ARISTOTLE(384-322 BC)

Dr. Nagendra ShreeniwasAssistant ProfessorDR&CCL, University of Calicut

Aristotle•Greek Philosopher from the 4th Century

BC•Most brilliant student of Plato & teacher

of Alexander the Great•Contributed immensely in the fields of

metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, literary criticism, natural sciences etc.

•Credited with writing the first text on theory of drama – tragedy.

•Wrote his famous work on criticism – Poetics

Aristotle’s Poetics •Aristotle’s Poetics is not only the most

important critical work of classical antiquity, it is also perhaps the most influential work in the entire history of criticism.

•It marks the beginning of literary criticism ▫The beginning of critical analysis and ▫The discovery of principles by which

analysis can proceed•The Poetics is the best way to understand the

Greek art generally.

Aristotle’s Poetics… •At the core of Poetics there are two complex

notions: ▫Imitation & Action

•Poetry is essentially a mode of imitation (Like Plato)

•(Unlike Plato) Imitation is of positive significance; ▫it’s a basic human instinct; and ▫a pleasurable way to knowledge

•We learn through imitation & take pleasure in it.

•Humans have an instinct for harmony/rhythm

Two types of Lexis•Plato in Republic distinguishes between

▫Logos: What is said▫Lexis: the way of saying it

•Aristotle allows only two types of lexis:▫Diegesis: Narration where the poet speaks

in his own person or through a character▫Mimesis: Dramatic representation, where

the story is performed and acted out

History & PoetryHistory PoetryNarrates events that have actually happen

Portrays events such as might occur… in accordance with the laws of probability or necessity

Deals with particular / individuals

Expresses what is universal

Gives particular facts & events

Yields general truths

Contrast between poetry & history

• It is not the function of the poet to narrate events that have actually happen, but rather “events such as might occur… in accordance with the laws of probability or necessity”

•Poetry is more “philosophical” & “serious” than history because poetry expresses what is universal, while history merely deals with individuals

•Poetry yields general truths while history gives particular facts & events

•Poetry expresses the inner structure of probability or causality which shapes events and, as such, is universalizable and applicable to other sets of events.

Poetry is Imitation •All various modes of poetry & music are

imitations•These imitations can differ in 3 ways:

▫In the means used▫In the kind of objects represented and▫In the manner of presentation

“The essential characteristics of poetry is imitation, in which all human beings take pleasure”

(Poetics)

Imitation…

•Modes of Imitation differ in 3 ways: ▫Medium (means), object, structure

(manner)•MEDIUM: rhythm, language, harmony•OBJECT: Men in action are objects of

imitation•MANNER: narration/action

Poetry is imitation of human action •Art imitates human action

▫Action has a moral end or purpose

•Art imitates human action ▫But human action must have its ultimate

purpose “the Supreme God”•The actions imitated must be either noble

or base ▫Tragedy represents men as better than the

norm▫Comedy represents men as worse than the

norm

Poetic imitation… • Later in Poetics, Aristotle broadens his notion of

poetic imitation. • He says, that the poet must imitate in one of three

ways. He must imitate:▫Things that were,▫Things that are now or things that people say &

think to be, or▫Things which ought to be

• The poet should represent an ideal state of affairs • The poet should have an appeal to conventional

opinions.

“Truth is not beyond human nature” (Aristotle in Rhetoric)

Aristotle’s view on Tragedy•“Tragedy is, then, an imitation of an action

that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude – by means of language enriched with all kinds of ornament, each used separately in the different parts of the play: it represents men in action and does not use narrative, and through pity and fear it effects relief to these and similar emotions.”

(Poetics, VI.2-3)

Greek tragedy The word tragedy literally means "goat

song" probably referring to the practice of giving a

goat as a sacrifice or a prize at the religious festivals in honor of the god Dionysos.

Everyone knew the story The plays were performed by men wearing

masks. The plays told particular stories with a

universal application. The masks helped to universalize the

particular.

Masks used in Greek Tragedy

Structure of a tragedy• TRAGEDY is the “Imitation of an action

that is complete, whole and of a certain magnitude.”▫ unity of plot▫ express the universal [history expresses the

particular]▫ events inspiring fear and pity▫ reversal of the situation through

recognition [of persons]

Tragedy • The change of fortune.

▫ Through error or frailty rather than vice or depravity.

• Fear & Pity▫ Best done through structure of

the pieces rather than spectacle.

