QUANTUM COMUPTING: Evolution and Potential In

Information SecurityCompiled by: Aar Cee

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Quantum computing studies theoretical computation systems (quantum computers) that make direct use of quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data…..Wiki

QUANTUM COMPUTING : BASICS

Quantum entanglement is a physical phenomenon that occurs when pairs or groups of particles are generated or interact in ways such that the quantum state of

each particle cannot be described independently of the others, even when the particles

are separated by a large distance – instead, a quantum state must be described for the system as a

whole

QUANTUM COMPUTING : BASICSQuantum superposition is a fundamental principle of quantum mechanics. It states that, much like waves in classical physics, any two (or more) quantum states can be added together ("superposed") and the result will be another valid quantum state; and conversely, that every quantum state can be represented as a sum of two or more other distinct states.

QUANTUM COMPUTER: QUBITA single qubit can represent a one, a zero, or any quantum superposition of those two qubit states;

A pair of qubits can be in any quantum superposition of 4 states, and three qubits in any superposition of 8 states. In general, a quantum computer with n qubits can be in an arbitrary superposition of up to 2^n different states simultaneously .An example of an implementation of qubits of a quantum computer could start with the use of particles with two spin states:"down" and "up“

QUBIT STATE:BLOCH SPHERE

•The possible states for a single qubit can be visualized using a Bloch sphere .

•Pure qubit state can be represented by any point on the surface, the pure qubit state would lie on the equator of the sphere, on the positive y axis.

•The surface of the sphere, two-dimensional space, represents the state space of the pure qubit states. This state space has two local degrees of freedom.

•It is possible to put the qubit in a mixed state, a statistical combination of different pure states. Mixed states can be represented by points inside the Bloch sphere. A mixed qubit state has three degrees of freedom: the angles as well as the length r of the vector that represents the mixed state.

QUANTUM COMPUTING : OPERATIONSA quantum logic gate can operate on a qubitStandard basis measurement is an operation in which information is gained about the state of the qubit. Note that a measurement of a qubit state entangled with another quantum system transforms a pure state into a mixed state. Quantum logic gates are represented by unitary matrices. • The most common quantum gates operate on spaces of one or

two qubits, just like the common classical logic gates operate on one or two bits. This means that as matrices, quantum gates can be described by 2 × 2 or 4 × 4 unitary matrices.

QUANTUM COMPUTING : OPERATIONS

Hadamard gate

Pauli-X gate (= NOT gate)

Toffoli gate

Universal gate any operation possible on a quantum computer can be reduced, a finite sequence of gates from the set.

A 3-bit gate, which is universal for classical computation. The quantum Toffoli gate is the same gate, defined for 3 qubits. If the first two bits are in the state it applies a Pauli-X on the third bit, else it does nothing.

Single Bit gate, It equates to a rotation of the Bloch Sphere around the X-axis by π radians.

The Hadamard gate acts on a single qubit, and maps a measurement

will have equal probabilities to become 1 or 0.

QUANTUM COMPUTING: QUBIT STORAGERegister• A number of qubits taken together is a qubit register.

Quantum computers perform calculations by manipulating qubits within a register. A qubyte (quantum byte) is a collection of eight qubits.Qubit storage

• Recently, a modification of similar systems (using charged rather than neutral donors) has dramatically extended this time, to 3 hours at very low temperatures and 39 minutes at room temperature. Room temperature preparation of a Qbit based on electron spins instead of nuclear spin was also demonstrated by a team of scientist from Switzerland and Australia.

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTIONIdea and concept of quantum computing was Introduced way back in 1970s and 1980s, by Richard Feynmann, David Deutsch and Paul Benioff.

First breakthrough of the concept was reported in 1994 in Peter Shor ’s factoring algorithm, followed by Lov Grover, searching algorithm in 1996.

Isaac L. Chuang, developed the world’s first 2-qubit, 3-qubit, 5-qubit and 7-qubit quantum computer in 1996–2000

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION(EARLY2000S)2001

• First execution of Shor's algorithm. The number 15 was factored using 10 identical molecules, each containing seven active nuclear spins.

• Noah Linden and Sandu Popescu proved that the presence of entanglement is a necessary condition.

• Emanuel Knill, Raymond Laflamme, and Gerard Milburn show that optical quantum computing is possible with single photon sources, linear optical elements, and single photon detectors’.

2003• DARPA Quantum Network becomes fully operational on October 23, 2003.

2004

• First working pure state NMR quantum computer (based on parahydrogen) demonstrated at Oxford University and University of York.

