ANTHROPOLOGY

ANTHROPOLOGY

Anthropos + logos - Anthropology

Anthropo- Human logos - Science

“ANTHROPOLOGIST” - ARISTOTLE

DEFINITIONS

KROEBER – Anthropology is the science of groups of men and their behavior and production.

JACOBS & STERN – Anthropology is the scientific study of the physical, social, and cultural development and behavior of human beings since their appearance on the earth.

Classification of anthropology

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

1. HUMAN GENETICS2. HUMAN PALEONTOLOGY3. ETHNOLOGY4. ANTHROPOMETRY5. BIOMETRY

CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

1. PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY

2. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Physical anthropology is concerned with man as a physical organism in ‘time’ & ‘space’

Study of the man through evolutionary processes study of human populationsBEALS & HOIJER – The study of processes where

by man developed from his non human ancestors and the continuing process of change still slowly altering his bodily form.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

HUMAN GENETICS E.C.COLIN – Genetics is the branch of biology which deals

with the laws and principles of heredity and variation as observed in plants, in animals and in human.

HUMAN PALEONTOLOGY Webster’s New International Dictionary – Human

paleontology is the science that deals with life of the past geographical periods.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

ETHNOLOGYS.S DUBE – Ethnology is a comparative study of the races

and culture of mankind in their different aspects. ANTHROPOMETRYHERSKOVITS – The measurements of manBIOMETRYCHARLES WINIK – Biometry is the statistical analysis of

biological studies specially as applied to such areas as disease, birth, growth, and death.

Cultural anthropology

E.A . HOEBEL – Culture is the sum total of learned behavioral patterns

. 1. PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGYBEALS & HOIJER – It deals with ancient

cultures and with past phases of modern civilization.

.

Cultural anthropology

2. SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY

CHARLES WINIK – Social anthropology is the study of social behavior especially from the point of view of the systematic comparative study of social forms and institutions.

Human evolution PRIMATOLOGYPRIMATE PALEONTOLOGY Mammal

Protheria Theria

Metatheria Eutheria

Primate

Characteristics of primates

1. Limbs - prehensile2. Thumb / great toe3. Nails - grasping function 4. Teeth - adopted for mixed food5. Mammary gland - lactation 6. Brain - well developed7. Clavicle

Classification of primates

Prosimian anthropoidea

Classification of primates

1. Prosimian primates ( 60 mil years ) a. lemuroidea - lemur, loris b. torsoidea - torsier Earliest true primates Well developed cerebellar cortices Limbs had highly mobile joints Unspecialised tooth cusps Dental formula – I 2/2 C1/1 PM 3/3 M3/3

ANTHROPOIDEA

1. Ceboidea ( Platyrrhine of New World Monkeys) 2. Cercopithecoidea ( Catarrine Of Old World

Monkeys )3. Hominoidea

ANTHROPOIDEA

CEBOIDEA – ( spider monkey )

The higher primates Dental formula – I 2/2, C1/1, PM2/2, M3/3 4 blunt cusps on molars

ANTHROPOIDEA

Cercopithecidae –( Macaque monkey )

1. Arboreal in their habits 2. Non prehensile tails 3. Dental formula – I2/2, C1/1, PM2/2, M3/3

HOMINOIDEA

Hominoidea is further sub divided into

Pongids Australopithecines

ANTHROPOIDEA

Pongids ( Great apes )Ex : Gibbons, Gorillas, Orang-utans, Chimpanzees

Large brains Pelvic girdle & legs became more robust Orangutans remained arboreal Chimpanzees, gorillas are quadripedal

HOMINOIDS

AUSTRALOPITHECINESFirst bipedal fossil anthropoids found in rocks of Eastern

& South Africa ( 1-3.6 mil years ago )

HOMO ERUCTUS ( Upright man )

HOMOSAPIENS HOMOSAPIENS SAPIENS NIANDERTHALENSIS ( Cro-magnon man ) ( Neanderthal man )

Neanderthal man

skull-Very large -Dolico cephalic -Face is highly developed with maxillay prognathism -Lower jaw is strong & large -chin is less prominent -human dentition -canine is of ordinary size

