The Social Shaping of European Digital Radio

THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF EUROPEAN DIGITAL RADIO

Master Thesis Project (M.Sc.) in Media Management School for Computer Science and Communication

Royal Institute of TechnologyStockholm, Sweden

Matteo Campostrini

Supervisor : Prof. Nina WormbsExaminer: Prof. Haibo Li

WHY?

Radio Broadcasting

a hundred years

and still young!

Radio Broadcasting

free at the point of use

equality and democracy

RESEARCHQUESTIONS

RESEARCH QUESTIONSMain research question:

What are the affordances of digital radio standards in Europe in 2015,

exemplified by DAB/DAB+, DRM and IP/Internet?

Sub-questions:

What implementation and development lines have been negotiated in Europe?

What discourses around the different standards can be discerned?

THEORETICALFRAMEWORK

THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF TECHNOLOGY

• Technologies are socially and historically contingent in their implementation and design

• Technologies are determined among the possible technical options as a result of a selection process, which does not entails purely technical factors, but social considerations influence the content of technologies.

• Technology does not emerge from the influence of a single dominant logic or determinant, but its development trajectories are manifold, leading to potentially different outcomes.

• In their diversity the final technologies have different implications for society and more importantly for different social groups belonging to it.

–Williams, R. and Edge, D. (1996).

“Technology does not develop according to an inner technical logic, but is instead a social product, patterned

by the conditions of its creation and use”


shape the technology towards their ends

bargaining power

faceted set of possible outcomes

Negotiability


achievement of a consensus by

different groups

increasingstabilization

different closuretypes

Closure

SCOTTHE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY

Interpretative Flexibility

“points in whichambiguities are present”

different paralleldevelopment trajectories

“Why some technical options prevailed overthe others?”

SCOTTHE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TECHNOLOGY

“Outwards analysis”:From the technology to

the selection environment

The aim is to relate the content and interpretations of a technology to a complex

socio-economic and political context

THE CONCEPT OF AFFORDANCES

• Affordances are links between perception and action upon attributes of an artefact

• Affordances are subordinated to their perception

• Affordances are perceived differently according to culture, social environment, experiences, expectations and intentions of the perceiver

AN EXAMPLE OF

AFFORDANCES

“Affordances point to the interaction between object and actor, hence they refer both to the object’s and actor’s attributes”

HORIZONTAL PLATE

HANDLESafford pushing

VERTICAL BAR

HANDLESafford pulling

SCOT AS METHODOLOGY1. Selection of the competing technologies

2. Selection of the social groups for which there is a relevant “problem” or contingent issue

3. Selection of sub-groups with specific requirements

4. Examination of the conflicting technical requirements, conflicting solutions and other conflicts highlighting interpretative flexibility

5. Examination of the stabilization process: arguments brought by different social groups in support of their solutions

6. Examination of solutions that achieve closure.

ANALYSIS

SOCIALGROUPS

SOCIAL GROUPSENGAGED IN THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF

DIGITAL RADIO

Broadcasters

ElectronicsManufacturers Digital Radio

Industry

Regulators Public

SOCIAL GROUPSENGAGED IN THE SOCIAL SHAPING OF

DIGITAL RADIO

Independent Broadcasters

Broadcasters

Commercial Broadcasters

Public Service Broadcasters

ElectronicsManufacturers Digital Radio

Industry

Regulators Public

COMPETINGTECHNOLOGIES

DAB/DAB+• Created by EBU members, PSBs and Electronics Manufacturers (Bosch, Siemens,

Telefunken, Philips, Thomson etc.)

• Created to afford nation-wide coverage, low local flexibility

• Spectrum efficient and higher audio quality thanks to multiplex channelization

• Multiplex: 16 channels in 1536kHz bandwidth

• Single Frequency Network (SFN)

• Multimedia

• Conditional Access

• Operates in VHF band III and UHF L-band

DRM• Created by commercial broadcasters to specifically digitalize bands below 30MHz (AM)

• Created to afford both large nation-wide areas coverage and local flexibility

• Spectrum efficient and higher audio quality thanks to multiplex channelization

• Mini-Multiplex: 1-3 channels in 96kHz

• Single Frequency Network (SFN)

