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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 9
Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle and Late
Childhood
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.Permission required for reproduction or display.
Body Growth and Proportion
• Proportional changes: Cephalocaudal pattern– Head and waist circumference decrease when compared to
height
• Muscle mass/tone improve
• Strength doubles
• Weight gain: about 5-7 lbs/year– Increased size of the skeletal and muscular systems, and the
size of some organs.
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Motor Development
• Smoother and more coordinated
• Gross muscle skills:– Skipping rope, swimming, bike riding, skating, and climbing
are mastered.
• Fine motor skills improve—increased myelination CNS– Hands are used as tools—hammering, pasting, tying shoes,
and fastening clothes.– By 10-12 years similar to adult like
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Exercise and Sports
• Only 22% of children in grades 4-12 were physically active for 30 minutes daily (1997)
• 34% attended daily P.E.
• 23% had no P.E.
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Participation in Sports
• Positive and negative consequences for children
• Positives– opportunity for exercise, healthy competition, building
self-esteem, peer relations and friendships.
• Negatives:– pressure to achieve to win, physical injuries,
distractions from school, unrealistic expectations.
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Obesity• Overall, 20% of children are overweight 10% are
obese– Girls are more likely to be obese
– More common:
• White: childhood
• African American: adolescence
• Chances of obesity in adulthood:– At age 6 results in approximately a 25%
– At age 12 results in approximately a 75%
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Consequences of Obesity in Children
• Risk factor for many medical and psychological problems– Pulmonary problems, such as sleep apnea
– Hip problems
– High blood pressure and elevated cholesterol levels
– Low self-esteem and depression
– Exclusion from peer groups
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Treatment of Obesity
• Exercise is most successful for children
• Experts recommend– diet, exercise, and behavior modification
• Behavior modification teaches children to monitor their own behavior– ex) keeping a food diary– Makes a more permanent change
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Accidents and Injuries• Most common injury/death:
– motor vehicle accidents; pedestrian or a passenger.
– Seat-belts very important
• Other serious injuries involve:– skateboards, roller skates, and other sports equipment.
– Appropriate safety helmets, protective eye and mouth shields, and protective padding are recommended.
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Cancer• Second leading cause of death (5-14 years)
• 1 in every 330 (before 19)
• The incidence is increasing
• Mainly effects:– white blood cells, brain, bone, lymph system,
muscles, kidneys, and nervous system.
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Who Are Children with Disabilities?
• Approximately 10% receive special education or related services. (US)– More than half have a learning disability.
• Of children with disabilities:– 21% have speech or language impairments– 12% have mental retardation– 9% have serious emotional disturbance
• Boys 3 times more likely to be classified as having a learning disability.
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Learning Disabilities• Children with a learning disability:
– are of normal intelligence or above.– difficulties in one academic or more – difficulty is not attributable to other diagnosed
problem or disorder
• Most common learning disability is dyslexia.– Difficulties in reading, possibly handwriting,
spelling, or composition.– Successful intervention programs exist
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Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
• ADHD: children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics:– inattention– hyperactivity– Impulsivity
• 4-9 times more likely in boys
• Higher failure rate in school (2-3 x higher)
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Causes of ADHD• No definitive cause(s) found
• Possible Causes:– Low levels of certain neurotransmitters
– Pre- and postnatal abnormalities
– Environmental toxins such as lead
– Heredity • 30-50% have parent/sibling with
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Treatment of ADHD• Combined approach is recommended
– Academic, behavioral, and medical
• Requires parents, school personnel, and health-care professionals to cooperate
• Controversial drug treatments– Ex) Ritalin slows down nervous system and behavior
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Educational Issues• Public Law 94-142 is the Education for All
Handicapped Children Act (1975)– Requires free, appropriate public education for children
with disabilities
• Renamed IDEA (1983) spells out mandates for services to children with disabilities– Evaluation/eligibility determination, appropriate education– individualized education plan (IEP) – least restrictive environment (LRE).
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The IEP
• Individualized Education Plan (IEP)– spells out a program specifically tailored for the student
with a disability.
• Requirement for students with disabilities
• Generally, the IEP should:– relate to child’s learning capacity– specially constructed to meet individual needs– not copy of what is offered to other children.– designed to provide educational benefits.
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The LRE• LRE: least restrictive environment
• Similar as possible to the one in which children who do not have a disability are educated.
• Inclusion - educating children with a disability in the regular classroom.
• Mainstreaming - educating partially in a special education classroom and partially in a regular classroom.
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Piaget’s Theory:Concrete Operational Stage
• Age Range: 7-12
• Concrete operational thinking involves:– mental operations replacing physical actions– reversible mental actions– coordinating several characteristics of objects
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Contributions & Criticisms of Piaget• Contributions:
– Helped us understand children’s cognitive development – Ex) assimilation, accommodation, object permanence
– His observation yielded advances in cognitive development, such as shifts in thinking
• Criticisms– Underestimation of children’s competence
– Stages
– Didn’t recognize the effects of training, culture or education
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What Is Intelligence?
• Intelligence– verbal ability, problem-solving skills, and the
ability to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday experiences.
• Cannot be directly measured
• IQ tests can only provide an estimate of a student’s intelligence.
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IQ: Ways to Evaluate• William Stern: intelligence quotient (IQ).
• IQ is a person’s mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100
» IQ = MA/CA x 100
• Alfred Binet: mental age/traditional IQ tests
• Sternberg: triarchic theory of intelligence (3 forms)
• Gardner: Eight Frames of Mind
• Why look for alternative?
