1. ITS ALIVE !!!!1.1 Understand that living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition; they respire; they excrete their waste; they respond to theirsurroundings; they move; they control their internal conditions; they reproduce; they grow and develop.M Movement All living things move, even plantsR Respiration Getting energy from foodS Sensitivity Detecting changes in the surroundingsG Growth All living things grow and developR Reproduction Making more living things of the sametype (species).E Excretion Getting rid of wasteN Nutrition Taking in and using food and othernutrientsIn addition, all living organisms contain nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) andhave the ability to control their internal conditions (homeostasis).Finally, all living organisms can die.

2. ALIVE OR NOT ALIVE!!ALIVE OR NOT ALIVE1.1 Understand that living organisms share the following characteristics: they require nutrition; they respire; they excrete their waste; they respond to theirsurroundings; they move; they control their internal conditions; they reproduce; they grow and develop. 3. GROUPS OF LIVING ORGANISMS1.2 describe the common features shared by organisms within the following main groups: plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, protoctists and viruses, and for eachgroup describe examples and their features as follows (details of life cycle and economic importance are not required) 4. PLANTSPlants: These are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; theystore carbohydrates as starch or sucrosePlants all have the following in common:1) Multicellular organisms (made of lots of cells)2) Cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis.Photosynthesis takes simple inorganic molecules and turns them intosimple sugar (glucose). Glucose can be turned into complex organicmolecules such as carbohydrates. 5. PLANTSPlants: These are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; theystore carbohydrates as starch or sucrose3) Cells have cellulose cell walls (cellulose is acarbohydrate) 6. PLANTSPlants: These are multicellular organisms; their cells contain chloroplasts and are able to carry out photosynthesis; their cells have cellulose cell walls; theystore carbohydrates as starch or sucrose4) They store carbohydrates as starch.Carbohydrates are polysaccharides (many sugars/glucose linkedtogether)or sucrose.Sucrose is a disaccharide (two sugars linked together). 7. Examples you need to know:1) flowering plants, such as a cerealsA) MaizePLANTSExamples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example maize), and a herbaceous legume (for example peas or beans)B) Wheat 8. PLANTSExamples include flowering plants, such as a cereal (for example maize), and a herbaceous legume (for example peas or beans)2) Herbaceous legume (e.g. peas or beans).Root nodules 9. ANIMALSAnimals: These are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; theyusually have nervous coordination and are able to move from one place to another; they often store carbohydrate as glycogen1) Animals include:sponges, molluscs, worms, starfish, insects, crustaceans,fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammalsAnimals without a backbone (vertebral column) are invertebrates.Animals with a vertebral column are called vertebrates.2) Animals are Multicellular organisms 10. ANIMALSAnimals: These are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; theyusually have nervous coordination and are able to move from one place to another; they often store carbohydrate as glycogen3) They have a nervous system4) They often store carbohydrate as glycogen in theliver and muscles. 11. ANIMALSAnimals: These are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; theyusually have nervous coordination and are able to move from one place to another; they often store carbohydrate as glycogen5) Animal cells do not contain chloroplasts and arenot able to carry out photosynthesis6) Animal cells have no cell walls 12. ANIMALSAnimals: These are multicellular organisms; their cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not able to carry out photosynthesis; they have no cell walls; theyusually have nervous coordination and are able to move from one place to another; they often store carbohydrate as glycogen 13. ANIMALSExamples include mammals (for example humans) and insects (for example housefly and mosquito)Examples you need to know:1) Human (mammal) 14. 2) InsectsExamples include mammals (for example humans) and insects (for example housefly and mosquito)a) HouseflyANIMALSWhy the housefly?- They regurgitate stomach enzymes onto their food- but also because other flies are interestingA) Tsetse flyB) Screw flyC) Drosophila 15. ANIMALSExamples include mammals (for example humans) and insects (for example housefly and mosquito)Lastly.. the use of flies ended the belief in thespontaneous generation of life 16. Examples include mammals (for example humans) and insects (for example housefly and mosquito)b) MosquitoANIMALSVideoBiteSo why the Mosquito? (it is really just another fly!)