Cro-magnon man

Skull–large & massive -face is short, and flat -maxillary region shows less marked prognathism -lower jaw is strong & not massive -a well marked chin

MODERN MAN

Final steps to modern man ( 20 mil years )

1. Remarkable increase in brain size gave the forehead a more domed appearance

2. Folding of cerebral cortex 3. Bipedal walking 4. Use of hands for manipulation5. Occipital ridges became small

MODERN MAN

7. Simplification of nasal region 8. Reduced prognathism9. Chin increased in prominence10. Angle between base of the skull and cervical vertebrae is 900

Evolution of human face Face is the seat of principle sense organs

In lower vertebrates No fully ossified skeleton Jaw muscles are merely modified gill arch musclesTeeth are specialisations of tough shagreen or skin with minute calcified papillae or

denticlesIn the amphibiansThe bony plates behind the jaws have disappeared, leaving an exposed area –orbit

notch

In the fossil, mammal like reptilesThe bony mask of the temporal region is perforated Complex dentary – lower jawDentary becomes enlarged & presses external

pterygoid muscle, forming the cushion –meniscus ( glenoid fossa )

Heat regulating devicesForward migration of neck musclesBony mask was replaced by skin

FACIAL FORM

Each person’s face is a custom made original Anthropologists can reconstructs the face from a

dry skull The biologic rationale underlying common

variations :1. Different facial types 2. Male & female developmental facial differences3. Child & adult facial differences

Head form

Two general extremes Dolicocephalic ( long, narrow )

leptoprosopic Brachycephalic ( Wide, short, globular )

euryprosopic

DOLICOCEPHALIC Nose is longer & Protrusive with Aquiline type of Nasal contour Convex profile Cheek bones are less prominent Longer, narrower, & deeper maxillary arch &

palate Downward & backward rotation of the mandible Receding chin

BRACHYCEPHALIC

Nose is protrusively shorter (rounded tip ) Prominent cheek bones Concave / straight profile Wider, shorter and more shallow palate and

maxillary arch Mandible is more protrusive More prominent chin

DINARIC HEAD FORM

Dinaric Alps, Yugoslavia“Brachycephalised dolicocephalic”Flattened occipital regions Bossing of parietal regions Skull has triangular configuration Fore head is sloping & the profile tending towards

orthognathic Mandible tends to be less retrusive

Male versus female features

Size & configuration of the nose Fore head Cheek bones upper jaw look more prominent in females

Child versus adult features

Nasal part is small Dentition ( primary & permanent ) Jaw bones (masticatory musles & airway)

Head form Sexual dimorphism

Child versus adult features

Child’s face is not a miniature of the adult face 1. Forehead 2. Face appears diminutive in child 3. Nasal region4. Eyes appears wide set5. Mandible is small6. chin is incompletely formed

Evolution of teeth

Lobe finned fishes - upper & lower jaws had bone bearing

plates ( labyrinthodont ) - peg formed teethReptiles & mammals teeth are set in separate sockets cone shaped canines milk teeth & permanent teeth

RACE

“A group that differs from other

classes or human group by virtue of some specific physiological characteristics that are found uniformly within that group”

- Maclver & page

RACIAL CLASSIFICATION Important characters used for racial determination : skin colour hair head form face nose eye stature blood groups

CLASSIFICATION

CATEGORIES OF CRITERIA

COMMON VARIABLE CHARACTERS COMMON PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERS RARE GENETIC CHARACTERS

RACIAL CLASSIFICATION

1. NEGROID 2. CAUCASOID 3. MANGOLOID AUSTRALOIDS

NEGROIDS

African negroes & oceanic negros

woolly or frizzly hair on the head Black coloured skin Nose is broad and flat Lips are thick and everted Facial prognathism Brow ridges are small

