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Professor Aurelian CraiutuDepartment of Political ScienceIndiana University, Bloomington
http://polisci.indiana.edu/faculty/profiles/acraiutu.shtml
Y105 (#19999). INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL THEORY
Spring 2014 OFFICE: 401 Woodburn HallMW, 11.15 am-12.30 pm OH: M 9.30-11 am & by appt.120 Woodburn Hall TEL: 855-5883, [email protected]
AIs: Zach Goldsmith, [email protected], WH 336, OH:Sean Fedorko, [email protected], WH 338, OH:David Ruigh, [email protected], OH 336, OH:
DESCRIPTION. The course offers an introduction to key themes in political theory by focusing on representative selections from major works in political philosophy such as Plato’s Apology, Cicero’s On Duties, Machiavelli’s The Prince, Hobbes’s Leviathan, Locke’s Second Treatise on Government, Rousseau’s Social Contract, the Federalist Papers, and Mill’s On Liberty. A few other recommended readings and movies will complement the required readings.
The course will offer a broad framework for discussing topics that are central to politics and public life: sovereignty, power, constitutionalism, the role of laws, civic virtue, religion, democracy, justice, freedom, and equality. Special attention will be paid to exploring the context in which our authors wrote their works, the main concepts they used, and the implications of their ideas for contemporary debates. Although we will study these works in chronological order, we will emphasize the various meanings that the aforementioned key concepts have had over time.
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GOALS. The course aims at creating an intellectually stimulatingenvironment in which the diversity of opinions and lively exchanges of viewpoints will be encouraged. I shall ascertain the quality of students’ reading through their performance in talking and writing. We test speaking abilities, the accuracy ofarguments, logical consistency, the ability to raise interestingand important questions, to identify, examine, and compare or synthesize pertinent aspects of the issues under consideration. Students should be able to summarize the major ideas of the reading and criticize or evaluate critically the work in terms of logic and consistency, importance, relevance, supporting evidence, possible contradictions. Upon completing this course, students should have a broad understanding of the main concepts in political theory as well as an awareness of their implications for contemporary political issues.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS & METHOD. All the required readings must be done in due course. More specifically, you must read the assigned texts before class and reread their main passages in light of our lecture and class discussion. When reading the text for the first time you should try to identify the key ideasand concepts used by the author. Many times, you should reread the text to fully understand it. To this effect, you are strongly encouraged to take reading notes and consult the study questions from the syllabus.
The class will use a combination of lecture and discussion; hence, class participation and regular attendance will be important for the final grade. Class attendance will be taken. Absence for documented illness, university-sponsored activities,or family emergencies will be excused, but the work accumulationwill still be expected. Please note that in this case it will bethe students’ responsibility to get the lecture and discussion notes, along with any announcements, from a class peer (not fromthe instructor!). If students cannot attend a class, they must notify the AI (not the instructor!) before the class.
The requirements for this class include the following:
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1. Two exams (a mid-term and a final) which will draw on the assigned readings and ideas raised in class. They will consist of short questions and one essay asking you to identify key concepts, comment on specific passages, or highlight the similarities and differences between the authors’ ideas. Each exam is worth 100 points. The mid-term will be an in-class exam; the final is cumulative andwill be a 24-hr take home exam. We will post the questionson Oncourse on Wednesday, April 30 after our final class. You will have a little over 24 hours to complete the exam due Thursday May 1, by 3 pm.
2. Four quizzes . Each quiz counts for 25 points. Please note that there will be several options for taking the quizzes but you are required to take two from the first half and two from the second one. You may take as many quizzes as you wish but we shall consider only the top four scores). Some quiz questions may be selected from the study questions for that respective author or might be slightly reformulated. The quizzes will test your comprehension ofkey concepts and themes. We will also check your ability to interpret selected fragments and claims. You will be graded according to one criterion: whether your response makes clear that you did the readings and understood theirmain ideas. NO MAKE-UP QUIZZES WILL BE GIVEN.
3. Class Participation: (50 for attendance, 50 for participating in class discussions and in OnCourse for aopened for each group). Students are strongly encouragedto bring additional materials to class (such as relevantnewspaper or magazine articles, websites, additional bibliography) and thus make the course relevant to theirconcerns. The class will be divided into three groups, each of which will work closely with one of the three Assistant Instructors who will be supervising a discussion forum on Oncourse. The syllabus lists the dates set aside for class discussion and you will have to bring a contribution on those occasions. Note that half of you grade for class participation depends on that. Each group will be invited to submit in class a
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summary of its discussions for each class discussion. Another good way to earn points toward class participation is to submit questions and/or comments forclass discussion at the beginning of the class or on thediscussion forum. I prefer them to be typed.
