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MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
AND PROCESSESS
What is Management?
One way of looking at management is
through people who compose the organization. In
this manner, it may be considered as the people
responsible for the actions in the organization.
Management is the planning, deciding, or exercising
of control and supervision on some functions of the
organization.
Management process is working with the
people. The people are organized in formal groups to
achieve desired goals necessary to maximize the
utilization of the available resources of the
organizations. On the whole, it requires the manager to
be systematic in undertaking his managerial functions
and exercising his organizational authority. Hence, he
should be primarily concerned with the management
process, represented by the symbol POSDCORB
(planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-ordinating,
reporting and budgeting)as recommended by Luther
Gulick, an American management consultant.
Management Processes
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Directing
Controlling
The leader, manager or administrator plays an
important role in planning, organizing, staffing, directing
and controlling. He concerns himself with the social and
individual needs of working group; how the member
relates to one another in an organizational context. Loyalty
to the organization and commitment to its goals are
generally by products of effective management and
leaderships, whether good services marketed by public
enterprises or services performed and delivered to
communities by units of government not measurable in
monetary terms.
Leaderships and Human Motivation
Leadership is subject that has aroused
the interest of scholars and laymen as well.
Ralph M. Stogdill, in his researches on
leadership theories, points out that there can
be as many definitions as there are people
wanting to define the concept. (1)
Leadership can be regarded as an influence
process, since a leader may be called upon to
live a life demonstrating fullness of what he
believes in, thus making him a good example
for followers.
(2) Leaderships occurs when one person
influence another and convinces him to
do a thing to achieve something.
Influence may range from persuasion to
the use of coercion to get things done.
The ability to structure social interaction
systems and accomplish what is proposed
to be achieved creates personality
dynamics needed by one seeking
leadership responsibilities.
(3) Leader is expected to perform certain composite
activities like motivating, assisting them in
identifying their goals, setting the principles for
managing and supervising them, and developing their
awareness of the consequences of behavior.
Leaderships, in its ideal sense, should be
voluntarily and freely accepted in recognition of
one’s moral right to lead, complemented by his
knowledge and capability to direct and guide others.
Theories of Leadership and Leadership Behavior
Trait Theory
Behavioral Theory
Contingency Theory
There are two well-known situational theories
of leaderships:
Fiedler’s contingency theory: Three situational determinants of power and influences of
leaders.
First, is a leader-subordinates relation. When a leader is desired, respected
and trusted and is able to elicit loyalty and commitment from subordinates, that leader is
invested with influence and power.
Second, is the structuring of tasks. When assignments are well-structured and
spelled out clearly, the leader becomes more influential to his subordinates than when tasks
to be performed are vaguely stated and poorly structured.
Third, is power position. This refers to the ability of the leader to make
subordinates comply with and accept directions and orders, when a leader can fire and
discipline subordinates, we say he has power and influence over them arising from the
position he holds
b. House path-goal approach
Robert House proposed this situational approach
theory of leaderships because he believes that the main
functions of leaders are to set goals and direct the path of
subordinates to these goals. In uncertain and fluid situations,
the task oriented and autocratic style of leaderships is
preferred.
Leadership behavior is affected by three factors:
a. Value orientation of the manager or leader
b. Value orientation of the subordinates
c. Situational factors
Qualifying Leaders
a. Possession of ascriptive qualities
b. Popular choice
c. Appointment
d. Force
Decision Making and Policy
Decision-Making is deciding what should be done and how it should be done
brings problems to managers. According to Robert Tannenbaum, decision-making involves
conscious choice of one behavioral alternative from number of behavioral alternatives. It is
concerned with policy issues; to decide an issue involves subjective judgment and individual
preference.
Two personalities are involved in decision-making in an organization: the
private personality of the individual decision-maker and the personality of the organization
of which he is a member or an officer. Deciding for an organization cannot be a personal
responsibility until officially assigned. Personal decisions cannot be delegated. Whoever
exercises the authority to decide, articulates his private personality in the decision
alternative he has chosen. Yet the decision therefore results in authoritative communication
to different persons at different levels of the organizational hierarchy or outside of the
organization itself depending upon who are intended to be affected by it, positively or
negatively.