MANGOLOID

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Black, straight, coarse hair Yellowish brown colour skin Broad flat face with prominent cheek

bones Mangoloid fold

MANGOLOIDS

1. CLASSIC / CENTRAL MANGOLOID -Northern Chaina, Tibet& Mangolia2. ARCTIC / ESKIMOID -Northern Asia, arctic coast of north America3. INDONESIAN - MALAY MANGOLOID -Japan, Thailand, Southern China4. AMERICAN INDIAN -North, Middle, and South America

CAUCASOID

Skin – fair, olive & all shades of brownHair – flat, wavy to various degrees of

curlinessHead form –dolicocephalic to

brachycephalicNose – leptorrhine to mesorrhineJaws –no prognathismChin - pronounced

CAUCASOIDS

1. MEDITERRANEAN- all sea shores ( India, Spain, Portugal, France etc. )

2. NORDIC – Scandinavians, Northern Germany, Northern France

3. ALPINE – Central Europe4. EAST BALTIC – North eastern Germany,

Poland, Baltic states5. DINARIC –Dinaric alps region in Yugoslavia

CAUCASOIDS

6. ARMENOIDS – turkey, Syria,Palestine Iraq, Iran

7. CELTIC – Iceland, Scotland and western Europe

8. LAPP – Norway, Sweden9. INDO-DRAVIDIAN –south & central India10. POLYNESIAN – Polynesian islands of the

pacific e.g. New Zealand11. AINU – ancient stock of Japan

Australoids

They closely resemble the Caucasoids in many characters

1. Australian aborigins -Australia2. Pre-Dravidian ( veddoid )- South and

central India including Typical Indian tribes

Races in india

Sir Herbert Risley ( > 75 yrs ) Based on Indo-Aryans ( west )

mangoloids ( east) Dravidian Indo Aryan Mangoloid

RACES IN INDIA

Based on the measurements on the samples of indian population – Risley

1. Turko- iranian – they inhabitat the Baluchistan ( now in Pakistan ). Tall in nature& brachycephalic

2. Indo- aryan – eastern part of Punjab Rajastan & Kashmir. Tall & fair complexioned

3. Scytho-dravidian- hilly traces of Madhya pradesh, & Coorg. Medium statured & Brachycephalic

Aryo- dravidian – U.P. Rajastan & Bihar. Short statured & mesocephalic

Mangolo- dravidian- Bengal & Orissa Stature is

medium & sometimes short, round headed with medium nose

Mangoloid – Himalayan regions ( Nepal, Bhutan,

Assam, & North eastern states

Dental anthropology

Beginning - Eighties of 18th centuryRecognised - 20th century Founder of american journal of physical

anthropology – Ales Hrdlicka The term dental anthropology was used in

early 1900s

Different aspects of anthropology ( applied anthropology )

Dental development Dental pathology Dental morphology Forensic odontology odontometry

DENTAL DEVELOPMENT

Tooth eruption standards which are relatively independent of general body growth and skeletal maturation are of great significance in the diagnosis & treatment planning of children with growth disturbances

protein-calorie malnutrition ( PCM )

PATHOLOGY

Dental caries – it is a pathologic condition of the teeth resulting in the decalcification of the dentin, enamel and the disintegration of the remaining organic material often leading to the loss of teeth.

Caries susceptibility expresses the inherent or acquired

proneness to cariesLow incidence of caries in the prehistoric as also in the

living tribal communities – coarse & fibrous food products

DENTAL MORPHOLOGY

Teeth are best preserved & most easily accessible anatomical system of the body.

pioneering studies – Hrdlicka, Dahlberg, Campbell, Hellmen, Krogman, Moorrees etc.

1.Supernumerary teeth or hyperdontia

- causes dental disturbances by interfering with normal eruption

- either peg shaped or have large crown- Higher frequency in the maxilla -Campbell conducted a study on the skulls

and living Australian aborigines.(1.8% )

2.Carabelli’s cusp or anomaly

Von Carabelli in 1842 Its occurrence – back to paleolithic manAn elevation or tubercle on the lingual surface of the

mesio-lingual cusp of the maxillary molars particularly the first one

A marker for differentiation between different ethnic groups.