Class attendance will be taken and the rule is very simple and straightforward. The final score for class attendance will be prorated based on your attendance. We will waive one unexcused absence. After that, the following rule applies: 2unexcused absences= 48 points; 3 unexcused absences= 45 points; 4 unexcused absences= 40 points, 5 unexcused absences= 35, 6 unexcused absences= 30 points etc.). The following rule also applies. If you have 4 or more unexcused absences (in addition to the one that we are willing to waive), you cannot score higher than a B+ in this class. If you have 6 or more unexcused absences (same proviso), you cannot score higher than a C+ in this class; 8 or more, no higher than a D+; 10 or more, will lead to an automatic F. Please note, that in most cases, though,the final score will most likely be lower, unless the student inquestion scores perfectly on the other requirements. Absence fordocumented illness, university-sponsored activities, or family emergencies will be excused (subject to written documentation, of course!), but the work accumulation will still be expected from you. Please note that in this case it will be the students’responsibility to get the lecture and discussion notes, along with any announcements, from a class peer. If students cannot attend a class, they must notify us before the class but the absence will be excused only if written documentation is provided.
Review and Class Discussion: The class has several scheduled review and class discussion sessions. You must come prepared to participate on each session designated on the syllabus as a class discussion day. Class discussions will generally be an opportunity to review the major themes of each author. Most (though not all) dates for class discussions coincide with a quiz.
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Students are strongly encouraged to keep a reading log for this class. For more information about what such a log may include, please see page below. Please note students will be allowed to use their reading logs during the quizzes and in-class exam but that class notes or books will NOT allowed during the exams or quizzes.
In this class we shall use the IU OnCourse system. Class announcements and comments on exams will be disseminated throughOnCourse. Furthermore, this system also offers a chat room for conversation regarding the topics discussed in class and a bulletin board for exchanges on various themes.
Grades for this class will be comprised of the following:
Exams: 50% 100pts x 2 = 200 ptsQuizzes: 25% 25pts x 4 = 100 ptsClass participation: 25% 100 pts
-------------------------TOTAL = 400 pts
GRADING SCALE: A+=100; A = 93-99; A- = 90-92; B+ = 87-89; B =83-86; B- = 80-82; C+ =77-79; C = 73-76; C- =70-72; D+ = 67-69;D = 63-66; D- = 60-62; F = 0-59.
REQUIRED BOOKS
The following required books are available for purchase at the University Bookstore:
David Wootton, Modern Political Thought: Readings from Machiavelli to Nietzsche,Hackett, 1996, ISBN 0-87220-341-7.
Thucydides, On Power, Justice and Human Nature, Hackett, 1993, ISBN 0-87220-168-6
Cicero, On Duties, Cambridge UP, 1991, ISBN 0-521-34835-8
RECOMMENDED SECONDARY LITERATURE
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The following textbooks provide valuable information about the authors and works studied in class. Students are strongly encouraged to consult them in preparing for class discussions and the exam:
Steven B. Smith, Political Philosophy, Yale University Press, 2012. http://oyc.yale.edu/political-science/plsc-114. Highly recommended for its lucid prose and great attention to detail. The website contains useful youtube links to the original lectures that made this volume. One of my favorite books.
Alan Ryan, On Politics, Norton, 2012 (2 vols). http://books.wwnorton.com/books/On-Politics/An excellent survey of the history of political thought by one of the leading contemporary political theorists (one of my teachers at Princeton).
Lee C. McDonald, Western Political Theory. Part 2 (From Machiavelli toBurke). An excellent source for preparing for exams. Highly recommended.
Iain Hampsher-Monk, A History of Modern Political Thought. Detailed presentations of the main themes of each modern author. Highly recommended.
Kenneth Deutsch and Joseph Fornieri, An Invitation to Political Thought, Thomson/Wadsworth, 2009, ISBN 13: 978-0-534-54444563-5. The bookoffers an useful background on all the authors covered in this class and will be of great help in preparing for the exams. It can be purchased directly through www.cengage.com or on amazon.com.
David Boucher and Paul Kelly eds, Political Thinkers: From Socrates to the Present. Contains clear and comprehensive discussions on major authors and provides an overview of the main themes of each text, along with biographical sketches and lists of key concepts.