• First five-photon entanglement demonstrated by Jian-Wei Pan's group at the University of Science and Technology of China, the minimal number of qubits required for universal quantum error correction

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2006• First 12 qubit quantum computer benchmarked by researchers at

Waterloo, as well as MIT, Cambridge.• Two dimensional ion trap developed for quantum computing.• Seven atoms placed in stable line, a step on the way to

constructing a quantum gate, at the University of Bonn.• A team at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands

created a device that can manipulate the "up" or "down" spin-states of electrons on quantum dots.

• University of Arkansas develops quantum dot molecules.• Spinning new theory on particle spin brings science closer to

quantum computing.• University of Copenhagen develops quantum teleportation

between photons and atoms.• University of Camerino scientists develop theory of macroscopic

object entanglement, which has implications for the development of quantum repeaters.

• Tai-Chang Chiang, at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, finds that quantum coherence can be maintained in mixed-material systems.

• Cristophe Boehme, University of Utah, demonstrates the feasibility of reading spin-data

• on a silicon-phosphorus quantum computer.

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2007• Six-photon one-way quantum computer is created in lab• New material proposed for quantum computing.• Successful demonstration of controllably coupled qubits.• Breakthrough in applying spin-based electronics to silicon.• Scientists demonstrate quantum state exchange between light

and matter.• Diamond quantum register developed.• Controlled-NOT quantum gates on a pair of superconducting

quantum bits realized.• Scientists contain, study hundreds of individual atoms in 3D

array.• Large number of electrons quantum coupled.• Spin-orbit interaction of electrons measured.• Quantum RAM blueprint unveiled.• Model of quantum transistor developed.

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2007• Long distance entanglement demonstrated.• Quantum bus developed by two independent labs.• Superconducting quantum cable developed.• Transmission of qubits demonstrated.• Superior qubit material devised.• Single electron qubit memory.• Bose-Einstein condensate quantum memory developed.• D-Wave Systems claims to have a working 28-qubit

quantum computer, • New cryonic method reduces decoherence and increases

interaction distance, and thus quantum computing speed.

• Photonic quantum computer demonstrated.• Graphene quantum dot spin qubits proposed

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2008

• Quantum bit stored• 3D qubit-qutrit entanglement demonstrated• Analog quantum computing devised• Control of quantum tunneling• Entangled memory developed• Qutrits developed• Quantum logic gate in optical fiber• Superconducting electronic circuit pumps microwave photons• Optical frequency comb devised• Quantum Darwinism supported• Hybrid qubit memory developed• Qubit stored for over 1 second in atomic nucleus• Faster electron spin qubit switching and reading developed]

• Possible non-entanglement quantum computing• D-Wave Systems claims to have produced a 128 qubit computer chip

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2009

• Carbon 12 purified for longer coherence times • Lifetime of qubits extended to hundreds of milliseconds • Quantum entanglement demonstrated over 240 micrometres • Qubit lifetime extended by factor of 1000 • First electronic quantum processor created • Single molecule optical transistor • NIST reads, writes individual qubits • NIST demonstrates multiple computing operations on qubits • Researchers at University of Bristol demonstrate Shor's algorithm

on a silicon photonic chip • Scalable flux qubit demonstrated • Quantum algorithm developed for differential equation systems • First universal programmable quantum computer unveiled • Scientists electrically control quantum states of electrons • Google collaborates with D-Wave Systems on image search

technology using quantum computing

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2010• Optical quantum computer with three qubits calculated

the energy spectrum of molecular hydrogen to high precision

• First germanium laser brings us closer to 'optical computers'

• Single electron qubit developed• Quantum state in macroscopic object• New quantum computer cooling method developed• Racetrack ion trap developed• Quantum interface between a single photon and a single

atom demonstrated• LED quantum entanglement demonstrated• Two photon optical chip• Qubits manipulated electrically, not magnetically

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2011• Quantum antenna• Multimode quantum interference• Magnetic Resonance applied to quantum computing• Quantum pen• 14 qubit register• D-Wave claims to have developed a product called D-Wave One,

the first commercially available quantum computer• Repetitive error correction demonstrated in a quantum processor• Diamond quantum computer memory demonstrated• Decoherence suppressed• Simplification of controlled operations• Ions entangled using microwaves• Practical error rates achieved

QUANTUM COMPUTING: EVOLUTION2012• D-Wave claims a quantum computation using 84 qubits. • Physicists create a working transistor from a single atom • A method for manipulating the charge of nitrogen vacancy-centres in

diamond • Reported creation of a 300 qubit/particle quantum simulator. • Demonstration of topologically protected qubits with an eight-photon

entanglement, a robust approach to practical quantum computing • 1QB Information Technologies (1QBit) founded. World's first dedicated

quantum computing software company. • Decoherence suppressed for 2 seconds at room temperature by

manipulating Carbon-13 atoms with lasers. 2013• Coherent superposition of an ensemble of approximately 3 billion

qubits for 39 minutes at room temperature, and 3 hours at cryogenic temperatures.