3.Shovel-shaped incisors “SHOVELLING” – Muhlreiter ( 1870 )A condition resulting from a combination of a

concave lingual surface and elevated mesial and distal marginal ridges enclosing a central fossa in the upper and lower incisor teeth

Hrdlicka ( 1911 ) had done pioneering work in dental anthropology and reported pronounced shovelling in the incisors of american indians

Acco. to Hrdlicka – 4 grades of shovelling 1. Shovel- enamel rim has well developed fossa2. Semi shovel- enamel rim is distinct but with

shallower fossa 3. Trace shovel- enamel rim has distinct traces 4. No shovel- enamel rim has no fossa HELLMAN –marked, medium, trace, and absent

4.Diastema

It is a space or gap present between the maxillary central incisors or between the lateral incisors and canines

Former – median diastema (combined with small laterla incisors or large labial frenum)

Latter – lateral diastema (found in anthropoid apes & certain fossil men )

5. CrowdingLasker – inheritence of large teeth from one

parent and a small jaw from the other 6. Cingulum or lingual cuspA shelf or swelling which is found on the

tooth just above the central line Site of development of many supernumerary

cusps

7. Occlusion Relationship between the masticatory

surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular teeth when the mouth is closed

-heriditory factors -environmental factorsThe term ‘malocclusion’ is illdefined and

biased - corrucini & whitley

1. Overjet – normal (2-4mm), - positive (>5mm) - extreme positive(>7mm) - negative, extreme negative 2. Overbite- 3. Posterior cross bite 4.buccal segment relation

FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY

Deals with the identification & study of human teeth

identification of a person involved in mass disasters ( autobobile/aircraft accidents, floods, building collapse and industrial hazards)

ODONTOMETRY

Tooth size standards based on odontometry can be used in the age & sex determination of skeletal and also living population

Studies – males have larger teeth (mesio distal crown diameters )

- canines show greatest amount of sexual dimorphism

-Europeans have smaller teeth than mangolians or other racial groups

Dr.V. Rami reddy conducted a retrospective cross sectional study on population of Gulbarga disrtict (1971-1975)

1. Eruptiion pattern2. Dental caries 3. Dental morphology..

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

1. To indicate the general and detailed eruption pattern of different types of deciduous and permanent teeth by variables such as sex, age and economic status.

2. To indicate the general and detailed prevalence of caries in both deciduous & permanent teeth by above variables

3. To indicate the general & detailed frequency occurrence of various morphological traits.

Deciduous & permanent dental eruption

The times of onset as well as completion of eruption are earlier in females than males

Mandibular teeth precedes over maxillary teeth in both sexes

Teeth eruption is fast in higher income group children

Dental caries – deciduous dentition

By sex Male children (33.4%)>female children( 26.8% )By income Lower income group > upper income groupBy age Central incisors –5 years Lateral incisors – 3 years Canines – 6 years First & second molars – 7 to 10 years

Dental caries – permanent dentition

By sex Difference is insignificant (females > males )By income Upper income group > middle & lower By age Incisors – 22 to 23 years Canines – free from the disease Premolars & molars – 22-23 years

Dental morphologySupernumerary teeth Permanent dentition ( 0.86% ) >

deciduous dentition ( 0.06% )Maxilla > mandible – Ruffer ( 1920 )Carabelli’s anomaly35% out of total deciduous teeth& 27% of

permanent dentition Female > male

Dental morphology

Crowding both dentitions Female > male

DiastemaDeciduous teeth > permanent teeth -Male > female

“Epidemological transition”Phenomenon of changes in frequencies of

certain serious diseases – omeron (1971)

‘diseases of civilisation’ or ‘western diseases’ – Trowell & Burkitt

“Epidemolodic transition in minor diseases” Chronic allergy – cow’s milk, dust, pollution and

food additives Oral breathing – facial collapse syndrome - narrowing of the upper arch - buccal cross bites

Bite force studies normal adult chewing – 15-17kg of force maximum - 28-39kg of force Bite force is relevant to the functional aspects of dento-

facial dysplasia. Ordinary chewing and maximum bite forces were

significantly higher among more traditional rural Punjabi youths than among urban youths