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G. Sabine, A History of Political Theory. A classic textbook, which has an updated edition.
Leo Strauss & Joseph Cropsey eds., History of Political Philosophy. A famous book by two leadings political philosophers (from the conservative right).
Sheldon Wolin, Politics and Vision, new edition (Princeton, 2004). An influential book by a leading left-wing political philosopher.
ADDITIONAL POLICIES:
Final Examinations and Free Week. The week prior to the exam period (beginning April 29) will be free of major or final exams, except for practical tests at the end of lab periods. Paper projects may be due then only if assigned well in advance.IMPORTANT: WE ARE ANNOUNCING AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SEMESTER THAT THE FINAL TAKE-HOME EXAM WILL BE DUE ON APRIL 25. HENCE PLEASE MAKE ANY NECESSARY ARRANGEMENTS IN DUE COURSE TO COMPLETETHE FINAL ASSIGNMENT ON TIME.
Plagiarism. We shall strictly abide by university regulations concerning plagiarism. Any attempt at plagiarism will automatically lead to failure in this class. The definition of plagiarism is simple: copying from outside sources and claiming the latter as your own work. There have been several cases of plagiarism in previous classes and they were always detected through the available software. You may, of course, refer to anddraw from printed sources, but you should properly acknowledge them. If you have any questions, feel free to ask us in due course. For more information about what plagiarism entails, please consult the Code of Student Rights, Responsibilities, andConduct, p. 17.
Securing accommodations for a student with disabilities is aresponsibility shared by the student, the instructor and the DSSOffice. For information about support services or accommodationsavailable to students with disabilities, and for the procedures
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to be followed by students andinstructors: http://www2.dsa.indiana.edu/dss/
Missed Class/Exam Policy for University-Approved Activities. Fora statement by the Dean of Students: http://studentaffairs.iub.edu/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/110818_missed_class_exam_policy.pdf
Religious and Civic Observances. Instructors must reasonably accommodate students who want to observe their religious holidays at times when academic requirements conflict with thoseobservances. For our policy on religious observances, suggestions for its implementation and forms to be used by students requesting accommodations: http://www.indiana.edu/~vpfaa/welcome/forms.shtml#Forms (then scroll down).
Instructors are occasionally confronted by discomforting or eventhreatening behavior from students. The official policy is here:http://www.indiana.edu/~ufc/docs/policies/DisruptiveStudents.pdf
1. INTRODUCTION
1/13. General presentation of the class, its objectives and requirements.
1/15: What is political theory and what makes it different from other subfields in political theory and humanities? How should we read texts in political theory?
1/20: MLK DAY (NO CLASS!)
2. THUCYDIDES: DEMOCRACY, EMPIRE, AND POWER
Topics: The war between Athens and Sparta as a struggle between two different ways of life. Pericles’ Funeral Oration and the greatness of Athens. The Mytilenean debate: morality in politics. The Melian dialogue and the question of might vs. right. The compatibility between democracy and empire.
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Study questions: What are the main ideas of Pericles’ Funeral Oration? Is the image of democratic Athens in Pericles’ Oration
much different from the description of Athens in the Mytilenean debate? Why?
Compare and contrast Cleon’s and Diodotus’ arguments in the Mytilenean debate.
Is deception an essential element of success in politics? What does political leadership require? What lessons can/should we learn from the Melian dialogue?Is empire compatible with democracy? What is the key to successful leadership according to
Thucydides?
1/22: Thucydides, On Power, Justice and Human Nature: Selections from ‘The History of the Peloponesian War,’ Hackett, pp. 39-46; 52-58.
1/27: Thucydides, On Power, Justice and Human Nature: Selections from ‘The History of the Peloponesian War,’ pp. 66-76; 102-109.
3. PLATO: THE CONFLICT BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY AND POLITICS
Study questions: Is contemplative life superior to active life? Were the Athenians right in condemning Socrates? How does Socrates define philosophy and the role of the
philosopher in the city? What is the Socratic method? Was Socrates a Sophist? Why is the unexamined life not worth living? Should the true philosopher refrain from getting involved
in politics? Why or why not?
Recommended: Steven B. Smith, Political Philosophy, chapter on Plato.
1/29. Plato, The Apology, http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/apology.1b.txt
2/3. QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION (PLATO, THUCYDIDES). THEME: DEMOCRACY AND LEADERSHIP: WHO SHOULD RULE?
