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Paramedic Care:Principles & Practice
Volume 5Trauma Emergencies
Chapter 5Soft-Tissue Trauma
Topics
Introduction to Soft-Tissue InjuriesAnatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue InjuriesPathophysiology of Soft-Tissue InjuryDressing and Bandage MaterialsAssessment of Soft-Tissue InjuriesManagement of Soft-Tissue Injury
Introduction to Soft-Tissue Injuries
Introduction to Soft-Tissue Injuries
Skin is the largest organ16% of total body weightFunction:– Protection
Body fluids inBad stuff out (pathogens)
– Sensation– Temperature regulation
Introduction to Soft-Tissue Injury
Epidemiology– Open wounds– Closed wounds
More commonContusions, sprains, strains
– Risk factors for soft-tissue wounds AgeAlcohol and drug abuseOccupation
– Prevention
Anatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Anatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Layers of the Skin– Epidermis– Dermis– Subcutaneous
Anatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Blood Vessels– Arteries– Arterioles– Capillaries– Venules– Veins
Layers– Tunica intima– Tunica media– Tunica adventitia
Click here to view the anatomy of blood vessels.
Anatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Muscles– Beneath skin layers– Fascia
Thick, fibrous, inflexible membrane surrounding muscle that aids in binding muscle groups together
Anatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Tension LinesLacerations across the tension lines have a tendency to be pulled apart. Lacerations parallel to the tension lines tend to gape very little.
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Closed Wounds– Contusions
Blunt, nonpenetrating injuries that crush and damage small blood vessels Characterized by erythema and ecchymosis
© Edward T. Dickinson, MD
Closed Wounds
Hematoma – ‘HEMATOMATA’– Blood separates tissue and pool in a pocket
Dangerous in head injuriesSome may cause hypovolemia
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Open Wounds– Abrasion
Typically the most minor of injuries Carries the danger of serious infection
– LacerationPenetrates more deeply into the dermis than an abrasion Endangers the deeper and more significant vasculature, nerves, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and organs
© Charles Stewart, MD
Open WoundsIncision– A surgically smooth
laceration Puncture– A small entrance
wound with damage that extends into the body’s interior
– A puncture additionally carries an increased danger of infection
Open Wounds
Impaled Object– A wound
complication often associated with a puncture or laceration
– May cause worsening damage if withdrawn © Charles Stewart, MD
Open Wounds
Avulsion– A flap of skin,
although torn or cut, is not torn completely loose from the body
– Degloving injury Ring injury
Open WoundsAmputations– Partial or complete
severance of a digit or limb
– Hemorrhage associated with the amputation may be limited
– Care is used to ensure that the stump will be as functional as possible © Mark C. Ide
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Hemorrhage– Arterial– Venous – Capillary
The nature of the soft-tissue wound may be more important than the size or type of vessel involved– Clean lacerations and amputations generally do
not bleed profusely
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Wound Healing– Hemostasis
Vessels have a muscular layer that reflexively constricts the vessel in response to local injury Platelets begin the clotting process
Stick to the vessel wall and to one another forming a plugProteins activate a complicated series of enzyme reactions
Coagulation
Wound Healing
Inflammation– Involves a host of elements
Various kinds of white blood cells Proteins involved in immunity Hormone-like chemicals that signal other cells to mobilize
– Chemotactic factors Recruit cells
Granulocytes and macrophages Phagocytosis
Wound Healing
Inflammation (cont.)– Lymphocytes and immunoglobins– Histamine dilates precapillary blood vessels
Increases blood flow to affected areaBrings much-needed oxygen and more phagocytes to the injured area
Wound Healing
Result of the inflammatory stage– Clearing away of dead and dying tissue – Removal of bacteria and other foreign substances– Preparation of the damaged area for rebuilding
Wound Healing
