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Photosynthesis
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CAMPBELL
BIOLOGYReece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
TENTH
EDITION
CAMPBELL
BIOLOGYReece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
TENTH
EDITION
10Photosynthesis
Lecture Presentation by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Process That Feeds the Biosphere
Photosynthesis is the process that converts solar
energy into chemical energy
Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes
almost the entire living world
Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating
anything derived from other organisms
Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere,
producing organic molecules from CO2 and other
inorganic molecules
Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using the
energy of sunlight to make organic molecules
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, certain
other unicellular eukaryotes, and some
prokaryotes
These organisms feed not only themselves but
also most of the living world
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.2
(a) Plants
(b) Multicellular alga
(c) Unicellular eukaryotes
(d) Cyanobacteria
(e) Purple sulfur
bacteria
40
μm
1 μ
m
10
μm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Heterotrophs obtain their organic material from
other organisms
Heterotrophs are the consumers of the biosphere
Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, depend
on photoautotrophs for food and O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Earth’s supply of fossil fuels was formed from the
remains of organisms that died hundreds of
millions of years ago
In a sense, fossil fuels represent stores of solar
energy from the distant past
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
BioFlix: Photosynthesis
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 10.1: Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and likely
evolved from photosynthetic bacteria
The structural organization of these organelles
allows for the chemical reactions of
photosynthesis
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis in Plants
Leaves are the major locations of photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the
mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf
Each mesophyll cell contains 30–40 chloroplasts
CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through
microscopic pores called stomata
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
A chloroplast has an envelope of two membranes
surrounding a dense fluid called the stroma
Thylakoids are connected sacs in the chloroplast
which compose a third membrane system
Thylakoids may be stacked in columns called
grana
Chlorophyll, the pigment which gives leaves their
green colour, resides in the thylakoid membranes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.4
Stroma Granum
ThylakoidThylakoidspace
Outermembrane
Intermembranespace
Innermembrane
20 μm
Stomata
ChloroplastMesophyll
cell
1 μm
Mesophyll
Chloroplasts Vein
Leaf cross section
CO2 O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.4a
Leaf cross section
Stomata
Chloroplast
Mesophyll
Chloroplasts Vein
Mesophyllcell
20 μm
CO2 O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.4b
Chloroplast
Stroma Granum
ThylakoidThylakoidspace
Outermembrane
Intermembranespace
Innermembrane
1 μm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.4c
Stroma Granum
1 μm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis: Scientific Inquiry
Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions
that can be summarized as the following equation:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
The overall chemical change during
photosynthesis is the reverse of the one that
occurs during cellular respiration
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Splitting of Water
Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and oxygen,
incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar
molecules and releasing oxygen as a by-product
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.5
Reactants:
Products:
6 CO2 12 H2O
C6H12O6 6 H2O 6 O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photosynthesis as a Redox Process
Photosynthesis reverses the direction of electron
flow compared to respiration
Photosynthesis is a redox process in which H2O is
oxidized and CO2 is reduced
Photosynthesis is an endergonic process; the
energy boost is provided by light
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.UN01
becomes reduced
becomes oxidized