• Multimedia

• Conditional Access

• Reuses part of existing analogue transmission facilities

• DRM (with DRM+) covers the whole radio spectrum

RADIO VIA IP• Webcasting, Podcasting, Audio Streaming Services

• Convergence

• On-Demand

• Global distribution for every station

• Broadens (and sometimes confuses) the traditional idea of radio

***Used to benchmark the state of art of digital radio standards***

INTERPRETATIVEFLEXIBILITY

ANALYSIS OF 5 COUNTRIES

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:DISCOURSES AROUND DIGITAL RADIO

AFFORDANCES

HigherSpectrumEfficiency

Affordance:

HigherAudioQuality

AdditionalRadio

Channels

InterpretativeFlexibility:

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:HIGHER AUDIO QUALITY

EveryGroup

“Increased value for the listener”

“The economics of DAB/DAB+

are related to the number of channels available”

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:MORE AVAILABLE CHANNELS

CommercialBroadcasters

“Increased ROI”

“More channels meansmore diversity”

IndependentBroadcasters

“No means and interest to expand their output.

No regulation about diversity.”

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:CONDITIONAL ACCESS

CommercialBroadcasters

“New Revenue Streams”IndependentBroadcasters

“Community Broadcasters are not for profit.

It disrupts the typical free-to-air

radio transmission.”


AFFORDANCES

Other arguments:

• Requires to invest in completely new machinery

• Licenses mandate to fill 1536kHz or share the multiplex with other broadcasters

• Designed for nation wide areas: low local flexibility.


AFFORDANCES

Closure:

• Free analog licenses renewal

• Free digital licenses

• Government contribution (33%) to digital licenses

• Switchover mandated by the government (2017)


AFFORDANCES

Closure:

• Independent Broadcasters engaged by implementing “digital islands” through a low cost DAB+ software solution (Digris AG)

• Independent Broadcasters engaged “must-carry” agreement between RAI and Aeranti-Corallo (local and community broadcasters association)

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:FLEXIBILITY & FULL SPECTRUM

OPERATION

IndependentBroadcasters

“Better local coverageNo need to share facilitiesNeed to only fill 96 kHz

1-3 channels”

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:FLEXIBILITY & FULL SPECTRUM

OPERATION

ElectronicsManufacturers

“Potential global market(different channelisations,

frequency band allocation)”

INTERPRETATIVE FLEXIBILITY:REUSE PART OF

ANALOG MACHINERY

RadioIndustry

“Lower ProfitMargins”Independent

Broadcasters

“More AffordableInvestment”


AFFORDANCES

Other arguments:

• Still in testing and evaluation phase

• No infrastructure and political support

• Low market penetration (in Europe).

CONCLUSIONS

Affordances effectively set the limits for the political and economic goals of their use

CONCLUSIONS

Maintain existing industry structures by creating

new technological barriers

• Nation wide coverage design• Large multiplex bandwidth• High investments costs

CONCLUSIONS

The economic legitimisation

of a cultural industry

• Vertical integration• Cost-effective products• No guarantee of diversity

CONCLUSIONS

Legitimating complex decisions in terms of narrow technical concerns

The social shaping of digital radio affordances in Europe followed:

Technocratic Values

and the Marketplace Rules

“Economic” remains the determinant

DISCUSSION

APPENDIX

TIMELINE

1981 1987 1992 1993 1995 1996

1985 1988 1993 1994 1995 1997

EuropeanResearch ProjectStart

Eureka 147Project

Foundation

Eureka 147counts 19

Broadcasters and

ElectronicsManufacturers

First DABtrials in

Germany

Foundation of AER

(Association of European

Radios)

First public DAB

transmissions in UK

First IP-Radio“Internet

Talk Radio”

DABreceives ITUspecification

BBC buildsfirst fullyoperativeMultiplex

First generation

of streamingaudio players

Virgin FMLondon

FirstSimulcast Online

DABreceives

ETSIspecification

TIMELINE

1997 2001 2005 2006 2009 2012

1999 2003 2005 2006 2011 2015

DRM Foundation

in China

First DRMPresentation

at NAB

DRM counts 80 members in 30 countries

DRM recommended by CommunityMedia Forum

DAB+receives

ETSI & ITUspecification

DAB covers 20countries and 284Mlisteners

DRM+First

Presentation

DAB covers 40 countriesand 500Mlisteners

RRC06Frequency

Plan

DRM+receives

ETSIspecification

DigitalSwitchover

date forCEPT

DigitalSwitchover

date forRRC06

PRIMARY SOURCES• Technical specifications, Recommendations, Implementations guidelines [Ex: “Final draft ETSI ES 201 980

V4.1.1 (2013-11) - Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM); System Specification”].

