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Spatial planning is increasingly being considered as an important mechanism in coping with flood risk due to climate change. One of the reasons for this is that engineering approaches are increasingly expensive and cannot provide complete certainty of protection against climate-related floods. The thesis examines whether and how spatial planning is used in urban areas to promote resilience to flood risk and climate change. In this study, planning is considered as the regulation of physical implementation as well as the process of policy-making that guides spatial development. This process mainly involves the interaction and collaboration between actors (both public and private). The notion of resilience is being used more and more in discussions of complex issues like the impact of climate-related flood risks on spatial development. The interpretations of resilience can vary significantly depending on the local context, the focus of spatial development and the interests of the actors involved in decision- making. The study proposes six characteristics of planning decision-making that can help to promote the resilience of cities. These comprise: (i) considering the current situation, (ii) examining trends and future threats, (iii) learning from previous experience, (iv) setting goals, (v) initiating actions, and (vi) involving the public. The importance of these characteristics over time for policy and practice is examined according to empirical evidence from detailed case study analysis. Six case studies are presented, four in Taiwan and two in the Netherlands. In all of the case studies, the issue of flood risk and spatial development is considered important by policy- makers, but the planning strategies used to tackle climate-related flood risks are often different, as are the experiences of flooding and governance arrangements. The information gathered is primarily based on interviews and the review of planning policies, government reports and research documents. Comparative analysis is a central focus of the study. The analysis has both a national and international perspective, comparing cases within Taiwan and between Taiwan and the Netherlands. The national comparison examines the way in which local planning governance is addressed in shaping decisions to deal with flood risks. This can vary among cases which share similar spatial development objectives and national institutional framework. The international comparison between Taiwan and the Netherlands examines the roles of planning to promote urban resilience in the context of flood risk and climate change. Three conclusions can be drawn. First, the interpretation of resilience is dependent on the views and interests of the actors involved. These change over time and can be seen in different episodes of policy-making. Second, the importance of the different
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Spatial planning and urban resilience in the context of flood riskA comparative study of Kaohsiung, Tainan and RotterdamPei-Wen LuDelft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and The Built Environment , Department of Urbanism
has been increasingly affective to urban development
Setting of the study
The uncertainty of
The notion of
resilience is important. It is often used in a mix of mitigation and adaptation
Setting of the study
Spatial planning has considered increasingly important in promoting cities to become more resilience for flood risk
One of the reasons for this can be explained by a fact that the traditional engineering approach, such as increasing the height of dikes, has become insufficient to provide complete certainty of protection against the uncertain disturbance of flooding.
Setting of the study
How spatial planning can promote resilience in the context of the uncertainty of flood risks and climate change?
Sub Q1: what are the characteristics of planning which can help to promote resilience?
Sub Q2: how has the notion of resilience been absorbed and become part of the reasoning of planning?
Sub Q3: to what extent can planning policy-making help to promote the resilience of spatial development in coping with flood risks?
Research questions
European or International?
[Spatial planning]: In Europe, scholars have had a broader understanding of planning that involves a conformity between policies and physical developments as well as the process that stakeholders address together and initiate a certain decision for spatial development (e.g., Healey, 1997, 2006, 2007, Albrechts et al., 2003, Albrechts, 2004, 2010, Mastop and Faludi, 1997, Faludi, 2000, Nadin, 2007, 2010, Nadin and Stead, 2008, Allmendinger and Haughton, 2010). Studies of spatial planning often focus on the importance of the process of decision- making that leads to a consequence of physical development.
Cross-continental research:
Methodology
National com.
International com.C3: Southern Taiwan Science ParkC4: Tainan city centre
C2: Kaohsiung city centreC1: Meinong
C5: NesselendeC6: Rotterdam city centre
to examine whether and how local policy-making reflects these characteristics where each case study share the same national institutional framework
to examine the critical elements of planning for flood risk management
Methodology
Four planning dimensions Six characteristics of planning to promote resilience
Methodology
Water approach Economic approach Local authorities
NGOs & academics
National authorities
Integrated approach Private enterprise
Planning aspects
Discourses
Collaborative frameworks
Spatial developments
Housing
Flood risks
Land use control (elevation, ditches,
ponds)
WRB
WRAs
ICT industry
Landscape ponds
Restricted development
CEPD
NSC
UDB
Cambridge project
WRAs
WRB
UDB
Solar city
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
Private enterprises
Zengwen River levee
New town development
Flood-resistant buffer
Plans and policies
E: water resistance and new town development
Flexible zoning
Planning dimensions
Discourses
Water scarcity
Collaborative frameworks
Spatial developments
Flood risks
Sand mining
WRASB
Reservoir
Dike plan
Retention plan
Levees
WRA07
Master Plan of the Culture
Town Meinong !