Epithelialization– Epithelial cells migrate over the surface of the
woundRestores a uniform layer of skin cells along the edges of the healing wound
– The new epithelial layer is not a perfect facsimile of the original, undamaged skin
Usually quite functional and cosmetically similar
Wound Healing
Neovascularization– New growth of capillaries in response to healing– Neovascularized tissue is very fragile and has a
tendency to bleed easily Collagen Synthesis– Fibroblasts: Cells that form collagen– Remodeling
Wound Healing Process
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Infection– serious complication of open wounds– Delay healing– Spread to adjacent tissues– Systemic infection: sepsis– Presentation
Pus: WBCs, cellular debris, and dead bacteriaLymphangitis: visible red streaksFever and malaiseLocalized fever
Infection
Risk factors– Host’s health and pre-existing illnesses
Diabetics, the infirm, the elderly, and individuals with serious chronic diseases
– Wound type and locationWell-vascularized areas such as the face and scalp are very resistant to infection Distal areas such as extremities heal more slowly
– Associated contamination– Treatment provided
Infection
Infection management– Antibiotics and keep wound clean
Gangrene– Deep space infection of anaerobic bacteria– Bacterial gas and odor
Tetanus– Lockjaw – Uncommon with the exception of third-world
country immigrants
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Other Wound Complications– Impaired hemostasis
Medications can interfere with hemostasis and the clotting process
Aspirin, anticoagulants, fibrinolytics, and penicillins
Abnormalities in proteins involved in the fibrin formation cascade may result in delayed clotting
Hemophilia
Other Wound Complications
Re-bleeding– Re-bleeding is possible from any wound
Movement of underlying structuresHemorrhage continues in large wounds unnoticedPostoperative wounds
Delayed healing– Patients at risk include:
Diabetics, the elderly, the chronically ill, and the malnourished
Main Concepts of this Chapter
Crush InjuryCompartment SyndromeCrush SyndromeRhabdomyalosis
Crush Injury
A body part is compressed, injuring muscles, blood vessels, bones, and other internal structures
© Edward T. Dickinson, MD
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Crush Injury– Body tissues subjected to severe compressive
forces– A crush injury disrupts the body’s tissues
Creates an excellent growth medium for bacteria– Tissue hypoxia and acidosis may result in muscle
rigor
Crush Injury
Associated Injury– Additional fractures – Open or closed soft-tissue injuries – Direct injury
Blunt and penetrating – Dehydration and hypothermia
Compartment SyndromeExtremity injury causes significant edema and swelling in the deep tissuesPressure in the compartment will rise
Results in decreased blood flow and ischemia
Care of Specific WoundsCompartment Syndrome– Likely 4–8 hours post-injury– 30 mmHg– Symptom
Severe pain out of proportion with physical exam findings6 Ps
PainParesthesia- numbnessPallorPressureParalysisPulses
Normal motor and sensory function
Care of Specific Wounds
Compartment Syndrome (cont.)– Management
Care of underlying injurySplint and immobilize all suspected fracturesCold packs to severe contusions:
Most effective prehospital managementReduces edemaPrevents ischemia
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Crush Syndrome– Body is entrapped for >4 hours– Crushed muscle tissue becomes necrotic
Resultant release of metabolic byproducts traumatic rhabdomyolysis
– By-products of cellular destruction MyoglobinPhosphate and potassium Lactic acid Uric acid
Care of Specific Wounds Crush Syndrome– Anticipate problems– Victims of prolonged entrapment– Ensure that scene is safe– Greater the body area compressed, the longer the
entrapment, the greater the risk of crush syndrome
– Once body part is freed, toxic by-products of crush injury are released into systemic circulation
– General management for soft tissue and musculoskeletal injury
Crush Sydrome
HypovolemiaHyperkalemiaHypocalcemiaAcidosisRenal Failure
Care of Specific Wounds
Crush Syndrome– Management
IV: 20–30 mL/kg of NS or D51/2 NSAVOID LR or K+ based solutions
After bolus, continuous infusion of 20 mL/kg/hrConsider sodium bicarbonateConsider calcium chloride:
500 mg IVPCounteracts hyperkalemia
Consider diuretics:Mannitol (Osmotrol)Furosemide (Lasix)