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Evaluating the Multiple Intelligence Approaches
• Educators must consider:– What makes up children’s competencies?– Instruction in multiple domains– Assessment and learning in innovative ways
• Critics: No research base to support the theory of multiple intelligences.
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Ethnicity and Culture• Racial differences in IQ tests
– African American and Latino score below White children
• Consensus: differences are based on environmental differences
• Many early tests were culturally biased– Favored urban children over rural children, children from
middle SES families over children from low-income families, and White children over minority children
• Culture-fair tests are tests of intelligence that attempt to be free of cultural bias.
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The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests
• Effectiveness depends on the knowledge, skill, and integrity of the user
• Positive uses or misuses
• Some cautions about IQ:– Scores can lead to stereotypes and expectations.– A high IQ is not the ultimate human value.– A single, overall IQ score is limiting.
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Mental Retardation• Characterized by:
– low IQ (70 or lower)– difficulty adapting to everyday life (BIGGEST)
• Causes can be organic or social and cultural
• Stats on MR:– 89% mildly retarded (IQs of 55-70).– 6% moderately retarded (IQs of 40-54).– 3.5% severely retarded (IQs of 25-39).
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Giftedness• Characterized by:
– above-average intelligence (an IQ of 120 or higher)– and/or superior talent for something
• Characteristics of gifted children are:– Precocity– Marching to their own drummer– A passion to master
• Gifted people tend to be:– more mature, have fewer emotional problems, and grow up in a
positive family climate
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Creativity• Unique problem solving through novel and
unusual thinking
• Convergent thinking vs. Divergent thinking
• Creative, usually intelligence
• Developing creativity– Brainstorming– Provide environments that stimulate creativity– Don’t over-control– Encourage internal motivation– Foster flexible and playful thinking– Introduce children to creative people
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Bilingualism• About 10 million children (English not primary)
• Bilingual education (preferred strategy)– Teach in their native language then add English instruction
– Critics vs. supporters– Fluency in two language results in:
• Better performance on IQ tests
• More conscious of language structure (written/spoken)
• Notice errors in grammar/meaning better
• More cognitive flexibility and complexity
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Industry Versus Inferiority• Ages 6 to 12 • Focus
– Attainment of competence – Meeting the challenges presented by parents, peers,
school, and the other complexities of the modern world
– Industry: Want to know how things are made and how they work
• Encouragement to make, build, and work, increases industry.
– The view of these creations as “making mischief” or “making a mess” increases feelings of inferiority.
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The Development of Self-Understanding
• Continue to ask “who am I”?
• View less external/physical, more in terms of internal/psychological traits
• Self definitions: social characteristics.
• Social comparison—what they can do in comparison with others—becomes key
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What Are Self-Esteem and Self-Concept?
• Self-esteem - global evaluations of the self– AKA: self-worth or self-image
• Self-concept - domain-specific evaluations of the self
• Evaluations include:– academics, athletics, appearance, etc.
• Increasing self-esteem:– Identify the causes of low self-esteem– Identify domains of competence important to the self– Emotional support and social approval– Achievement
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The Influence of Friendships
• Friends are important because:• Information about the world
• Emotional support/Buffer stress
• Manage and control emotions
• Communication with others
• Foster intellectual growth
• Practice relationship skills
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Stages of Friendship
• Stages of childhood friendship:– 1. Basing friendship on other’s behavior.
• Age 4-7; friends are children who like you and with whom you share toys and activities.
– 2. Basing friendship on trust. • Age 8-10; focus on mutual trust.
– 3. Basing friendship on psychological closeness.
• Age 11-15; focus on intimacy and loyalty.
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Peer Statuses: High vs. Low
• High (popular, possibly controversial):• Tend to have greater access to resources (toys, books,
information, etc)• Interact with other high status students• More likely to form exclusive and desirable cliques • Tend to play with a greater number of children
• Low (rejected/neglected):• Tend to follow the lead of higher status children• More likely to play with younger or less popular children• Form friendships with other lower status children.
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Bullying: Characteristics of Victims
• About 160,000 children stay home each day because of bullies
• Loners
• Fairly passive
• Cry easily
• Lack social cues
• Have parents who are intrusive and demanding
• Boys with intensely close relationships with their parents
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Characteristics of Bullies• About 15% of children• Half come from abusive homes• Prefer violent TV• Misbehave at home more than other children• When caught—lie and show little remorse• More likely to break laws as adults
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Developmental Changes• More able to understand complex emotions
– pride and shame
• One situation more than one emotion
• Tend to take a fuller context of emotional reactions
• Improved suppression/concealment of negative emotions
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Emotional Intelligence• Type of social intelligence that involves:
– ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions,
– discriminate among them, – use this information to guide one’s thinking and action.
• Goleman’s view of emotional intelligence involves:– Developing Emotional Self-Awareness– Managing Emotions– Reading Emotions– Handling Relationships
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The Transition to Elementary School
• New Role: School Child – New interactions and relationships with new significant
others
– New reference groups
– New standards for judging themselves.
• School provides children with a rich source of new ideas to shape their sense of self.
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The Education of Students from Low Socioeconomic
Backgrounds• Poverty can present barriers to learning
• Schools in impoverished areas have fewer resources
• Emphasize rote learning over thinking skills
• Sub-standard learning environments
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Ethnicity in Schools• Ethnicity in schools can vary considerably
• School segregation by location
• Issues of:– Inferior educational opportunities
– Low expectations
– Negative stereotypes
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Strategies for Improving Relations Between Ethnically Diverse Students
• Encourage positive contact with diverse students
• Encourage perspective taking
• Encourage critical thinking emotional intelligence
• Reduce bias
• View the school and community as a team to help support teaching efforts
• Be a competent cultural mediator