• Legislations and Regulations [Ex: “St.meld. nr. 62 (1996-97) Kringkasting og dagspresse 1996 m.v.”]

• Licenses [Ex: “Ofcom Local Multiplex License (Fac-Simile)”]

• Reports and Strategy plans [Ex: “From FM to DAB+, Final Report of the Digital Migration Working Group”]

• Presentations [Ex: “Cornell, Lindsay. 'Unified Hybrid Radio'. 2015. Presentation.”]

• Press releases and Newspaper articles [Ex: “Sveriges Radio,. Cilla Benkö Comments On The Swedish Government’S Decision Regarding DAB. 2015.”]

• Websites [Ex: “Worlddab.org,. 'Current Situation | History -Sweden | Country Information | Worlddmb’.”]

• Consultations, White papers and Position papers [Ex: “Risposte alla Consultazione AGCOM per i Servizi Radiofonici (Delibera AGCOM n.665 del 23.11.06)”].

UNITED KINGDOM• Only country implementing DAB (not DAB+)

• DAB started by the BBC, subsequently joined by commercial broadcasters

• First public DAB transmissions in 1995

• 1990 Broadcasting Act shifts the license issue responsibility from Radio Authority Ofcom to the network operators

• Vertical integration: Media conglomerates can expand into network operation business

• DAB network planning replicates the analogue one

• Incentives were offered to broadcasters willing to take up DAB

• No regulation about audio quality / number of stations per multiplex

• Digital switchover currently set to 2020-2022.

• DAB+ started by commercial and independent broadcasters consortia

• First public DAB+ transmissions in 2007

• RAI signed an agreement for the must-carry obligation of local and community broadcasters transmissions from its facilities

• Very numerous local and community stations (4600 in FM)

• Regulation states the number of channels per multiplex must be between 5 and 12, and it sets limits for audio quality accordingly

• No single network operator: Every broadcaster consortium owns its facilities

• No digital switchover planned

ITALY

• DAB+ started by SRG SSR


• SRG SSR and some commercial broadcasters founded joint-ventures for the deployment of DAB+ networks in the German- and French-speaking regions

• Regulators allowed the implementations of digital islands, small-scale DAB+ networks for community and local stations

• Every broadcaster (even web-radios) is offered to join DAB+ with incentives on the licensing

• Regulation states that number of channels per multiplex and the limits for audio quality must be agreed with every actor in the industry

• Digital switchover currently set to 2020-2022.

SWITZERLAND

NORWAY• DAB+ started by NRK


• The only country which already set the digital switchover hard date to 2017

• Regulation states that where the capacity of a multiplex can not be filled by local stations, those willing to be transmitted by DAB+ must cover the full licensing fee

• NRK and the main commercial broadcasters founded a joint-venture with the ambition of becoming the organization issuing digital licenses in the future

• Norkring is the only network operator in the country

• Some 22 local stations were enforced to stop FM transmissions

• The only local licenses were awarded with no coverage requirements, no warranty over investment risks and the possibility of officialization after the trials.

• DAB+ started by Sveriges Radio


• Commercial broadcasters were involved only with the 2010 Radio & TV Act, which opened digital licenses for commercial broadcasters

• Regulation states that where the capacity of a multiplex can not be filled by local stations, those willing to be transmitted by DAB+ must cover the full licensing fee

• Regulation does not mandate any bitrate requirement, instead the minimal accommodation of services on the multiplex is 16 channels at 72kbps

• Teracom is the only network operator in the country

• In Sweden the experience of community närradio is well established and no solution in DAB+ was yet found for this sector.

• A digital switchover was formulated in cooperation with SR and the main commercial broadcasters for 2020. The National Audit criticized the plan and in 2015 the Ministry of Culture announced it was postponed.

SWEDEN

Matteo Campostrini

Thank you!

Leadership & Management

The Social Shaping of European Digital Radio