Nature of the Decision Environment
The type of decision and the conditions for decision-making change
from time to time. There are occasions when a decision has to be done by high
level executive; in like manner, there are those which are done at the non-
executive level. Generally, top executives make decision relating to ends and
objectives.
Planning as Decision-Making
Planning refers to be construction of program, formula or alternative
model to be used as basis for a course of action or decision. Its essence is
prognosis or forecasting, whether short-term or long-term. A plan is a tentative
schedule with target dates of completion, which when implemented, lessens
doubt and uncertainty. A plan should consider clientele needs and demands as
well as observed priorities.
Planning by the government generally includes
the following:
a. Identification of people’s desires and needs
b. Determination of national development
thrusts
c. Programming and program implementation
d. Program review and evaluation
Options and Constraints in Decision-Making
Institutional and Policy Decisions
Effective policy is an outcome of strategic interactions more than individual
choices. While institutions influence policy and decision-making, these cannot fully
determine policy choices. As a matter of fact the institutions define a set of constraints
which limit feasible choices. Choice may be opted for by political actors using their norms
and egoistic interests as criteria. Differences in situational constraint explain differences in
policy choices. Choice of goals by a political scientist differs from that of an economist. The
former may have a structuralist interest and the latter may be client-oriented.
Institutions set rules which limit interaction of participants in the policy process.
Yet similar institutions work differently societies at different time. These are situational
variables which can go beyond the control of the decision-maker. On the other hand, similar
policy choices may be produced under dissimilar institutional arrangement.
Theodore C. Sorensen cited five “outer limits” of presidential decision-making in the
United States.
a. Permissibility- this includes constitutional and statutory provisions which set the
parameters of the legally allowable; constraints arising out the reactions of
constituencies and foreign government.
b. Available resources like manpower, financial viability and material assets at the
disposal of the executive.
c. Previous commitments like obligations arising from treaties and other agreement;
programs stated by predecessors but need to be completed; presidential
proclamations’; commitments broadcast in the state of the nation address;
commitments to party leaders who helped to deliver votes which spelled victory.
d. Available time- deadlines which undercut evaluation of on-going programs; crisis
situations which require immediate attention and action are two important things to
consider.
e. Available information whether quantitative; true or false, sufficient, to provide a firm
basis for decision.
Decision-Making Style
At the top executive level, decision-making goes beyond
internal matters of the organization. The decision-maker should
understand that there are other inputs to his role, like political
leadership and the necessary skills that can be employed within the
political system itself and the social system as a whole.
Philip Selznick suggests four things vital to decision
making. There is need to know (a) the institutional mission which
refers to the setting of goals, (b) embodiment of purpose of the
organization which relates to the capability to build policy into the
social structure of the organization, (c) defense of the integrity of the
institutions – its values and identity included, (d) ability to resolve
internal conflicts in the organization.
What is Policy?
A policy is a choice of a course of action, actual or perceived. It is more
comprehensive that decisions because it provides the framework within which particular and
specific decisions are made. In certain ways, it is an aggregation of particular decisions, a
cumulative result of incremental choices of action. It may refer to a program of goal values
and the accompanying practices that help attain the goal values.
Public policy is a composite of decisions that government makes and programs it
embarks upon or implements to achieve goals. As a definite course of action taken from
among a number of alternatives, the choices consider situational factors and organizational
givens. There is always a purposive rationale for a policy and in the process of
implementation it may have to look into certain environmental constraints and utilize
opportunities that are offered to achieve what it hopes to accomplish. The making of policy is
never solely based upon one specific context or framework.
Levels of Policy Making
A study of the activities of government disclosed four
levels of policy
a. Political policy- is also known as general policy
b. Executive policy- is the policy of the executive branch which is
based upon the general policy
c. Administrative policy- refers to the forms by which the
department secretary or board chairperson carries out policy.
d. Operational policy- refers to the day-to-day policy adopted to
work out administrative policy previously decided upon.