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4. CICERO: THE IMPORTANCE OF DUTIES
Topics. The four cardinal virtues: wisdom, justice, fortitude, temperance; kinds of injustice. Justice. Morality and expediency. Politics and exceptional circumstances. Public service as a duty. The political ideas of classical republicanism.
Study questions: How did Cicero define the “republic”? Of the four cardinal virtues according to Cicero, which isthe highest virtue and why? What is the proper relationship between politics and morality according to Cicero? Was Cicero an idealist? What are the four cardinal virtues according to Cicero? How does Cicero argue that nothing that lacks justice can be morally right? What is Cicero’s view of the ideal statesman? What is the relation between morality and expedience according to Cicero? Can cruelty ever be justified in politics according to Cicero?
2/5. Cicero, On Duties, Book I, pp. 1-37 [up to section # 93 in square brackets]; pp. 48-62.
2/10. Cicero, On Duties, Book III, pp. 107-117 [sections 19-47 in square brackets]; pp. 128-129 [sections 75-78 in square brackets]; pp. 138-47.CLASS DISCUSSION: THE CONFLICT BETWEEN WHAT IS HONORABLE AND WHAT IS EXPEDIENT IN POLITICS.
5. MACHIAVELLI: PRUDENCE, MORALITY, EXPEDIENCE, AND THE REASON OF STATE
Topics. Politics before Machiavelli. Machiavelli’s view of the human condition. Politics and the “art of the state.” Politics as the art of acquiring and preserving power. The relationship between political power and morality. The conflict between
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expediency and morality and the problem of “dirty hands.” The centrality of prudence. Reason of state. The role of Fortuna (chance) in political affairs. The concept of virtù.
Study questions: Why did Machiavelli write The Prince? Compare Machiavelli’s and Cicero’s ideas on politics and morality. Can cruelty ever be expedient according to Machiavelli? What is the reason of state? Was Machiavelli “Machiavellian”? What is the ideal ruler according to Machiavelli and how does it differ compared to previous authors? Can cruelty ever be justified in politics? Did Machiavelli actually claim that the end justifies the means in politics? How does he define virtù? What is the role of luck in politics? Can fortuna be mastered?
Recommended: Steven B. Smith, Political Philosophy, chapter on Machiavelli.Also see the following roundtable on the Prince with Maurizio Viroli: http://www.jackmillercenter.org/2013/12/maurizio-viroli-redeeming-the-prince/
2/12. Machiavelli, The Prince (in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought). Dedicatory letter, Chapters 1-12.
2/17. Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapters 13-18.
2/19. Machiavelli, The Prince, Chapters 19-26.
2/24. QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: REALISM, MORALITY, AND IDEALISM IN POLITICS. Recommended movie: The Godfather, Part II.
6. HOBBES: SOVEREIGNTY, ANARCHY AND POLITICAL ORDER
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Topics: The laws of nature. The state of nature. The nature of political obligation and the social contract. Political liberty.The rights and liberties of the citizens. The duties of the sovereign. The role of religion.
Study questions for Hobbes. Describe Hobbes’s theory of the state of nature? How does Hobbes define the social contract? What is sovereignty? Why should I obey the laws and the sovereign? What role do the laws of nature play in Hobbes’s system? What are the liberties and the rights of the subjects? Is there a morality in the state of nature? What are the duties of the sovereign? Is the sovereign free to do anything he pleases? Do we have the right to rebel? What is the role of
religion in politics? Was Hobbes an atheist?
Recommended: Alan Ryan, On Politics, chapter on Hobbes.
2/26. Hobbes, Leviathan, Introduction, Chapters 13-15, 17-18 (in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought)
3/3. Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapters 21, 26, 29-30
3/5. Hobbes, Leviathan, Chapters 12, 43, Review and conclusion. QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: WAR, RELIGION, AND POLITICS.. 3/10. Review of all materials studied in class (for the exam)
3/13. In-class mid-term exam (all materials studied thus far)
3/16-3/23: SPRING BREAK
7. LOCKE: CONSTITUTIONALISM AND POLITICAL LIBERTY
Topics: Locke’s theory of the state of nature. The origin of property. Consent, political obligation, and limited government.
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The rule by the majority. The separation of powers and the emergence of modern constitutionalism
Study questions for Locke. What are the main elements of Locke’s theory of the state
of nature? What is the origin of property according to Locke? What is the relationship between consent, political obligation, and limited government? What is constitutionalism? Describe Locke’s theory of social contract and compare it with Hobbes’.What is Locke’s view on majority rule and the separation of powers? What is the end of political society and government in Locke’s view? What is Locke’s opinion on the right to revolution and howdifferent is he from Hobbes in this respect?