- Complex life cycle- Can be a vector for malaria, yellow fever, abrovirus- Control measures have damaged ecosystems 17. FUNGIFungi: These are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structurescalled hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; their cells have walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion ofdigestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may storecarbohydrate as glycogenCharacteristics of Fungi:1) They feed by saprophytic nutrition (feeds on deadorganic material & digestion takes place outside theorganism.2) Fungi feed by excreting extracellular secretions ofdigestive enzymes onto food and absorbing the digestedproducts.3) Cells are joined together to form threads, called hyphae.Hyphae contain many nuclei, because they are madefrom many cells.4) Hyphae join together to make a network of threads calledmycelium 18. FUNGI ARE NOT PLANTS5) Cells do not contain chloroplasts and are not ableto carry out photosynthesis6) Cell walls are made from a protein called chitin(not cellulose)7) They store carbohydrates as glycogen(not starch)FUNGIFungi: These are organisms that are not able to carry out photosynthesis; their body is usually organised into a mycelium made from thread-like structurescalled hyphae, which contain many nuclei; some examples are single-celled; their cells have walls made of chitin; they feed by extracellular secretion ofdigestive enzymes onto food material and absorption of the organic products; this is known as saprotrophic nutrition; they may storecarbohydrate as glycogen 19. FUNGIFungi Examples include Mucor , which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast, which is single-celledExamples you must know:1) Mucor (bread mold)Why do you need to know about Mucor?- Easy to experiment on in the lab(temperature, moisture)- Mucor must use energy to absorb nutrients in its hyphae- Was used to produce penicillin, the first antibiotic. 20. FUNGIFungi Examples include Mucor , which has the typical fungal hyphal structure, and yeast, which is single-celled2) Yeast (single celled fungi)Why do you need to know about Yeast?- Easy to experiment on in the lab(temperature & sugar concentration)- Yeast is used in the production of beer & bread 21. BACTERIABacteria: These are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain acircular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organismsBacteria Characteristics:1) Made from single cells2) Cells do not contain a nucleus. Bacteria cells have a small piece of circular DNA instead of anucleus (a bacterial chromosome/nucleoid).2) Bacteria also have DNA in the form of circular plasmids3) most gain their nutrients by saprophytic nutrition (feed off dead organisms) or by parasiticnutrition (feed off living organisms). Some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis.You need to know their structure:TED 22. BACTERIABacteria: These are microscopic single-celled organisms; they have a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm and plasmids; they lack a nucleus but contain acircular chromosome of DNA; some bacteria can carry out photosynthesis but most feed off other living or dead organismsSome pretty pictures of bacteria 23. BACTERIAExamples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus , a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus , a spherical bacteriumthat acts as the pathogen causing pneumoniaExample you need to know:1) Lactobacillus bulgaricus- Used to make yogurt- Produces lactic acid (excretes)- Rod shaped- Not dangerous to humansWhy Lactobacillus bulgaricus?- It is used in how human food production- lowers the pH of milk to inhibit harmfulto human bacterial growth 24. Examples include Lactobacillus bulgaricus , a rod-shaped bacterium used in the production of yoghurt from milk, and Pneumococcus , a spherical bacterium2) PneumococcusBACTERIAthat acts as the pathogen causing pneumonia- pathogen causes pneumonia (inflammation of one or both lungs)- killed with antibiotics- spherical bacteria shapeWhy Pneumococcus?- reduces surface area of alveoli- use of antibiotics in treatment can lead to resistantstrains 25. PROTOCTISTSProtoctists: These are microscopic single-celled organisms.When you dont fit in scientists drop you into theProtoctists group!Protoctists Characteristics:- most are single celled (exception is seaweeds)- Some have animal-like features - protozoa- Some have plant-like features algaeswim 26. PROTOCTISTSSome, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. Apathogenic example is Plasmodium , responsible for causing malariaExamples you need to know:1) Amoeba- protozoa- live in pond water- Pathogen amoeba can cause Amoebic dysentery(kills 70,000 people every year)Why Amoeba?- Highlights the need for clean drinking water supplies- Uses amoebiasis to feed (similair to phagocytosis)eating 27. Some, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. A2) ChlorellaPROTOCTISTSpathogenic example is Plasmodium , responsible for causing malaria- more like plants than animals- have chloroplastsWhy Chlorlla?- both animal and plant characteristics- Possible food source (1940s solution to world hunger)view 28. 3) Plasmodium- Protozoa- pathogen that causes malaria- uses a mosquito as a vector (transfer)- not killed by antibioticsWhy plasmodium?