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Two Stages of Photosynthesis: A Preview
Photosynthesis consists of the light reactions
(the photo part) and Calvin cycle (the synthesis
part)
The light reactions (in the thylakoids)
Split H2O
Release O2
Reduce the electron acceptor NADP+ to NADPH
Generate ATP from ADP by photophosphorylation
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar from
CO2, using ATP and NADPH
The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation,
incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.6-1
Light
Thylakoid Stroma
Chloroplast
LIGHT
REACTIONS
NADP+
ADP
P i
+
H2O
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.6-2
Light
Thylakoid Stroma
Chloroplast
LIGHT
REACTIONS
NADP+
ADP
P i
+
H2O
NADPH
ATP
O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.6-3
Light
Thylakoid Stroma
Chloroplast
LIGHT
REACTIONS
NADP+
ADP
P i
+
H2O
O2
CO2
NADPH
ATP
CALVIN
CYCLE
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.6-4
Light
Thylakoid Stroma
Chloroplast
LIGHT
REACTIONS
NADP+
ADP
P i
+
H2O
[CH2O]
(sugar)
CALVIN
CYCLE
CO2
NADPH
ATP
O2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 10.2: The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical factories
Their thylakoids transform light energy into the
chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Nature of Sunlight
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, also
called electromagnetic radiation
Like other electromagnetic energy, light travels in
rhythmic waves
Wavelength is the distance between crests
of waves
Wavelength determines the type of
electromagnetic energy
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The electromagnetic spectrum is the entire
range of electromagnetic energy, or radiation
Visible light consists of wavelengths (including
those that drive photosynthesis) that produce
colors we can see
Light also behaves as though it consists of
discrete particles, called photons
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.7
Visible light
Gamma
raysX-rays UV Infrared
Micro-
wavesRadio
waves
380 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 nm
Shorter wavelength
Higher energy Lower energy
Longer wavelength
10−5 10−3nm nm 1 nm 3 nm10 6 nm10 9(10 nm)1 m
103 m
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photosynthetic Pigments: The Light Receptors
Pigments are substances that absorb visible light
Different pigments absorb different wavelengths
Wavelengths that are not absorbed are reflected
or transmitted
Leaves appear green because chlorophyll reflects
and transmits green light
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.8
Light
Chloroplast
Reflected
light
Granum
Transmitted
light
Absorbed
light
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Light and Pigments
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
A spectrophotometer measures a pigment’s
ability to absorb various wavelengths
This machine sends light through pigments and
measures the fraction of light transmitted at each
wavelength
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.9
White
light
Refracting
prism
Chlorophyll
solution
Photoelectric
tube
Galvanometer
The high transmittance (low
absorption) reading indicates that
chlorophyll absorbs very
little green light.
Slit moves to pass light
of selected wavelength.
Green
light
Blue
light
The low transmittance (high
absorption) reading indicates
that chlorophyll absorbs
most blue light.
1
2 3
4
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
An absorption spectrum is a graph plotting a
pigment’s light absorption versus wavelength
The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a
suggests that violet-blue and red light work best
for photosynthesis
An action spectrum profiles the relative
effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation
in driving a process
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment
Accessory pigments, such as chlorophyll b,
broaden the spectrum used for photosynthesis
The difference in the absorption spectrum
between chlorophyll a and b is due to a slight
structural difference between the pigment
molecules
Accessory pigments called carotenoids absorb
excessive light that would damage chlorophyll
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Accessory pigments called carotenoids function
in photoprotection; they absorb excessive light
that would damage chlorophyll
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Excitation of Chlorophyll by Light
When a pigment absorbs light, it goes from a
ground state to an excited state, which is unstable