Care of Specific Wounds
Crush Syndrome– Management
IV: 20–30 mL/kg of NS or D51/2 NSAVOID LR or K+ based solutions
After bolus, continuous infusion of 20 mL/kg/hrConsider sodium bicarbonateConsider calcium chloride:
500 mg IVPCounteracts hyperkalemia
Consider diuretics:Mannitol (Osmotrol)Furosemide (Lasix)
Rhabdomyolysis
Breakdown of muscle cellsLiberation of injured muscle into circulation
Rhabdomyolysis
Muscle stretching– Influx of Ca++ and Na+– Cells swell up
IschemiaAnaerobic metabolismMay be due by electrical current
Pathophysiology of Soft-Tissue Injury
Injection Injury– High-pressure line
bursts– Injects fluid or other
substance into skin and into subcutaneous tissue
Dressing and Bandage Materials
Dressing and Bandage Materials
Sterile and Non-sterile Dressings– Sterile: direct wound contact– Non-sterile: bulk dressing above sterile
Occlusive/Non-occlusive DressingsAdherent/Non-adherent Dressings– Adherent: stick to blood or fluid
Absorbent/Non-absorbent– Absorbent: soak up blood or fluids
Dressing and Bandage Materials
Wet/Dry Dressings– Wet: burns, postoperative wounds (sterile NS)– Dry: most common
Self-adherent Roller Bandage– Kerlex/Kling
Multi-ply, stretch: 1–6”Gauze Bandage– Single-ply, non-stretch: 1–3”
Adhesive BandagesElastic (Ace) BandagesTriangular Bandages
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Scene Size-up– Rule out or eliminate
any threats to yourself or fellow care providers
– Determine the mechanism of injury
– Standard Precautions
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Initial Assessment– Establishing manual cervical in-line immobilization– Form a general impression– Assess the airway, breathing, and circulation – Correct any immediate threats to the patient’s life
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Focused History and Physical Exam– Significant MOI
Rapid trauma assessmentPerform a swift evaluation of the patient’s head, neck, chest, abdomen, pelvis, extremities, and posterior body Confirm the decision either to transport the patient immediately with further care provided en route to the hospital
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Focused History and Physical Exam– No significant MOI
Focused trauma assessmentUse the examination techniques of inquiry, inspection, and palpation to evaluate the injury and the surrounding area
Check the distal extremity for pulses, capillary refill, color, and temperature
Transport Decision
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Detailed Physical Exam– Detailed exam should follow a planned and
comprehensive process – The detailed physical exam is usually performed
during transport Never delay transport to perform it
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Assessment Techniques– Inquiry
The mechanism of injury, any pain, pain on touch or movement, and any loss of function or sensation specific to an area
– InspectionCarefully observing a particular body region
– PalpationPalpate the body’s entire surface
Assessment of Soft-Tissue Injuries
Ongoing Assessment– Reassess the patient’s mental status, airway,
breathing, and circulation – Inspect any interventions you have performed – Perform at least every 5 minutes with unstable
patients – Perform at least every 15 minutes with stable
patients
Management of Soft-Tissue Injury
Management of Soft-Tissue Injury
Objectives of Wound Dressing and Bandaging– Hemorrhage control
Direct pressureElevationPressure pointsConsider
IceConstricting bandTourniquet
Management of Soft-Tissue Injury - Tourniquet
Do– Apply in a way that
will not injure tissue beneath it
– Use something at least 2” wide
– Consider using a blood pressure cuff
– Write TQ and time placed on patient’s forehead
Don’t– Use unless you
cannot control the bleeding via other means
– Use rope or wire– Release it once
applied
Management of Soft-Tissue Injury
Objectives of Wound Dressing and Bandaging– Sterility
Keep the wound as clean as possibleIf wound is grossly contaminated, consider cleansing
– ImmobilizationPrevents movement and aggravation of woundDo not use an elastic bandage: TQ effectMonitor distal pulse, motor, and sensation
Management of Soft-Tissue Injury
Pain and Edema Control– Cold packs– Moderate pressure over wound– Consider analgesic :
Morphine sulfate2 mg IVP every 5 minutes up to a total of 10 mg given.