- it is the greatest pathogen killer!TEDPROTOCTISTSSome, like Amoeba, that live in pond water, have features like an animal cell, while others, like Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. Apathogenic example is Plasmodium , responsible for causing malaria 29. VIRUSViruses: These are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of livingorganism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, eitherDNA or RNAViruses Characteristics:1) Much smaller than bacteria.1) They are not made from cells (no cellular structures)3) Totally parasitic and reproduce inside host cells.3) They infect every type of living cell3) Have either DNA or RNA as genetic material3) Have a protein coat 30. VIRUSViruses: These are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of livingorganism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, eitherDNA or RNAYou just have to recognize a virus, but there are several shapes 31. VIRUSViruses: These are small particles, smaller than bacteria; they are parasitic and can reproduce only inside living cells; they infect every type of livingorganism. They have a wide variety of shapes and sizes; they have no cellular structure but have a protein coat and contain one type of nucleic acid, eitherDNA or RNAREVIEW FROM YEAR 8 32. VIRUSExamples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenzavirus that causes gfluc and the HIV virus that causes AIDSExamples you need to know:1) Tobacco Mosaic Virus- infects crop plant and prevents formation of chloroplasts- symptoms are discoloration of leavesWhy Tobacco Mosaic Virus?- first identification of a virus as a pathogen(1898, Martinus W. Beijerinck)- Genetic engineering 33. VIRUSExamples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenzavirus that causes gfluc and the HIV virus that causes AIDS2) Influenza Virus- Viral pathogen causes the flu- Transmitted through air/ contactWhy the Flu?- Pandemics (spanish flu)- Mutations leading to new strains- VaccinationsvaccineFluHistory 34. Just thought you would like to know. 35. 3) HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)- Pathogen causes AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)- Virus attacks white blood cells (immune system)- Host killed by secondary disease- Transmitted by blood to blood contactWhy HIV?- Immune system- MutationsVIRUSExamples include the tobacco mosaic virus that causes discolouring of the leaves of tobacco plants by preventing the formation of chloroplasts, the influenzavirus that causes gfluc and the HIV virus that causes AIDS 36. PATHOGEN1.3 recall the term gpathogenc and know that pathogens may be fungi, bacteria, protoctists or viruses.Pathogen:An agent that causes infection or disease, especially amicroorganism, such as a bacterium or protozoan, ora virus. 37. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems.Organisms are made from organizations of smaller structures. Youneed to know the following hierarchy of structures.Organelles - intracellular structures that carry out specific functions within a cellNucleus Chloroplast Mitochondria Ribosome VacuoleCells - the basic structural and functional unit from which all biological organisms are madeNeurone Skin cell MusclecellTissues - a group of specialized cells, which are adapted to carry out a specific functionOrgans - a collection of two or more tissues, which carries out a specific function or functionsOrgan Systems - a group of two or more organsPhagocyte Red Blood CellMuscle Nerves Blood Bone Adipose (Fat)Heart Skin Brain Artery KidneyPulmonary Cardiac Nervous Endocrine Skeletal 38. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION2.1 describe the levels of organisation within organisms: organelles, cells, tissues, organs and systems. 39. CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuoleYou need to know the differences between plant and animal cells, the functions of theorganelles and be able to recognize them in a microscope picture or drawing.Mircroscope 40. CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuole 41. CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)2.3 describe the functions of the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuoleFunctions of the Organelles(These are the basic definitions you must know)Cytoplasm - site of chemical reactions in the cellCell Membrane - controls what enters / leaves the cell (selectively permeable)Nucleus - contains nucleic acids, which code for the synthesis of specific proteins. Theseproteins control all activity in the cellMitochondrion - site of respirationChloroplast - site of photosynthesis (contains chlorophyll)Cell Wall - made from cellulose. Strengthens the cell and allows it to be turgidSap Vacuole - contains the cell sap. Acts as a store of water, or of sugars or, in some cases, ofwaste products the cell needs to excrete. Helps keep plant cell turgid. 42. PLANTS VS ANIMALS2.4 compare the structures of plant and animal cells.IF YOU ARE EVER ASKED TO DRAW AND LABLE A CELL IT MUST NOT BE A GENERAL CELL,BUT A SPECIFIC CELLCelltheory 43. CELL STRUCTURE (PLANT & ANIMAL)2.2 describe cell structures, including the nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall, chloroplast and vacuoleSOME SAMPLE CELL DIAGRAMS:White blood cellSPERM CELLRoot hair cell 44. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES2.5 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids(fats and oils)To be a basic organic molecule you must have:Some have: or evenCARBOHYDRATES PROTIENS LIPIDSCarbon Carbon CarbonHydrogen Hydrogen HydrogenOxygen Oxygen OxygenNitrogen & Sulphur 45. CHEMICAL ELEMENTS OF ORGANIC MOLECULES2.5 identify the chemical elements present in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids(fats and oils) 46. Making Complex Organic Structures (molecules)2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar;protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerolComponents of the main Food Groups:The main food groups are:1) Carbohydrate2) Lipids (fats)3) ProteinsDEFINITIONS:Monomer: Single unitPolymer: Two or more monomerschemically combined togetherAll three groups are polymers made from smaller molecules known as monomers.1) Carbohydrates are large polymer molecules made from one or more monomersugars.Two carbohydrates you need to know are Starch and Glycogen. Both have glucose astheir monomer.2) Proteins are polymers of Amino Acids (there are 20 amino acids)3) Lipid polymers are made from one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid moleculesjoined together. So lipids are made of two different types of monomers. 47. Making Complex Organic Structures (molecules)2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar;protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerolCARBOHYDRATE BONDS ARE CALLED:Glycosidic Bonds 48. Making Complex Organic Structures (molecules)2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar;protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerolBONDS IN PROTEINS ARE CALLED:Peptide Bonds 49. Making Complex Organic Structures (molecules)2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar;protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerolBONDS IN FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL ARE CALLED:Ester Bond 50. REVIEW: Glucose is a Monomer of severalPolymers2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as largemolecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen from simple sugar; protein fromamino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerolCarbohydrate that is thechief form of storedenergy in plantsCarbohydrate that is themain component of thecell walls of most plantsCarbohydrate is stored inthe liver and muscles inman and animals 51. Making Cellulose(not required in your syllabus)2.6 describe the structure of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids as large molecules made up from smaller basic units: starch and glycogen fromsimple sugar; protein from amino acids; lipid from fatty acids and glycerol 52. Test for Glucose2.7 describe the tests for glucose and starchNEGATIVE TEST: Blue Solution (No change)POSITIVE TEST: Colour Precipitate (Change)Benedicts Test:- In test tube with 2 ml of Benedict's reagent.- add 5-6 drops of the test carbohydratesolution and mix well.- Place the test tube in a boiling water bath for5 minutes.- Observe any change in color or precipitateformation.- Cool the solution.- Observe the colour change from blue togreen, yellow, orange or red depending uponthe amount of reducing sugar present in thetest sample.0.5% 1% 2% Receptor> Coordination >Effector > Response2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector Both systems respond to stimuli(i.e. events that change the internal environment). Both systems have a:1) Receptor, which detects the stimulus.2) Effector, which carries out a response to correct the effect ofthe stimulus.The message from detector to effector is carried either via anelectrical nerve impulse or as a hormone, depending whichhomeostatic system is being used. 184. STIMULI2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effector 185. Examples of Receptors and Effectors2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effectorReceptorORGAN RECEPTORskin Temperature Receptorskin Pressure / Pain ReceptorBrain (hypothalamus) Water Concentration ReceptorEye (retina) Light Receptors (Rods & Cones)EffectorsORGAN EFFECTORHeart Muscle cellSkin Sweat glandKidney Collecting duct walls 186. STIMULI2.79 understand that a coordinated response requires a stimulus, a receptor and an effectorReceptors detect Stimuli. Some examples are:a) Light Eye (retina)b) Sound Ear (hearing)c) Movement (K.E) Ear (balance) / Skind) Chemical Nose / Tonguee) Heat Skin 187. Response in Plants2.80 understand that plants respond to stimuliPlants also respond to stimuli. As plants dont havenerves their responses are limited to hormones only.Plants respond to the following stimuli: Gravity: Roots grow towards gravitational pull andstems grow away. This is Geotropism. Water: Roots grow towards water. This isHydrotropism. Light: Shoots grow towards light. This is Phototropism. 188. GEOTROPISM2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stemsShoot tips and Root tips respond to GRAVITY. Shoot tips grow away from gravity (NegativeGeotropism) Root tips grow in the direction of gravity (PositiveGeotropism) 189. WHYYou only need to know that plants respond to achemical hormone calledAUXINBUT if you want more2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems 190. 2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stems 191. 2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stemsYou do need to know some funexperiments with plants 192. 2.81 describe the geotropic responses of roots and stemsWhat happens when you grow a plantin space? 