When excited electrons fall back to the ground
state, photons are given off, an afterglow called
fluorescence
If illuminated, an isolated solution of chlorophyll
will fluoresce, giving off light and heat
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.12
Excitedstate
Heat
(a) Excitation of isolated chlorophyll molecule (b) Fluorescence
Groundstate
Photon(fluorescence)
Photon
Chlorophyllmolecule
En
erg
y o
f ele
ctr
on
e−
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex Associated with Light-Harvesting Complexes
A photosystem consists of a reaction-center
complex (a type of protein complex) surrounded
by light-harvesting complexes
The light-harvesting complexes (pigment
molecules bound to proteins) transfer the energy
of photons to the reaction center
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.13
(a) How a photosystem harvests light (b) Structure of a photosystem
Chlorophyll STROMA
THYLA-KOIDSPACE
Protein
subunits
Th
yla
ko
id m
em
bra
ne
Pigment
molecules
Primaryelectronacceptor
Reaction-centercomplex
STROMA
Photosystem
Light-harvestingcomplexes
Photon
Transferof energy
Special pair of chloro-phyll a molecules
THYLAKOID SPACE(INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID)
Th
yla
ko
id m
em
bra
ne
e−
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
A primary electron acceptor in the reaction
center accepts excited electrons and is reduced as
a result
Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a
chlorophyll a molecule to the primary electron
acceptor is the first step of the light reactions
There are two types of photosystems in the
thylakoid membrane
Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the numbers
reflect order of discovery)
Photosystem I (PS I)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Linear Electron Flow
During the light reactions, there are two possible
routes for electron flow: cyclic and linear
Linear electron flow, the primary pathway,
involves both photosystems and produces ATP
and NADPH using light energy (8 steps)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.UN02
Light
H2O CO2
O2
LIGHTREACTIONS
CALVINCYCLE
ATP
NADPH
ADP
NADP+
[CH2O] (sugar)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.15
Mill
makes
ATPNADPH
Photosystem II Photosystem I
ATP
e−
e−
e−
e−
e−
e−
e−
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cyclic Electron Flow
In cyclic electron flow, electrons cycle back from
Fd to the PS I reaction center
Cyclic electron flow uses only photosystem I and
produces ATP, but not NADPH
No oxygen is released
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.16
Primaryacceptor
Primaryacceptor
Fd
Cytochromecomplex
Pc
Pq
Photosystem II
Photosystem I
Fd
NADP+
+ H+NADP+
reductase
NADPH
ATP
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Some organisms such as purple sulfur bacteria
have PS I but not PS II
Cyclic electron flow is thought to have evolved
before linear electron flow
Cyclic electron flow may protect cells from
light-induced damage
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
A Comparison of Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
Chloroplasts and mitochondria generate ATP by
chemiosmosis, but use different sources of energy
Mitochondria transfer chemical energy from food
to ATP; chloroplasts transform light energy into the
chemical energy of ATP
Spatial organization of chemiosmosis differs
between chloroplasts and mitochondria but also
shows similarities
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
In mitochondria, protons are pumped to the
intermembrane space and drive ATP synthesis as
they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix
In chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the
thylakoid space and drive ATP synthesis as they
diffuse back into the stroma
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.17
MITOCHONDRION
STRUCTURE
CHLOROPLAST
STRUCTURE
Thylakoid
membrane
Stroma
ATP
Thylakoid
space
Inter-membrane
space
Innermembrane
Matrix
Key
Diffusion
Electrontransport
chain
ATP
synthase
ADP +
H+
H+
Higher [H+]
Lower [H+]
P i
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
ATP and NADPH are produced on the side facing
the stroma, where the Calvin cycle takes place
In summary, light reactions generate ATP and
increase the potential energy of electrons by
moving them from H2O to NADPH
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.18
Photosystem II Photosystem ICytochrome
complexLight
Pq
Light 4 H+
+2 H+ 4 H+O2
H2O
Pc
Fd
3
2
1
NADP+
To
Calvin
Cycle
NADP+
reductase
STROMA(low H+ concentration)
ATPsynthase
THYLAKOID SPACE(high H+ concentration)
