% reduction impervious surfaces 99% runoff reduction (2 yrs)data for new projectsprojects locally specificnew projects cost effective

5. adaptive planning and design:SEA (Street Edge Alternatives), SeattleIncremental intervention

By monitoring completed components, municipalities can maximize performance of successive projects.

mosaic model of adaptive process:

new model ?currents without eddies

About a week after I created this graphic model of the adaptive design process, I realized that it fell short because it didnt represent the influence of each activity on the quality of the others. I had to come up with a new model.

revised adaptive process model:Remember the meadow ?

PLANNING

backloops AND evolution

My new graphic model considers backloops, and trickle-up, although it isnt circular: it keeps moving forward in an evolutionary process. Ecologists use the term, Panarchy, to describe broad governance by system elements, as opposed to conventional hierarchy.

adaptive governance:transformabilitydiverse stakeholders operating at a variety of social and ecological scalesbuild knowledge incentivize participationdevelop networksPLANNINGchallenges :goal :policy makers and communities

Governance also applies to the performance of policy makers and communities. The goal of cultivating ADAPTIVE governance is transformability of our civic regulatory framework. Note that transformability is different from transformation.

earliest decisions

realm of valuesmore resilient

realm of detailsless resilientPLANNING5. adaptive planning and design:resiliency and the decision chain

Because the earliest decisions are the most important, a resilient planning process must be based on values and a shared vision of desired outcomes.

small enough to perceive, large enough to endurePLANNING5. adaptive planning and design:

the scale of urban design

Likewise, the regional scale represents the highest risk in decision-making, whereas the single site is the most vulnerable. The landscape or district scale is the most meaningful scale for planning because it is small enough to be readily perceivable and large enough to endure. It will affect larger and smaller scales.

regulation of land usereliance on legal professioninflux of architects, LAsfocus on form-based standardsrevisions by variance, overlays, PDDsprotection of individual rightsdata collectionreliance on sciencecivic learningdiscovery of consensuspolicy advocation and changefocus on the public good

deterministic model with noiseadaptive model with feedbackPLANNING5. adaptive planning and design:evolving role of planning

Planning has gradually migrated from a legal land use framework, through dimensional standards to form-based code. Anomalous situations are addressed by zoning variances, overlays, PDDs and other work-arounds. Planners will need to advocate more resilient policy to help us better navigate change.

changing coastal settlement patternsPLANNING5. adaptive planning and design:temporal scales, incremental change

This is a model for planned migration of settlement patterns determined by sea level rise, accompanied by biodiversity and recreational enhancements that reclaim the coast for the public domain. We cant keep subsidizing high risk patterns.Stage one shows .5 meter rise, and the creation of salt water marshes. Stage two shows 1.5 meter rise, and further development of permanent and tidal wetlands. When a reasonable degree of stability is reached, development of vegetation buffers for wildlife and recreation will add a layer of protection to the remaining low risk settlements.

PLANNING

the adaptive planning process

Adaptive planning should focus on large ideas and small experiments. It is focused on process, and the way we document it should change.

managing the process:?change is the management tool: an adaptive response to events

CONCLUSIONfocus on the anomalies?

Change is our best management tool. I think of surfing as an excellent model for adaptive design: you are strong and ready, but you dont know exactly how things are going to play out.

social acceptance:Spike Jonze for GAPCONCLUSIONthe role of popular culture

Social acceptance of the central role of change is important. Popular culture has a role in developing attitudes, as this example shows.

transdisciplinary collaboration:

CONCLUSIONacademic + professional communitydefined by disciplinedefined by project

Collaboration needs to evolve into a more resilient model, where participants are defined less by their discipline than by the nature of the project. Project-based collaboration is a trickle-up phenomenon.

multifunctionality redundancy and modularization diversity and variability multi-scale networks and connectivity adaptive planning and designresiliency strategies:remembranceself-organizationinnovationfeedbackdispersed interactioncontinual adaptationlearningCONCLUSIONintegrated to achieve outcomes

The resiliency strategies we have introduced are inseparable components of a unified and mutually influential approach that is focused on desired outcomes.

This ubiquitous principle is the need of cities for a most intricate and close-grained diversity of uses that give each other constant and mutual support, both economically and socially. Jane Jacobs, 1962.