QUANTUM COMPUTING : ALMOST THERE?2014

• Documents leaked by Edward Snowden confirm the Penetrating Hard Targets project, by which the National Security Agency seeks to develop a quantum computing capability for cryptography purposes.

• Scientists transfer data by quantum teleportation over a distance of 10 feet (3.048 meters) with zero percent error rate, a vital step towards a quantum Internet.

• Nike Dattani & Nathan Bryans break the record for largest number factored on a quantum device 56153 (previous record was 143).

2015• Optically addressable nuclear spins in a solid with a six-hour coherence

time.• Quantum information encoded by simple electrical pulses.• Quantum error detection code using a square lattice of four

superconducting qubits.• D-Wave Systems Inc., the world's first quantum computing company,

announced on 22 June that it had broken the 1000 qubit barrier.• Two qubit silicon logic gate developed.

2016• Google, using an array of 9 superconducting qubits developed by the

Martinis group and UCSB, accurately simulates a hydrogen molecule.

QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY: PRIMARY FOCUS

Integer factorization, This

ability would allow a quantum computer to decrypt many of the cryptographic

systems in use today, in the sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the number of

digits of the integer) algorithm for

solving the problem.(Shors Algorithm)

In particular the RSA, Diffie-Hellman,

and Elliptic curve Diffie-Hellman

algorithms could be broken. Breaking these would have

significant ramifications for

electronic privacy and security.

An example of this is a password cracker that attempts to guess the password for an encrypted file (assuming that the password has a maximum possible length).

For problems with all four properties, the time for a quantum computer to solve this will be proportional to the square root of the number of inputs. It can be used to attack symmetric ciphers such as Triple DES and AES by attempting to guess the secret key.

Consider a problem that has these four properties:

The only way to solve it is to

guess answers repeatedly and

check them,

The number of possible answers to check is the same as the number of

inputs,

Every possible answer takes the same amount of time to check,

and

There are no clues about

which answers might be better:

generating possibilities

randomly is just as good as

checking them in some special

order.

DIFFICULTIES WITH QUANTUM COMPUTERS Interference – During the computation phase of a quantum calculation, the slightest disturbance in a quantum system (say a stray photon or wave of EM radiation) causes the quantum computation to collapse, a process known as de-coherence. A quantum computer must be totally isolated from all external interference during the computation phase.

Error correction – Given the nature of quantum computing, error correction is ultra critical – even a single error in a calculation can cause the validity of the entire computation to collapse.

Output observance – Closely related to the above two, retrieving output data after a quantum calculation is complete, risks corrupting the data.

INFORMATION SECURITY Reduced Sizes? Green Revolution Enormous Raw Material

Quantum CryptographyRobust and secure Codes.Faster Bitcoin mining!!!Secure and robust networks.

Processing Power!!!FactorisationEncryption endangeredTeleportation

Nano technologyRobotics AIQuantum Communication

! 1. Safer airplanes—Lockheed Martin plans to use its D-Wave to test jet software that is currently too complex for classical computers.

2. Discover distant planets—Quantum computers will be able to analyze the vast amount of data collected by telescopes and seek out Earth-like planets.

3. Win elections—Campaigners will comb through reams of marketing information to best exploit individual voter preferences.

4. Boost GDP—Hyper-personalized advertising, based on quantum computation, will stimulate consumer spending.

5. Detect cancer earlier—Computational models will help determine how diseases develop.

6. Help automobiles drive themselves—Google is using a quantum computer to design software that can distinguish cars from landmarks.

7. Reduce weather-related deaths—Precision forecasting will give people more time to take cover.

8. Cut back on travel time—Sophisticated analysis of traffic patterns in the air and on the ground will forestall bottlenecks and snarls.

9. Develop more effective drugs—By mapping amino acids,for example, or analyzing DNA-sequencing data, doctors will discover and design superior drug-based treatments.

STAKEHOLDERS

CHINAEntangled photons - tiny sub-atomic particles of light whose properties are dependent on each other - beaming one half of each pair down to base stations in China and Austria.This special kind of laser has several curious properties, one of which is known as "the observer effect" - its quantum state cannot be observed without changing it.So, if the satellite were to encode an encryption key in that quantum state, any interception would be obvious. It would also change the key, making it useless.If it works, it will solve the central problem of encrypted communications - how to distribute keys without interception - promising hack-proof communications. The encrypted message itself can be transmitted normally after the key exchange.

16 August 2016

AUSTRALIA

THE US OF A

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