193. Positive Phototropism2.82 describe positive phototropism of stemsPositive Phototropism is controlled by hormonesreleased by the growing tip of the shoot.(Only the tip makes the hormone)If you remove the tip, the shoot stops growing.The hormone made by the tip is calledAuxin(which part of the plant would be controlled byNegative Phototropism?) 194. 2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems 195. MOREEXPERIMENTS2.82 describe positive phototropism of stems 196. 2.82 describe positive phototropism of stemsWhat if you grow a plant in the dark? 197. Response Systems2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal communication and understand the differencesbetween the two systemsHumans have two systems which carry outdetection and response: Nervous System Chemical electrical systemusing NeuronsExample: Iris dilation, movement, ventilation Endocrine System Chemical system usingproteins called hormones in the blood.Example: Osmoregulation, Fight or Flight,Menstruation. 198. Differences2.83 describe how responses can be controlled by nervous or by hormonal communication and understand the differencesbetween the two systemsNervous System Endocrine SystemWorks by nerve impulses(has chemicals in synapses though)Works by hormones transmittedin blood streamTravel fast and usually haveinstant effectTravel slowly and may take longerto askResponse is short lived Response is usually longer lastingImpulse act on individual cells(localised effect)Widespread effects on differentorgans (still only work oncells/organs with correctreceptors) 199. Nervous System2.84 understand that the central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is linked to sense organs by nervesThe Central Nervous System(CNS) consists of1) the brain2) the spinal cordThere are also PeripheralNerves System (PNS)1) Sensory Nerves/organs(e.g. pain receptors inskin, or photoreceptorsin the eye)2) nerves that link brainand sense organs3) Motor Nerves 200. 2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervousStimulation of the sense organs results in an electrical signal(a nerve impulse) being sent along the nerve to the brain.Nerve impulses are very quick (~120m/s), allowing rapidresponses to the stimulus.nerve impulseNerve Impulsesynaptic cleftreceptorsystem, resulting in rapid responses 201. DIFFUSION AGAIN??2.85 understand that stimulation of receptors in the sense organs sends electrical impulses along nerves into and out of the central nervous system, resulting in rapid responses(You do not have to know the terms just the ideas)1) An electrical impulse travels along a nerveending.2) This triggers the nerve-ending of a neuronto release chemical messengers calledneurotransmitters.3) These chemicals diffuse across thesynapse (the gap) and bind with receptormolecules on the membrane of the nextneuron.4) The receptor molecules on the secondneuron bind only to the specific chemicalsreleased from the first neuron. This stimulatesthe second neuron to transmit the electricalimpulse. 202. REFLEXS2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot objectSome sense organs are not connected directly tothe brain.This is a defence mechanism allowing almostinstant responses to threatening or dangerousstimuli (e.g. pain/hot object).These instant responses are controlled by nervesin the spine, rather than the brain and are calledreflexes 203. REFLEX ARC2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot objectRelay Neuron 204. STEP BY STEP REFLEX ARC2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot object1) A stimulus is detected by a receptor2) The receptor initiates a nerve impulse in the sensorynerve3) The sensory nerve (which runs from the receptor to thespine) passes the message/impulse onto aninterneuron/Relay Neuron in the spine4) The interneuron/relay neuron passes the message on thea motor nerve5) The motor nerve (which runs from the spine to a musclein the same limb as the receptor) passes the messageonto the effector muscle6) The effector muscle carries out the response (musclecontraction). 205. Reflex Arc Timing2.86 describe the structure and functioning of a simple reflex arc illustrated by the withdrawal of a finger from a hot objectThe entire process (stimulus to response)happens in less than a second and does notinvolve the brain.The purpose of the interneuron is also to informthe brain of what has happened.Reflex Summary1) Immediate response to stimulus2) Automatic reactions3) Limits damage to organism 206. THE EYE 207. EyE WebSites2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptora) Label the eyehttp://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/eye_drag.htmb) Function of the eyehttp://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/eye_function_drag.htmc) Label the eyehttp://www.freezeray.com/flashFiles/eye.htmd) Light and the eyehttp://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/eye.htme) Fun with your blind spothttp://www.med.yale.edu/neurobio/mccormick/fill_in_seminar/figure1.htm 208. EYE DIAGRAM2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptorConjunctiva 209. Define these Terms2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptor Ciliary Body (muscle) Iris Pupil Cornea Lens Suspensory Ligament Sclera Choroid Retina Fovea Optic Disk (blind spot) Optic Nerve