Villas & housing
Water approach Economic approach Local authorities
NGOs & academics
National authorities
Integrated approach Private enterprise
Local NGOs Local NGOs
WRASB
Tourism
Artificial lakes
WRA07
Local NGOs
Urban expansion
Tai-Sugar cop.
Private developers
Local NGOs
Groundwater reservoir
Plans and policies
the end 1990s
E1: water scarcity E3: collaborative planning
E2: flood risk management
the end 2000s
E1: urban regeneration
Planning aspects
Discourses
Collaborative frameworks
Spatial developments
Housing
Flood risks
Kao. Multifunctional Commerce and Trade Park
UDB & EDB
WRAP
Kao. Port Authority
Gov. projects
Retention ponds
Retention plan
Water approach Economic approach Local authorities
NGOs & academics
National authorities
Integrated approach Private enterprise
Trade & logistic
PWB &HEB
Waterfront landscape
HEB
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
Waterfront wetlands
Urban expansion
PWB
Water quality & pollution
E2: climate adaptation
landmarks
Plans and policies
E: urban regeneration
Water approach Economic approach Local authorities
NGOs & academics
National authorities
Integrated approach Private enterprise
Planning aspects
Discourses
Collaborative frameworks
Spatial developments
Old district regeneration
TB
TBROC
Waterfront regeneration
Waterfront landscape
CEPD
Sparkling Tainan Canal
China Town Haian
Rd.
UDB UDB UDB
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
China Town
Haian Rd.
Tourism development
Anping Port National Scenic Area
Landscape white paper
Bridges
Innovative shops
Plans and policies
E: new urban fringe
Planning dimensions
Discourses
Collaborative frameworks
Spatial developments
Quality of living
VROM
VINEX
Housing
Water approach Economic approach Local authorities
NGOs National authorities
Integrated approach Private enterprise
Enlarged lake
Metro line
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
City of RTM
Private developers
Recreational hotspots
Plans and policies
Meinong STSP Nesselande
Kaohsiung CS Tainan CS Rotterdam CS
Case study
Local planning story
Case study
RES
ILIE
NC
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
S
Support and promote urban wetlands
E1: urban regeneration
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
Economic downturn due to the decline of the harbour Monitoring for emergency actions
Waterfront landscape projects
Coastal area regeneration projects
Economic development of the city
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Typhoon Morakot & Typhoon Fanapi
Economic growth
Climate adaptation
Retention ponds
Rescue plans
International collaboration
E2: climate adaptation
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
RES
ILIE
NC
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
S
the end 1990s
E1: water scarcity E3: collaborative planning
E2: flood risk management
the end 2000s
Water scarcity
River dike is not robust for water
safety
Tourism and sand mining
To ensure water supply
Meinong reservoir (abandoned) and artificial lakes
Flood risk management
Construction of a new river levee
Typhoon Morakot
Typhoon Morakot
Minimise flood risks
Minimise flood risks
Implement integrated strategies
Support Integrated strategies
Local participation
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise R
ESIL
IEN
CE
CH
AR
AC
TER
ISTI
CS
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
E: water resistance and new town development
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
The STSP is located in areas where are vulnerable in flooding
Water proof for spatial development
Flooding experiences in this low-land area
Typhoon Morakot
The water safety of the ICT industry development need to be ensured
Science park development cannot be damaged by flooding
The development of the ICT industry
To build water retention ponds
To restore river dikes
To implement land use control (zoning, elevation management)
New town development
To promote housing development projects
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
RES
ILIE
NC
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
S
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
E: urban regeneration
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
Historical resources (buildings)
Historical resources and cultural atmosphere
Economic/ tourism industry development
Waterfront regeneration projects
Redevelopment projects of the inner city
Mistakable implementation of the inner city
Challenge 2008: National development plan 2002-2007 and the Double Tourists Plan
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
RES
ILIE
NC
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
S
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Double the size of the Zevenhuizerplas
Metro line
E: new urban fringe
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
Housing development
To compete other VINEX projects
Landscape and recreational activies
Polder landscape
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
RES
ILIE
NC
E C
HA
RA
CTE
RIS
TIC
S
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Social segregation
the end 1990s
the end 2000s
E2 : climate adaptation E1 : urban regeneration
Economic downturn of the harbour
Reviewing river dike situation
Scientific scenarios
Flooding may occur more frequent and more severe
Near-flooding experiences in the 1990s
Urban regeneration
To promote housing development
The Erasmus Bridge
Metro system
Economic crisis
The extension of the city centre
Be waterproof /climateproof
Urban growth
Scientific studies
International network
Experimental practices
Marketing the expertise of the city
Business communities
Knowledge for climate
Scientific research institutes
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
Planning episodes
Meinong STSP Nesselande
Kaohsiung CS Tainan CS Rotterdam CS
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Meinong Kaohsiung city centre the STSP Tainan city centre
KAOHSIUNG TAINAN
RESI
LIEN
CE C
HAR
ACTE
RIST
ICS
E1 E2 E3 E1 E2 E1 E1
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
National com.