Fentanyl (Sublimaze)25–50 mcg IVP followed by an additional 25 mcg as needed.If given too rapidly, chest wall rigidity may ensue leading to respiratory compromise
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Scalp– Rich supply of blood vessels– Rarely account for shock– Can be severe and difficult to control– With skull fracture:
Gentle digital pressure around the woundPressure on local arteries
– Without skull fracture:Direct pressure
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Face– Heavy bleeding– Assess and protect the airway– Blood is a gastric irritant
Be alert for nausea and vomiting
Ear or Mastoid– Cover and collect bleeding– Do not stop CSF from ears or nose
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Neck– Consider circumferential bandage
Protect trachea and carotidsC-collar and dressing
– Occlusive dressing if lacerated vesselShoulder– Take care to avoid pressure
Axillary arteryTracheaAnterior neck
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Trunk– Minor wounds: Dressing
and tape– Major wounds:
Circumferential wrapLadder splint behind back and wrap gauze over it
Groin and Hip– Bandage by following
contours of body– Movement can increase
tightness of bandage© Ray Kemp/911 Imaging
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Elbow and Knee– Circumferential wrap and splint
Splinting reduces movementPosition of functionHalf flexion/half extension
Hand and Finger– Remove jewelry from wrist and fingers– Bulky dressing– Position of function
Ankle and Foot– Circumferential bandage
Anatomical Considerations for Bandaging
Complications of Bandaging– Always assess before and after:
PulseMotorSensation
– Developing ischemia:PainPallorTinglingLoss of pulseDecreased capillary refill
Care of Specific WoundsAmputations– Patient
Control bleeding Consider tourniquet Do not delay transport
– Amputated PartDry cooling and rapid transportPart in plastic bag (double bag)Immerse in cold waterAvoid direct contact between tissue and cold water
Care of Specific WoundsImpaled Objects– Stabilize with bulky dressing in place– Prevent movement of object– Consider cutting or shortening large impaled
objects– Consider removal if:
In cheek and interferes with airwayInterferes with CPR
Special Anatomical SitesFace and Neck– Potential for airway obstruction or compromise– Aggressive suctioning and oxygenation– Consider intubation:
Verify ET tube placementEnsure tube remains in the airway by using continuous waveform capnographyIf excessive swelling or damage:
Needle or surgical cricothyroidotomy
Special Anatomical Sites
Thorax– Superficial injury can be deep– Always suspect the worst due to underlying
organs– NEVER explore a wound internally– Alert for:
Subcutaneous emphysemaPneumothorax or hemothoraxTension pneumothorax
– Consider occlusive dressing sealed on 3 sides
Special Anatomical Sites
Abdominal Region– Always suspect injury to ribs or thoracic organs if
between the level of the 5th and 9th rib– Damage to hollow or solid organs from blunt or
penetrating trauma– Signs of symptoms of internal injury may be subtle
and slow to progress– Supportive treatment unless aggressive care is
warranted
Wounds Requiring Transport
Any wound that involves– Nerves– Blood vessels– Ligaments– Tendons– Muscles– Significantly contaminated– Impaled object– Likely cosmetic injury
Soft-Tissue Treatment and Refer/Release
Typically requires on-line medical direction– Evaluate and dress wound– Inform the patient about:
Preventing infectionFollow-up care with a physician Inquire about tetanus and inform of risks
– Document treatment, referral, and teaching
Summary
Introduction to Soft-Tissue InjuriesAnatomy and Physiology of Soft-Tissue InjuriesPathophysiology of Soft-Tissue InjuryDressing and Bandage MaterialsAssessment of Soft-Tissue InjuriesManagement of Soft-Tissue Injury