- Corruccini & Kaul

Solution is the restoration of proper function by means of chewing hard , fibrous foods – stimulate the masticatory

apparatus - greater flow of the alkaline saliva

Evolution of teeth

Non mammalian vertebrates – Polyphyodonty

During growth of the animal – increase in the jaw size is associated with tooth size

(Trout – number will increase ) In mammals –Diphyodonty (2 dentitions )

Dentition of fishes ( agnatha )

EX; Sea lamprey

No true calcified teeth Arranged circumferentially Horny teeth are also seen on the tongue

Chondrichthyes (bony fishes )

All types of dental specialisations Homodont & polyphyodont Teeth are covered by enameloid

lower jaw of shark

osteochthyes

Haplodont – prehention Polyphyodont Teeth- vomer, palatine bones roof of the

mouth & tongue

Amphibia

Small, homodont, polyphyodont – prehension

In the frog – small teeth on the upper jaw & no teeth on the lower jaw

Reptiles

Homodont & polyphyodont Tend to be tricuspid or cone shaped Egg teeth – in embryos of lizards & snakes - used to break the shell

Dentition of mammals

Heterodont ( 4 types ) Restricted to 2 rows Ability to masticate – improves digestive

efficiency for high rate of metabolism

Other features

TMJ articulation Salivary glands Prismatic enamel Diphyodonty Secondary palate Significant muscle development

Dentition of protheria

Spiny ant eater – edentulous

Duck bulled platypus – 3 functional posterior teeth in each jaw quadrant

A No. additional teeth develop but do not erupt or resorb

Metatheria

An unusual feature – only last premolar will have a successor

Anteriorly many teeth are present but not functional

Morphology is same with placental animals

Dental formula – 3/3, 0/0, 1/1, 4/4

Eutheria

Insectivoral Ex; hedge hog

Molars – primitive trabacular form with sharp, high cusps which interdigitate with those of the opposite jaw

Suitable for crushing the shells of insects

Rodentia

Ex; rat

Heterogenous Continuously growing incisors DF 1/1, 0/0. 0/0, 3/3

Carnivora

Enlarged canines – offensive weapons More prominent specialisations are in cat

family

Primates

Prosimian Ex; lemur Herbivorous & insectivorous DF – 2/2, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3 Lower incisors & canines are prominent mid line diastema

Anthropoidea

Macaca monkey DF – 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3 Canines are long & prominent ( esp. in male ) Lateral diastema

Differences between apes & man

Apes man ‘U’ shaped arches parabolic Edge to edge overlap of upper & incisor relation lower incisors Male canines are no sexual dimorphism large Lateral diastema no lateral diastema Pointed cusps rounded cusps

ANTHROPOSCOPY

Anthropos – human Skopein - examine Judging the body by inspection Cannot be expressed numerically Head must be in the rest position – the

relationship of paired features will be assessed

Criteria for judgment

examiner’s esthetic perception & experience

Paired features are judged for level, contour & size

Qualitative signs

Head

1.Hairline – distinctive, indistinctive2.Forehead – unilaterally protruding

forehead

Face

1. FACIAL PROFILE – Normal Bird like Dish like

Shape of the face

Proportionate Long& short& narrow wide

Shape of the face

square triangular trapezoid

Facial mid axis quality

In midline concave with dislocated chin

Chin contour

Indented flat

ANTHROPOMETRY

“It is a systematised art of measuring and

taking observations of man, his skeleton, his brain or other organs, by the most reliable means and methods for scientific purposes”

-ALES HRDLICKA

Anthropos -human & metron -measureAnthropometry represents the typical and traditional

tool of physical anthropology Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840)3 types of head form 1. Square2. Long 3. Laterally compressed

Broca, Flower, Turner further developed the study of the skulls on the foundations laid by Blumenbach

Father of Anthropometry – BROCABroca’s methods were universal until 1870In 1874, Ihering pointed out the weaknesses in

Broca’s methodcraniometric conferences were held at

Munich(1877) and Berlin(1880)

Kollmann, Ranke, and Virchow prepared a scheme for craniometric techniques.