Recommended: Alan Ryan, On Politics, chapter on Locke.
3/24. Locke, Second Treatise of Government (in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought). Chapters II-V (sections 4-36), chapter 6 (sections 54, 57), chapter 7 (sections 87-94)
3/26. Locke, Second Treatise, chapters 8-9, 11, 19.
3/31. Locke, Second Treatise, chapter 14. QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: EMERGENCY POWERS AND LOCKE’S EXECUTIVE PREROGATIVE IN THE WAKE OF 9/11. COMPATIBLE WITH THE PRINCIPLESOF CONSTITUTIONALISM?
8. ROUSSEAU: INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM AND THE GENERAL WILL
Topics. The nature of Rousseau’s social contract. Civil and natural liberty. Rousseau's conception of freedom under the laws. Political representation. Rousseau's views on democracy and religion.
Study questions for Rousseau.
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Why does society corrupt individuals? How can we make citizens virtuous? What is the exact definition of the social contract?What is the general will? Why is general will always
right? What is Rousseau’s theory of sovereignty? Can someone be forced to be free? How? What is the relationship between civil and natural
liberty? Explain Rousseau's conception of freedom under the laws. Why did Rousseau reject political representation? Explain Rousseau’s views on civil religion.
Recommended: Steven B. Smith, Political Philosophy, chapter on Rousseau
4/2. J.-J. Rousseau, On the Social Contract (in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought). Book 1 (entire).
4/7. J.-J. Rousseau, On the Social Contract. Book 2 (Chapters 1-4, 6-7); Book 3 (chapters 1-2, 4)
4/9. J.-J. Rousseau, On the Social Contract. Book 3 (chapters 15-16), Book 4 (chapters 1-2, 8).QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: IS THE CONCEPT OF GENERAL WILL UTOPIAN?
9. THE FEDERALIST PAPERS: FACTIONS, PLURALISM, AND DIVERSITY
Topics: Human nature and politics. Factions and pluralism. Constitutionalism and balance of powers.
Study questions: What are the best ways of dealing with the propensity to
form factions? What is the role of politics? What are the benefits and shortcomings of political
pluralism? Why has democracy succeeded in America? What are the virtues and limitations of American
democracy?
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How does Publius describe the balance of powers?
4/14. The Federalist (# 10, 37, 47-49, 51, 55, 57, 70, 78, 84)http://www.foundingfathers.info/federalistpapers/
4/16. QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: DOES THE U.S. CONSTITUTION NEED REFORM?
10. J. S. MILL: LIBERTY AND ITS BENEFITS
Topics: The definition of freedom and the harm principle. True individuality and the tyranny of the majority. The morality of proper deliberation. Applications of Mill’s ideas.
Study questions: What are the virtues and limitations of democracy? What is liberty according to Mill and why is liberty
needed? What are the different types of despotism and what are best ways of combatting them? Explain Mill’s views on self-government and administrative decentralization. How did Mill define true individuality? What are the proper limits to the authority of society andcustom over the individual?
4/21. J. S. Mill, On Liberty, chapters I and II in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought, pp. 592-620.
4/23. J. S. Mill, On Liberty, chapters III and IV in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought, pp. 620-639.
4/28. J. S. Mill, On Liberty, chapter V in Wootton ed., Modern Political Thought, pp. 639-61.QUIZ & CLASS DISCUSSION: CONTEMPORARY APPLICATIONS OF MILL’S IDEAS: EDUCATION, DRUGS, ALCOHOL ETC.
4/30. FINAL LECTURE. Official class evaluation.
FINAL EXAM: 24-hr take-home exam. The final exam will cover all the materials studied in class, with special focus on the
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readings studied during the second half. We will post the questions on Oncourse on Wednesday, April 30, immediately after our final class (around noon). You will have 24 hours to complete the exam due Thursday May 1, by 3 pm.
READING PHILOSOPHICAL TEXTS
The assignments in this course require you to engage in a closereading of significant texts written by the major philosophersof the Western tradition. Since you may have had littleexperience in dealing with material of this sort, the prospectmay be a little daunting at first. Philosophical prose iscarefully crafted to achieve its own purposes, and reading itwell requires a similar degree of care.
A few concrete suggestions for your reading:
1. Do the assigned readings and reread them after attending thelectures and class discussions.
The philosophical texts simply are the content of the course; ifyou do not read, you will not learn. Coming to class withouthaving read and listening to the discourse of those who have isno substitute for grappling with the material on your own. Youcan't develop intellectual independence if you rely for yourinformation on the opinions of other people, even when theyhappen to be correct.