Thylakoidmembrane
ADP+
H+ ATPP i
ee
NADPH
½
+ H+
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.18a
STROMA(low H+ concentration)
ATP
ADP
ATPsynthase
P i
+
H+
THYLAKOID SPACE(high H+ concentration)
4 H+
Cytochromecomplex
Light
Photosystem I
Pc
Pq
4 H+
Light
Photosystem II
4 H+
Pc
Fd
Thylakoidmembrane
+2 H+
H2OO2½
e
e 2
1
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.18b
Cytochromecomplex
Light
Photosystem I
Pc
Pq
Fd
NADP+
reductase
NADP+ + H+
NADPH
ToCalvinCycle
STROMA(low H+ concentration)
ATP
ADP
ATPsynthase
P i
+
H+
THYLAKOID SPACE(high H+ concentration)4 H+
2
3
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 10.3: The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle,
regenerates its starting material after molecules
enter and leave the cycle
The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules by
using ATP and the reducing power of electrons
carried by NADPH
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as a
sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phospate (G3P)
For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take
place three times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2
The Calvin cycle has three phases
1. Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
2. Reduction
3. Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.UN03
Light
H2O CO2
O2
LIGHTREACTIONS
CALVINCYCLE
ATP
NADPH
ADP
NADP+
[CH2O] (sugar)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.19-1
Input 3 CO2, entering one per cycle
Phase 1: Carbon fixationRubisco
3-Phosphoglycerate
CalvinCycle
RuBPPP3
P3 P
P6
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.19-2
Input 3 CO2, entering one per cycle
Phase 1: Carbon fixationRubisco
3-Phosphoglycerate
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
Phase 2:Reduction
G3P
CalvinCycle
RuBPPP3
P3 P
P6
6
6 ADP
P6 P
ATP
P6
6
6 NADP+
6 Pi
G3PP1
Output
Glucose andother organiccompounds
NADPH
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.19-3
Input 3 CO2, entering one per cycle
Phase 1: Carbon fixationRubisco
3-Phosphoglycerate
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
Phase 2:Reduction
G3P
CalvinCycle
G3P
Phase 3:Regenerationof RuBP
ATP
3 ADP
3
5 P
RuBPPP3
P3 P
P6
6
6 ADP
P6 P
ATP
P6
6
6 NADP+
6 Pi
G3PP1
Output
Glucose andother organiccompounds
NADPH
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 10.4: Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates
Dehydration is a problem for plants, sometimes
requiring trade-offs with other metabolic
processes, especially photosynthesis
On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which
conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis
The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2 and
causes O2 to build up
These conditions favor an apparently wasteful
process called photorespiration
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photorespiration: An Evolutionary Relic?
In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of CO2,
via rubisco, forms a three-carbon compound
(3-phosphoglycerate)
In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead of
CO2 in the Calvin cycle, producing a two-carbon
compound
Photorespiration consumes O2 and organic fuel
and releases CO2 without producing ATP or sugar
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Photorespiration may be an evolutionary relic
because rubisco first evolved at a time when the
atmosphere had far less O2 and more CO2
Photorespiration limits damaging products of
light reactions that build up in the absence of
the Calvin cycle
In many plants, photorespiration is a problem
because on a hot, dry day it can drain as much
as 50% of the carbon fixed by the Calvin cycle
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
C4 Plants
C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by
incorporating CO2 into four-carbon compounds
There are two distinct types of cells in the leaves
of C4 plants:
Bundle-sheath cells are arranged in tightly packed
sheaths around the veins of the leaf
Mesophyll cells are loosely packed between the
bundle sheath and the leaf surface
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sugar production in C4 plants occurs in a three-
step process:
1. The production of the four carbon precursors is
catalyzed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase in
the mesophyll cells
PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for CO2
than rubisco does; it can fix CO2 even when CO2
concentrations are low
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
2. These four-carbon compounds are exported to