This was presented and approved at the 13th general congress of the German Anthropological Society held at Frankfurt (1882)

SUBDIVISIONS OF ANTHROPOMETRY

SOMATOMETRY -Living body including head and face Osteometry -Skeletal long and short bones Craniometry -Skull Physiometry -Bodily & mental functions

MEASURING TOOLS & TECHNIQUES

REQUISITES

1. Should be accurate2. Not easily distorted3. Handy or easy to manipulate4. Easily transportable for field work

sliding caliper - it measures the linear projective distances between 2 land marks in the same plane

Ex; eye fissure length,mouth width

The standard instruments

2. Spreading caliper

When the projective linear distance has to be determined between distant surfaces and various planes Ex; length of the head & width of the head

Soft metric tape

Used for determining the tangential linear distances taken along the skin surface between 2 land marks

Ex; maxillary & mandibular arcs of the face

Large double sliding calipers with levels –used when measuring projective distances involving the vertex and the opisthocranion land marks of the head

Measuring tools with various modifications Nose deviation protractor Nostril inclination protractor Nasal root and alar- slope angle meter

Multipurpose facial angle meter

Pointed portion –measuring nasofrontal,nasolabial, mentolabial angles

Small & large forked portions – determining the nasal tip & mentocervical angles

Commercial angle meter

Selection of subjects

Selection will be on the basis of Blood – 1.between individuals of same race 2. Between individuals of different race

Normalcy – pathologic conditions & anomalies alter the size, shape, & other characters

( rachtis, pagets disease, & clefts )

Age & sex

Age – 1. Eruption of teeth2. Union of epiphysis3. Condition of teeth 4. Condition of cranial structures - sutures5. General condition of the weight of the

bones

Positioning the subject

Subjects to be seated in the dental chair with the head resting on the head support

Head of the examiner must be level with the head of the subject

Standard orientation of the head –FH plane Projective measurements

FACIAL MID LINE

3 anatomic points

The nasion ( root of the nose ) The subnasale (base of the columella ) The gnathion / menton (lower edge of the

mandible

Land marks

‘Certain anatomic points used to take body measurements’

Short abbreviations used instead of full names ( small letters ) ex; nasion – n Land marks may have similar name but differ in

locationEx; porionTo avoid errors – they should be marked on the skin

Head Vertex – highest point of the head Glabella – most prominent midlinepoint between eyebrows Opisthocranion – most posterior point of the

line of greatest head length Eurion – the most prominent lateral point on

each side of the skull

Land marks

Measurements of head region

HORIZONTAL HEAD POSITION

1. Width of the head – eu to eu2. Width of the forehead - ft to ft 3. Skull base width - t to t

Perpendicular head position

1. Height of the culvarium – v-tr2. Anterior height of the head v-n3. Specific height of the head – v-en4. Height of the head & nose – v to sn5. Combined height of the head & face – v to gn

Length of the head g to op

Circumference of the head

Face

Width of the face zy to zy

Width of the mandible go to go

Height of the upper profile – tr to prn Height of the lower profile – prn to gn Lower half of the cranio- facial height – en to gn

Facial arc measurements

Supra-orbital arc

Maxillary arc

Mandibular arc

Height of the mandibular ramus – go to cdl

Depth of the body go to gn

Depth measurements of the face

1. Tragion-glabellar depth2. Tragion-nasion depth3. Tragion-subnasaledepth4. Tragion-gnathion depth

Nose

Nasofrontal angle

Angle between the proximal nasal bridge contour and the anterior surface of the forehead below the glabella

Nasal tip angle

Angle between columella & nasal bridge

Naso labial angle ( septolabial angle or columella labial angle)

Angle between columella & upper lip skin

Lips & mouth

Width of the mouth( inter commisural distance )

ch to ch

Upper lip height Sn to sto Height of the skin portion of the upper lip sn to ls Height of the skin portion of the lower lip li to sl Lower lip height - sto to sl

Vermilion height of the upper lip ls to sto

Vermilion height of the lower lip sto to li

Labio mental angle – between skin surface of the lower lip and the surface contour of the chin