2. Keep a thorough reading log.
Our classes will provide an opportunity to discuss the readings,work through arguments, and engage in lively exchanges. Studentwill strongly be encouraged to keep a reading log (journal)containing entries for each assigned reading: definitions of keyconcepts, summary of the readings, selections of importantquotes. Sample concepts: democracy, liberty, power,representation, constitution, citizenship, virtue, equality etc.I recommend that each author studied in class have a specialentry in the reading log and students come to class prepared
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with at least one relevant questions about the reading of theday. These logs are a way for each student to demonstrate aserious engagement with the required readings and students willbe allowed to use them during the quizzes and in-class exams(class notes or books are NOT allowed during the exams).
Here is a list of questions that you should follow when reading(or rereading) a text:
(a) What is the political context in which the text was written?How did it respond to a specific political situation?(b) What are the key concepts and foremost concerns of theauthor? What does he actually want to convey to his audience? (c)Identify a few relevant passages from the text.(d) To whom does the author speak? What are the issues on whichhe agrees or disagrees with other thinkers studied in class?(e) What contribution to our understanding of politics does thetext bring? To what extent does the work under considerationincrease our ability to make sense of our contemporary world?How are the texts studied in class relevant to our currentdebates and concerns? Why?(f) Propose one or two questions for each class discussion.
3. Consider the context
Philosophical writing, like literature of any genre, arises froma concrete historical setting. Approaching each text, you shouldkeep in mind who wrote it, when and where it was published, forwhat audience it was originally intended, what purposes it wassupposed to achieve, and how it has been received by thephilosophical and general communities since its appearance. Usethe Internet resources to this effect.
4. Take your time
Careful reading cannot be rushed; you should allow plenty oftime for a leisurely perusal of the material assigned each day.Individual learning styles certainly differ: some peoplefunction best by reading the same text several times with
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progressively more detailed attention; others prefer to workthrough the text patiently and diligently a single time. Ineither case, encourage yourself to slow down and engage the textat a personal level.
5. Spot crucial passages
Most philosophical texts vary in density from page to page. Itisn't always obvious what matters most; philosophers sometimesglide superficially over the very points on which their entireargument depends. But with the practice you'll be getting weekby week, you'll soon be able to highlight the most importantportions of each assignment.
6. Identify central theses of each text.
Each philosophical text is intended to convince us of the truthof particular propositions. Although these central theses aresometimes stated clearly and explicitly, authors often choose topresent them more subtly in the context of the line of reasoningwhich they are established. Remember that the thesis may beeither positive or negative, either the acceptance or therejection of a philosophical position. At the most generallevel, you may find it helpful to survey the exam studyquestions in your course study aids file as you read eachassigned text.
7. Locate supportive arguments
Philosophers do not merely state opinions but also undertake toestablish their truth. The methods employed to supportphilosophical theses can differ widely, but most of them willexplicitly or implicitly offer premises that are (in their view)true and then claim that a sound inference from these premisesleads inexorably to the desired conclusion. Other authors (suchas Thucydides, Cicero, or Machiavelli) used powerful rhetoricaldevices to persuaded their audience. You must identify thesepatterns and interpret them accordingly.
8. Assess the arguments
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Arguments are not all of equal cogency; we are obliged to acceptthe conclusion only if it is supported by correct inference fromtrue premises. Thus, there are two different ways in which toquestion the legitimacy of a particular argument. (a) Askwhether the premises are true. (b) Ask whether the inferencefrom premises to conclusion is sound. If this doesn’t seem towork, you may question the truth of the conclusion directly byproposing a counter-example which seems obviously to contradictit.
9 .Look for connections
Since these texts occur within a tradition or overlappingtraditions, they are often directly related to each other.Within your reading of a particular philosopher, notice the wayin which material in one portion of the text links up withmaterial from another. As the semester proceeds, consider theways in which each philosopher incorporates, appropriates,rejects, or responds to the work of those who have gone before.Finally, make every possible effort to relate this philosophicaltext to what you already know from courses in other disciplinesand from your own life experiences.
10. Expect disagreement and a wide variety of ideas.
Disagreement with an expressed opinion and criticism of itsputative support is not disrespectful, nor does it indicate afailure on our part to solve a particular issue. Politicaltheory is not similar to chemistry or math. There are no singleanswers to questions such as what is justice, freedom, and soforth.