Techniques for implementing and the degree of discretion that
can be delegated are matters of concern at this level.
Evaluation and Control
Evaluation and control are integral components of the managerial function for
three reasons:
a. Both enable policy-makers to address the problems of resource allocation
and help in prioritizing objectives and choosing methods for achieving
the.
b. The evaluation findings may be used as basis for justifying on-going
projects and programs.
c. Results of programs review and audit help pinpoint responsibility for
success or failure; determine whether the program should be sustained or
discontinued; whether activities should be curtailed or expanded; whether
those who implement should be retained or replaced.
Control
Control as a basic function in managing an
enterprise is concerned with the task of seeing to it that
what is performed is kept within prescribed management
channels to achieve organization objectives and desired
results. It involves the setting up of targets, adoption of
criteria to measure performance and implementation of
corrective measures needed. When a program is being
implemented, deviations and changes may be found
necessary and this requires a control system. This
explains the close linkage of planning with controlling.
Why the Need to Control?
Control implies organizing tasks in a way that those
who will perform the function will do so efficiently and
well. Positions with their corresponding duties and
responsibilities are filled by men and as resource base of
an organization, individual psychological orientations,
abilities and skills, motivations and human limitations
have to be considered. As members of a working team,
mean are expected to subordinate individual personality to
the personality of the organization.
Control Process
A control system normally includes the
following:
a. Establishing a standard based upon the plan
b. Measuring work accomplished, on-going or in
progress
c. Taking corrective action
Evaluation
This is a process of assessing results, output per
manpower expended, quality and quantity of product
produced, impact and effectiveness of a program, and
managerial efficiency. Interest evaluation developed as a
result increase in public spending for governmental
service programs like health and sanitation, education,
shelter, infrastructure, peace and order, crime prevention
and detection, and human resource development.
Two Kinds of Evaluation: (a) performance evaluation and (b)
program evaluation
O Performance Evaluation
Appraisal of performance focuses on the individual
employees. Results of the appraisal are used for making decisions on
such matters like compensation upgrading, promotions, transfer and
other employee fringe benefits.
Instruments currently used for employee evaluation are the
following:
(a) Graphic rating scale
(b) Alternation ranking method
(c) Forced distribution method
Who Should Evaluate?
There are four potential raters of performance – (a) immediate
supervisor or unit head, (b) peer, (c) committee or board, (d) self.
O Program Evaluation
Evaluation of program seeks to determine the extent to
which the program achievers goals. It looks into the total program,
unlike MBO (management by objectives) which is more interested in
how managers implement the program. The degree of actual
realization and fulfillment of objectives, which takes into
consideration cost and resources used, I termed effectiveness. The
relationship between what is accomplished and the expense the
accomplishment entails is termed efficiency, which referred to
output-input relationship.
Orville F. Poland suggests two efficiency
measures – (a) cost-benefit which tags a
monetary value to program outcomes and (b)
cost effectiveness which employs more
qualitative standards of efficiency.
Two variants of evaluation for efficiency:
a. Program monitoring
b. Discrepancy evaluation
Evaluation Problems
Evaluation of a program or of performance has both
built-in problems and those arising in the process of
implementation. There is a tendency at stating objectives
in general rather than specific terms. Because there are
many program implementers at different levels of the
objectives/ differences in geographic setting make for
variations of programs.
Program with multiple goals present more difficulties
in the construction of an evaluation criteria, output
indices and efficiency and productivity standards.
Program Evaluation in the Philippines
In the Philippines, development is perceived primarily as socio-
economic growth. Development efforts however, have not moved forward
as expected because of certain shortcomings. For funds for pre-investment
researchers are limited, resulting in ill prepared projects without benefit of
in-depth studies. The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA)
is the entity responsible for preparing development plans which serve as
basis for fund allocations and budgetary outlays. Philippine development
planners distinguish a project from program. A program is broader in
scope while project is smaller separable operation component of a
program which is planned, financed and implemented separately but in
conjunction with the master plan or program like the Medium Term
Program of our government.