▫ What kind of circumstances?• Character

▫ Good character; propriety; true to life; consistency

Poetics: Five marks of Tragedy

Imitates an action Arouses pity and fear Displays the human image as such Ends in wonder Is inherently beautiful

Poetics: Six elements of Tragedy•Plot or representation of the action•Character•Diction•Thought•Melody or music•Spectacular presentation

Six elements of Tragedy…Categorized in terms of means, manner

and its objects of dramatic imitation:

1. PLOT [objects of dramatic imitation]2. CHARACTERS [objects of dramatic

imitation]3. DICTION [means]4. THOUGHT [objects of dramatic

imitation]5. MELODY [means]6. SPECTACLE [manner]

Plot•Plot is known as the “arrangement of the

incidents” •Aristotle asserted

▫plot is the “life and soul of the drama.”▫plot should take a linear form proceeding

from beginning to end.

PLOT…

Plot…• The plot must be an “imitation of an action

that is complete in itself, as a WHOLE of some magnitude”

• Unity of Plot: The plot must represent an action and form a complete whole with a beginning, middle and end▫ “Removal of one incident will destroy it, for

that which makes no perceptible difference by its presence or absence is no real part of the whole."

• The PLOT "must make a universal statement▫ Aristotle believed poetry was more important

than history because poetry states universals.

▫ The playwright should include incidents arousing pity and fear That are both unexpected and "in

consequence" of one another.• There are 3 elements of Plot

• Hamartia • Anagnorisis • Peripeteia

Plot…

3 key elements of plot•Hamartia: Sin or fault •Anagnorisis (Recognition): recognition or

realization of the fault/ sin▫A change from ignorance to knowledge,

producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune.

•Peripeteia (Reversal): Turn around or reversal of fortune▫Reversal is a change by which the action

veers round its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity.

Catharsis•Tragedy arouses a very specific set of

emotions – pity and fear – and brings about a healthy and pleasurable experience called catharsis.

•The hero must experience a reversal of fortune, a fall from happiness to misery. ▫When we witness a good character experience

a serious reversal, we feel pity for that individual.

▫But we also feel fear. Catharsis: Audience pity the character, but fear for ourselves.

Character•Aristotle referred to this element as “the

agent for the action.” •The second most important theatrical

element.•As the plot unfolds we get to know &

understand the characters as they reveal their personalities through their actions & interactions with one another.

•It brings forth a plot •It serves as the embodiment of action on a

stage•It is a necessary element for identification

with the play

Thought•Sometimes referred to as the “message”•Usually understood as a universal or clear

meaning to be comprehended by the audience

•Third, in importance as a theatrical element

•Aristotle called this “dianoia,” or “the process of thought.”

•Sometimes the moral of a play

Diction•This refers to the words used and their

placement in the text of a play. •Often, differences in diction within a play

indicate differences in characters.•Diction can also differ from playwright to

playwright or play to play because of the playwright’s purpose of language in each play.

Melody / MusicAristotle’s definition of music included all

of the audio elements of theatre, not just instrumental or vocal.

--noises made by actors--sound effects

Spectacle•The visual element of theatre, Aristotle

considered it the least important of the elements

•The setting, costumes, lights and sound effects work together to finish the dramatic product.

•Aristotle believed well-written and well-performed theatre could even be enjoyed even by a blind.

•Radio drama is an excellent example of his assertion

Viewing goes in ReverseSpectacle – Before the play begins we can see visually

elements of setting, idea and even character. Music – Before we understand where the plot is going we hear

the tempo of the play. We understand the feeling of the characters through their pace.

Language – As the characters speak and we hear their voices their personalities develop before us. We hear the differences in the classes.

Idea – Before the plot has concluded we can see some themes emerging in the story. We discover what drives characters though we do not know why.

Character - Upon the conclusion of the play we have an understanding of the characters and their complete personalities, complimented by the visual and audible contributions of the designers and the actors.

Plot - The plot of the play is finally complete as we see how all the events tie together and have focused on one conflict.

Kinds of recognition

•By signs•By letters [word or verbal inventions]•By awakening a feeling•By process of reasoning•A composite kind of recognition involving

false inference on the part of one of the character

•By startling discovery [via incidents]

The Three Unities1. Unity of action2. Unity of time3. Unity of place

The Unity of Action

According to Aristotle a play should contain only a single plot or story line (the audience can remain focused on the idea that it presents rather than being confused with multiple messages and subplots).

The Unity of Time•Audiences gain the most pleasure from

plays in which the action occurs during a single and consecutive course of time.

--more modern plays/literature that employ flashbacks and abbreviated scenes would not fit well into Aristotle’s second unity.

•“Real time” performances in which the action reflects the actual time of the events would be most preferable.

The Unity of Place•Greatest comprehension and audience

empathy can be evoked if a play takes place in a single setting.

•Aristotle’s theory asserts that using different settings would be too difficult to portray and would confuse the audience.

•The use of acts and scenes in contemporary theatre often indicates a departure from Aristotle’s unities.

Time to wake up !!!

Thank You