11. Bring additional materials to class such as relevantnewspaper or magazine articles, websites, additionalbibliography.
W RITING IN POLITICAL THEORY
1. Understand the assignment
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Whether you're completing a specific assignment from me ordeveloping your own project, it is important to have the aimsfirmly in mind. Focus on a single question you wish to address,be clear about your own answer to it, and explicitly state athesis that answers the question. You will often want to dividethe central issue into several smaller questions, each with itsown answer, and this will naturally lead to a coherent structurefor the entire essay.
2. Interpret fairly
Most of your writing projects will begin with a careful effortto interpret a philosophical text, and this step should never betaken lightly. Your first responsibility is to develop anaccurate reading of the original text; then your criticism canbegin. Focus primarily on the adequacy of the arguments whichsupport the stated conclusions. If you disagree, you can lookfor the weaknesses of that support; if you agree, you can defendit against possible attacks.
3. Support your thesis
Don't just state your own position; make it the conclusion of aline of reasoning. Claim only what you can prove (or are, atleast, prepared to defend), and support it with evidence andargument. Philosophy is not just a list of true opinions, butthe reasoned effort to provide justification.
4. Consider alternatives
Be sure to explore arguments on all sides of the issue youaddress. Of course you will want to emphasize the reasoning thatsupports your thesis, but it is also important to considerlikely objections and to respond with counter-arguments. Beespecially carefully in your use of examples: the best positiveexample can only clarify meaning and lend some evidentiaryconfirmation, but a single counter-example disproves a generalclaim completely.
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5. Omit the unnecessary
Include in your written work only what is germane to your topic:after the first draft, mercilessly eliminate from your textanything that does not directly and uniquely support the thesis.Padding with irrelevant or redundant material is neverworthwhile. Be particularly careful in your use of materialprepared by others: do not plagiarize, paraphrase withoutattribution, quote directly often or at length, or relyextensively on a single secondary source.
6. Write clearly
It is your responsibility as writer to express yourself in a waythat can be understood. Use specific, concrete language inactive voice whenever you can. Define your terms explicitly anduse them consistently throughout your paper.
7. Reread and proofread your paper. Ask a colleague to read itas well prior to submitting it.
Above all make sure to avoid plagiarism. This is a seriousinfringement of the academic code. If you are not sure whatconstitutes plagiarism, ask around.
PAPER SUBMISSION GUIDELINES (where applicable).
All written assignments should be submitted in the designatedform, and should include a clear indication of the course andassignment number. Be sure to observe the designated due date;work that is turned in late will automatically receive asignificantly reduced grade. It is reasonable to expect anyassignment prepared outside class to be written well, withcareful attention to grammar, spelling, and usage.
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WRITTEN EXAMS
Since a significant portion of your grade for this course willdepend upon assessment of your knowledge and skill as reflectedin written examinations, here are a few suggestions for dealingwith essay exams:1. Rely heavily upon the study questions on the syllabus.
Look over them at the beginning of each unit; use them to guideyour reading of the texts and our discussion in class; andreview them before the exam. If you have considered these issuesfully, nothing on the exam itself can surprise you.
2. Understand the question
Before beginning to write, read each question carefully andcompletely; it will ask that you address a specific issue in aparticular way. Pay close attention to words (such as"Describe...," "Explain...," "Compare and contrast...,""Assess...," and "Evaluate...") that suggest the appropriatemode of response. If you are uncertain what a question means,ask us for clarification. Take a moment to organize yourthoughts on the subject.
3. Stick to the point
Make sure that your response is directly relevant to thequestion asked. Although you will know a great deal more aboutthe philosopher or topic at issue than your answer requires, itwill be read only for information and/or argumentation thatresponds to the specific question. If you believe thatadditional material is required, indicate clearly and explicitlyhow it connects with the matter at hand.
4. Use your time wisely
Although essay exams in philosophy are not meant to be intenselytime-pressured, they must be completed within certain limits.Don't get so absorbed in one question that you spend much morethan its share of the available time..
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5. Make every word count (literally!)
It is always helpful to write clearly—that is, in complete,grammatically correct sentences. Avoid lengthy prefatory,transitional, and summary verbiage. Any redundant or imprecisewords must be avoided and eliminated. And reread the papers andexam to make any last-minute necessary corrections.