Sources of errors in anthropometry & anthroposcopy

Commonest sources of error:

Improper identification of landmarks Inadequate use of measuring equipment Improper measuring technique

anthropometryImproper identification of land marks:

Soft tissue land marks – easy to locate in a healthy person’ face & difficult in a deformed face

Bony land marks – palpation easy to locate – orbitale difficult to locate – gonionIn congenitally deformed faces – reference to adjacent structures

Head Vertex – depends upon the FH plane Eurion – difficult to locate on irregular surface

Glabella – replaced by a point in the mid axis of the face at the level of the upper ridge of the eyebrows

Trichion – difficult to locate in early childhood, & at the first stages of baldness

Face Zygion – difficult to locate in 1st & 2nd brachial arch

syndromes Gonion – difficult if they are covered with thick skin &

hypo plastic mandible

Pogonion – difficult in receding chin & ‘falso pogonion protrusion’

Gnathion – markedly receding lower jaw

Nose Nasion – difficult after injuries, noses with silastic

implants, deep naso-frontal angle

Subnasale – at the bottom of the curve of the curve but difficult to locate in sharp angle

Pronasale – best viewed from profile difficult in bifid nose with uneven tip

heights

Lips & mouth Stomion – mid point of the labial fissure dislocated mouth- philtrum Labrale superious – position varies after surgery of cleft lip

Chelion – points at right & left commisures of the labial fissure

difficult in older patients because of a fine shallow ridge of the skin

repeated inspection

Problems with measuring tools Standard measurements are not used If they are used improperly examiner should be familiar with the areas Accuracy varies with instruments sliding calipers – accurate sliding calipers – up to 3mm error tape –shortens the distance when pressed & should be

tightened to eliminate the effect of the hair fabric tape follows the contours of the face

Improper measuring technique POSITION OF THE HEAD – improper measurements

( especially projective measurements )

Head tends to return to the rest position during examination – must be checked before measurement

50 to 100 of error in inclination In patients with asymmetric FHs, the difference between

two horizontals must be assessed Farkas – left FH is closer to the rest position

FACIAL MID LINE – border between right & left halves

Errors can be made in judging the facial asymmetry

Nasion is the most stable pointThe heights will be changed with expressions on the

face ( crying, smiling )

Anthroposcopy

Errors result from 1. Incorrect positioning of the patient’s head 2. Wrong angle of view of the examiner’s

eyes3. Poor lighting 4. Poor esthetic assessment & talent

Head Visual judgment of the height of the fore head

depends on the 1. Position of the head during inspection 2. Inclination of the fore head 3. Position of the ears Face Lower face height would appear small in the

presence of a receding mandible

Lips & mouth

Frontal view – size of the upper lip depends on the naso-labial angle & the position of the skin surface

Curved nasolabial angle & protruding skin – short upper lip

Vertical upper lip & obtuse angle – longer lip

Nose

Applied anthropometry

Anthropometry in cleft lip & palate patients

Combined orthodontic & surgical treatment

Poor esthetics and nasal deformity ( displacement of the soft tissue

elements ) Esthetics – no uniform definition Goals - Balance & harmony Accepted standards

Common technique – visual assessment based on the rating scale

- subjective & unreliable Radiographic cephalometry Photographs Physical anthropometry – objective documentation

of facial features - determination of need for surgery -comparison of facial features before & after

surgery

Morphological study of growth patterns of nasolabial region – Farkas

6 measurements in 1593 north American Caucasians

( 1 to 18 yrs )

Age 1 – highest growth of the cutaneous portion of the upper lip & width of the nose

Age 5 – upper lip reaches adult size Age 14 to 15 – nose is fully developed

In craniomaxillo- facial surgery

“Anthropometry is the objective analysis that replaces subjective judgement”

Mean , standard deviations of key facial measurements at varied ages

Rate of growth of each facial region Growth completion of each region Times of maturation

Diagnosis of dysmorphology Treatment of syndromic patients In cosmetic surgery Reconstructive surgery Ortyhognathic surgery

In forensic medicine

Identification of missing children age 8 age 18