Findings
Different patterns of local planning governance Policy-making in Kaohsiung is more open to public participation, while is also more sensitive to external factors, such as the extreme events or political influences. In Tainan, policy-making is more restricted to sectors in the national and local government
Different role of planning in coping with flood risks depending on the institutional capacity and the tradition of planning collaboration. Flooding issues are not always on the table.
Similar in relation to a lack of scientific considerations in local planning policy-making to cope with flood risks and climate change
Meinong Kaohsiung city centre
the STSP Tainan city centre
Nesselande RTM city centre
KAOHSIUNG TAINAN ROTTERDAM
RESI
LIEN
CE C
HAR
ACTE
RIST
ICS
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
International com.
Findings
Meinong Kaohsiung city centre
the STSP Tainan city centre
Nesselande RTM city centre
KAOHSIUNG TAINAN ROTTERDAM
RESI
LIEN
CE C
HAR
ACTE
RIST
ICS
Local authorities NGOs & academics
National authorities
Private enterprise
Considering the current situation
Examining trends and future threats
Learning from previous experience
Setting goals
Initiating actions
Involving the public
the current pattern the transitional pattern
Another lesson gained from the international comparison is about the way to support policy-making in coping with flood risks. In Taiwan, strategies of flood risk management are mainly initiated according to the previous experiences of disasters. In the Netherlands, strategies are initiated by considering both the previous flooding experiences as well as the possible floods in the future.
In the Netherlands, the intention of economic development is often integrated with other environmental issues, such as the issues of water management.
International com.
Findings
Two important lessons related to planning and flood risk management are gained according to the international comparison between Taiwan and the Netherlands. First, the traditional role of planning is critical in framing collaboration to cope with flood risks and climate change. !In Taiwan, planning has an underlying principle of economic development. Collaboration is mainly formed with a specific intention to promote urban development. Other issues, such as flood risks, are seldom addressed in planning decision-making unless they may damage the interests of economic development.
14
Preparation actions are more addressed in the Dutch context that focuses on assessment, such as monitoring current conditions, producing future simulations and investigating possible solutions for future risks.
Actions for performance are the primarily focus of policy-making in Taiwan for flood risk management.These actions are more related to develop the capacities of response and recovery, so a city may react and retain basic functions, rearrange key resources, and propose redevelopment strategies for recovery.
International com.
Findings
Collaboration is critical to form a framework in local policy-making that the notion of resilience is considered.
The leading actors, are important for framing local collaboration to tackle potential disturbances of flooding. This reflects a part of planning tradition, which is relatively stable and not easy to change.
Conclusion
Both Taiwan and the Netherlands are experiencing a transition in planning governance. The reform in Taiwan is mainly addressed in the institutions. The institutional reform has a clear intention of land use redistribution, which is more focus on physical development.
Taiwan and the Netherlands are also different in terms of the role of the state in managing flooding issues.
The reform in the Netherlands is more about the scope of planning. The reform leads to a more open framework of cross-actor collaboration and is not necessarily linked to physical development.
Conclusion
17
Spatial planning is as important in the Netherlands as it is in Taiwan. In this context, it is important for policy-makers in Taiwan to have a broadened understanding of planning considering both the process of decision-making and the implementation in local practices in facing the complex issues like climate-related flood risks.
Conclusion
Urban resilience is often addressed in combination with other concepts, such as adaptation and mitigation. The word resilience has not always appeared in policy-making. In fact, it appears only rarely.