REMEMBER: The substantive purpose of the exams is to test howwell you have learned two related lessons. First, you should beable to identify and restate cogently the author’s (or authors’)arguments. This means (a) understanding the vocabulary and (b)distinguishing the key ideas, arguments, and themes of the text.You ought to pay attention to the definition of the majorconcepts that can be found in the assigned readings. If you dothis well, you should be able to get a C without any problems.Second, you should be able to link different arguments andthemes by drawing inferences from explicit statements andhighlighting their relevance to our contemporary politicaldebates. This is what we call interpretation and is especiallyimportant in reconciling apparent contradictions in thereadings. A good interpretation demonstrates a solid grasp ofthe material and would be worth a B or an A grade. It goesbeyond the commentator’s emotive response (gut reaction,feeling), engages intelligently with the key ideas, and espousesa coherent position on the subject under consideration. Anycheating on an exam means automatic failure of the course. Anyattempt at plagiarism will also result in failure. For moreinformation about what plagiarism entails, please consult theCode of Student Rights, Responsibilities, and Conduct, p. 17.
SAMPLE EXAM QUESTIONS:
Why should we participate in politics? Does politics have anoble side? Comment by drawing on two authors studied in class.
Should individuals participate in politics? Comment by drawingon two authors studied in class.
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Is it true that the end justifies the means in politics? Whatwould Rousseau, Locke, and Marx object to Machiavelli’s theoryof power?
Guidelines
Thesis statement
Do: Take a position and summarize the argument you will make.
“Using examples from Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War, I will
argue that democracy and empire are not compatiblebecause…”“Ultimately, democracy is capable of supporting not
only an empire, but a fair and just empire, because…”
Don’t: State the question without giving an answer. “I will investigate whether empire and democracy are
compatible.”“The question this paper will address is: Is empire
compatible with democracy?”
Crafting an argument
Do: Build an argument based on your analysis of the text.Don’t: Simply summarize the text for the sake of summarizing.
Do: Begin each new paragraph with a topic sentence, which states the main idea of the
paragraph and how it relates to your central argument (i.e. your thesis statement).
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Don’t: Discuss points that do not relate in any clear way toyour central argument.
Do: Focus each paragraph on a single point, which contributes to your overall argument.Don’t: Let paragraphs drift from one point to another.
Supporting your argument
Do: Use relevant quotes from the text as evidence to supportyour argument.Don’t: Summarize what the text says without ever quoting directly from it.
Do: Interpret the meaning of the passage, as it relates to your argument.Don’t: Assume that the quote speaks for itself and needs no explanation.
Do: Cite the author, work, and page number (Plato, Republic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 67). Subsequently, Plato, Republic, p 92.Don’t: Quote a passage without indicating where you found it. Nor should you quote “Plato, p. 92” (without giving the full title).
Do: Make statements that are supported by evidence from the text or an outside source.Don’t: Make normative (value judgment) statements or factualclaims that you cannot
support with this kind of evidence.
For quotation and citation, please use the Chicago Manual ofStyle (any edition). Here is the format. The first time you citegive the full title, plus publisher, year and page; forsubsequent citations, you may use abbreviations.
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For books: Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Anne M.Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 595. For eachsubsequent citation: Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 599.
For edited books: Raymond Aron, In Defense of Liberal Reason, ed.Daniel J. Mahoney (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), 1-23.
For articles: Bernard Manin, “Montesquieu et la politiquemoderne,” Cahiers de philosophie politique, 2-3 (1985): 185.
Grading Rubric for Exams
50 pts. Argument: Clearly developed argument that addresses the
assigned question; well-organized; persuasively argued; factually correct.
30 pts. Textual Analysis: Identifies and quotes relevant passages from the text to support argument; interprets quotes/text accurately.
20 pts. Writing style: Correct spelling and punctuation; grammatically correct sentence structure; clearly identifiable thesis statement and topic sentences; effectiveuse of language.
Citation
Please use the Chicago Manual of Style (any edition). Here isthe format. The first time you cite give the full title, pluspublisher, year and page; for subsequent citations, you may useabbreviations.
For books: Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Anne M.Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone
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(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 595. For eachsubsequent citation: Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, 599.
For edited books: Raymond Aron, In Defense of Liberal Reason, ed.Daniel J. Mahoney (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994), 1-23.
For articles: Bernard Manin, “Montesquieu et la politiquemoderne,” Cahiers de philosophie politique, 2-3 (1985): 185.Be particularly careful in your use of material prepared byothers: do not plagiarize or paraphrase without attribution. If you are unsure what constitutes plagiarism, ask around. This isa very serious infringement of the academic code and I hopethere will be no problems in this class.
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