bundle-sheath cells
3. Within the bundle-sheath cells, they release CO2
that is then used in the Calvin cycle
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.20
Mesophyllcell
Bundle-sheathcell
Photo-syntheticcells ofC4 plantleaf
Vein(vasculartissue)
C4 leaf anatomy
Stoma
The C4 pathway
Mesophyll
cell PEP carboxylase
Oxaloacetate (4C)
Malate (4C)
Pyruvate(3C)
CO2
ADPPEP (3C)
ATP
CO2
CalvinCycle
Bundle-sheathcell
Sugar
Vasculartissue
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.20a
Mesophyll
cell
Bundle-sheathcell
Photo-
synthetic
cells ofC4 plant
leaf
Vein(vasculartissue)
C4 leaf anatomy
Stoma
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.20b
The C4 pathway
Mesophyll
cell PEP carboxylase
Oxaloacetate (4C)
Malate (4C)
Pyruvate
(3C)
CO2
ADPPEP (3C)
ATP
CO2
CalvinCycle
Bundle-sheathcell
Sugar
Vasculartissue
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Since the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s,
CO2 levels have risen greatly
Increasing levels of CO2 may affect C3 and C4
plants differently, perhaps changing the relative
abundance of these species
The effects of such changes are unpredictable
and a cause for concern
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
CAM Plants
Some plants, including succulents, use
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to
fix carbon
CAM plants open their stomata at night,
incorporating CO2 into organic acids
Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is released
from organic acids and used in the Calvin cycle
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.21
Sugarcane Pineapple
C4 CO2CO2
CAM
Organic
acidOrganic
acid
Night
Day
CO2CO2
Calvin
CycleCalvin
Cycle
SugarSugar
Bundle-sheathcell
(a) Spatial separationof steps
(b) Temporal separationof steps
Mesophyllcell
2
1 1
2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Importance of Photosynthesis: A Review
The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight gets
stored as chemical energy in organic compounds
Sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies chemical
energy and carbon skeletons to synthesize the
organic molecules of cells
Plants store excess sugar as starch in structures
such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits
In addition to food production, photosynthesis
produces the O2 in our atmosphere
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.22a
O2 CO2
H2O
Sucrose(export)
H2O
Light
LIGHTREACTIONS:
Photosystem IIElectron transport
chain
Photosystem IElectron transport
chain
Chloroplast
NADP+
ADP+P i
NADPH
ATP
RuBP
G3P
CALVIN
CYCLE
Starch
(storage)
3-Phosphoglycerate
Sucrose (export)O2H2O
Mesophyll cell
CO2
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.22b
LIGHT REACTIONS CALVIN CYCLE REACTIONS
• Are carried out by molecules
in the thylakoid membranes
• Convert light energy to the
chemical energy of ATP
and NADPH
• Split H2O and release O2
to the atmosphere
• Take place in the stroma
• Use ATP and NADPH to convert
CO2 to the sugar G3P
• Return ADP, inorganic phosphate,
and NADP+ to the light reactions
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.23
Flow of Genetic Information
in the Cell:
DNA → RNA → Protein
(Chapters 5–7)
Movement Across
Cell Membranes
(Chapter 7)
Energy Transformations in the Cell:
Photosynthesis and Cellular
Respiration (Chapters 8–10)
DNA
mRNA
Nucleus
Nuclear
pore
Protein
Ribosome mRNA
Protein
in vesicle
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Vesicle
formingGolgi
apparatus Protein
Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Photosynthesis
in chloroplast
Organicmolecules
Transportpump
Cellular respirationin mitochondrion
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
CO2
H2O
H2OCO2
O2
O2
5
4
3
2
1
7
8
Vacuole
910
11
6
MAKE CONNECTIONSThe Working Cell
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.23a
Flow of Genetic Information in the Cell:
DNA → RNA → Protein (Chapters 5–7)
DNA
mRNA
Nucleus
mRNA
Nuclear
pore
ProteinProtein
in vesicle
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosome
1
2
3
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.23b
Plasma
membrane
4
Golgi
apparatus
Vesicle
forming
Protein
Cell wall
Flow of Genetic Information in the Cell:
DNA → RNA → Protein (Chapters 5–7)
5
6
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 10.23c
Photosynthesis
in chloroplast
Organicmolecules
Cellular respirationin mitochondrion
Transportpump
Movement Across
Cell Membranes (Chapter 7)
Energy Transformations inthe Cell: Photosynthesis andCellular Respiration(Chapters 8–10)
O2
O2
H2OCO2
CO2
H2O
ATP
ATP
ATP
ATP
7
8
11
109