Based on relationship with other projects, these
may be;
a. Independent project
b. Mutually project
c. Complementary project
Project development is a cycle of activity with
three general phases:
a. Pre-investment Phase
b. Implementation Phase
c. Post Investment Phase
Administrative Communication
Communication is an integral element of anorganization. Through the communication process, aperson makes known his ideas and feelings to others. Morethan transmission of information, the person to whom theinformation is transmitted needs to understand themeaning of what is being transmitted; otherwise nocommunication has taken place. It is a two-way flow ofinstruction and information --- instruction when thecommunication comes from the top and goes to thebottom; information when it comes from below and goesto the higher levels of the organization pyramid. Themembers of an organization must understand that theyhave responsibility to communicate. Such could be aninterpersonal communication done on a person to personbasis; it could also be an organizational communication ona unit to unit basis where the information movesthroughout the different hierarchical levels.
Communication enhances coordination,
improves working relationships and facilitates
the integration of the inputs of the different
component units of an organization. Policy
decisions must be communicated to those levels
where these are to be implemented. How the
policies are implemented must be made known
to those who formulate them. Since
communication is an interactive process, the
forms and patterns of communicating should be
studied carefully in order to know effects and
consequences.
Directional Types of Communication
Based on directional flow, communication
may be of three types:
a. Downward
b. Upward
c. Lateral or Horizontal
Communication Barriers
Barriers to effective directional types of communication may
arise because of physical distance. Generally, service functions of
government require the setting up of field units resulting in
supervision by remote control through functional decentralization.
With big organizations, the more the supervisory chain links, the ore
remote supervision becomes. Information could be diluted and
distorted because of the filtering process at each level. Supervisor
can shut off upward communication if they have no interest in the
problems of those at the lower levels. Subordinates may hesitate
sending information upward thinking this could be an intrusion into
management prerogative.
Components of a Communication System
A good communication system should have the following:
1. Communicator
He could be the sender of the information; the speaker in a
seminar or symposium of the petitioner in a complaint.
2. Something to be communicated
This could be an order, a rule or regulation, a circular or
memorandum, a letter, a report or a suggestion.
3.Transmission procedure
It could be direct oral transmission, by mail, telegram,
messenger or special courter.
4. Recipient
The recipient could be individual, members of a work
unity like a section, division or bureau, or all the members
of the organization.
5. Desired response
The response could be turning in a report, compliance
with an order or directive, performance of function,
rectification of an error, or completion of deficiency.
Generally there are deadlines for working out or
submitting the responses.
Communicating with the Clientele
A public service-oriented organization communicates with it clientele in a
more manifest way by undertaking programs and projects for the clientele
community. Because there are multiple publics in a society with varying demands,
desires and expectations from government, maintaining positive public relations
image is difficult because budgetary appropriations generally fall short of what the
administrative agency hopes to do for them.
The image of an organization in the eyes of the public depends largely upon
its relations program. A public relations is an important management tool. The
man must be knowledgeable about the policies of his organization. His familiarity
with the thinking of management and its staff will help him interpret policies to
the different publics and win the sympathy and confidence of a society to its sides.
More than informing the public what it does, the communication should convince
them of the need to act or do something about the information conveyed to them.
Control through Communication
Control may be viewed in terms of production
standards by comparing actual individual or team
performance with expected or planned performance. It
may also view as a device for coordinating manpower
inputs toward the accomplishment of objectives. Goal
realization is the primary group performance is to the
first view.
Kinds of Control
Control may be exercised by the following:
1. Society
2. Management
Controlling operations and activities, especially of
government agencies, require project and production planning.
Without planning, an activity becomes wayward and uncoordinated.
Inventory control is an indispensable requirement for material and
equipment accountability. Quality control is crucial to make sure
that the specifications requirements are followed. Target dates for
completion of projects require strict enforcement. Without these
control mechanisms there will be undue delay in accomplishing
projects, tremendous waste of money, poor quality of materials
used, substandard structures and civil works constructed and
prolonged inconvenience to the general public.