ConjunctivaContracts to Relaxes to change shape of lensColoured muscular part of eye that controls pupils sizeOpening in the iris that lets light through to the retinaTransparent front part of the eye that refracts lightTransparent part of the eye that bends light (refracts)Ligament that controls the shape of the lensDense white covering of the eyeVascular membrane of the eyeball between the sclera and the retina& stops light reflecting around in the eyeLight sensitive membrane that converts light to electrical signals to the brainPart of the retina with a high density of cones for very sharp visionArea of retina that is insensitive to lightWhere electrical impulses from retina travel to brainhelps lubricate the eye by producing mucus and tears 210. RODS & CONES2.87 describe the structure and function of the eye as a receptorLight is detected by photoreceptors in the eye.These receptors form the retina (the inner lining ofthe eye).There are two types of photoreceptorRods, which see only in &&Cones, which see in either red, blue or green(3 types of cones)Hint: Cone and Colour both start with C 211. Automatic Reflexs2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity (TA)There are two types of reflex you need to knowabout in the eye1) Responding to different light levels2) Focusing the eye 212. Responding to Light Levels(Antagonistic Muscle Pairs at Work)2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity (TA)Condition (Stimulus) Bright light Dim lightReceptors More photoreceptors stimulated Less photoreceptors stimulatedImpulses More impulses sent to the brain viaoptic nerveFewer impulses sent to the brainvia optic nerveEffectors Radial muscles of the iris relax Radial muscles of the iris contractCircular muscles of the iris contract Circular muscles of the iris relaxGross Effect Pupil constricts (becomes smaller) Pupil dilates (becomes larger)Less light enters the eye More light enters the eye 213. FOCUSING THE EYE2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity (TA)Cilary Muscle & Suspensory LigamentsCiliary fibers are alsoknow asSuspensory ligamentsCilary Muscle Contracted& Suspensory LigamentRelaxedCilary Muscle Relaxed& Suspensory LigamentContracted 214. 2.88 understand the function of the eye in focusing near and distant objects, and in responding to changes in light intensity (TA)Distant FocusCilary Muscle relaxACCOMODATION(Focusing)Suspensory Ligaments contractLens is pulledLens is thinLight rays bent slightlyLight rays focus on retinaClose FocusCilary Muscle contractSuspensory Ligaments relaxLens is not pulledLens is fatLight rays are bent stronglyLight rays focus on retina 215. Controlling Skin Temperature2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction andvasodilation (TA)Too HOT Too COLDWhen you are HOT the followinghappens (controlled by reflexes)When you are cold the followinghappens (controlled by reflexes)1) Hairs on skin lie flat (lessinsulating air trapped)1) Hairs on skin stand up (moreinsulating air trapped)2) Sweating starts 2) Sweating stops3) Blood is diverted close to thesurface of the skin (more heatradiation)3) Shivering starts, so musclesrespire more, producing moreheat.4) Blood is diverted away from thesurface of the skin (less heatradiation) 216. 2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation (TA) 217. Blood is diverted2.89 describe the role of the skin in temperature regulation, with reference to sweating, vasoconstriction and vasodilation (TA)Arterioles in the skin can open and close inresponse to nerve messages.Vasoconstriction arteriole closesVasodilation arteriole opens 218. Hormones involved in Coordination2.90 understand the sources, roles and effects of the following hormones: ADH, adrenaline, insulin, testosterone,progesterone and oestrogen.Hormone Source EffectADH Pituitary Regulated blood osmoregulationAdrenaline Adrenal glands Increases heart rate and breathing rateduring exercise (more O2 for respiration)Insulin PancreasDecreases blood glucose level after a meal.Glucose converted to Glycogen and stored inliver.Testosterone TestesTriggers puberty in boys (secondary sexualcharacteristics)Progesterone Ovaries Maintains uterus lining and (indirectly)causes menstruationOestrogen Ovaries Triggers puberty in girls.Stimulates growth of uterus lining eachmonth and (indirectly) causes ovulation 219. REPRODUCTION3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproductionThere are two types of reproduction; Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes (sexcells) fuse to create a new offspring that isgenetically different to the parents. Two parentsare involved. Asexual: reproduction without fusion of gametes. Itinvolves one parent only and produces offspringthat are genetically identical to the parent (clones). 220. Fertilization3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote thatundergoes cell division and develops into an embryoDefinitions Fertilization: Zygote: Embryo:A male and a female gamete fuseto form a zygotea cell that is the result offertilization. It will divide by mitosisto form an embryoAn organism in its early stages ofdevelopment, especially before ithas reached a distinctivelyrecognizable form. 221. Reproduction in Plants(3.3 - 3.7) 222. Reproduction in Plants(3.3 - 3.7) 223. Reproduction in Plants(3.3 - 3.7) 224. Reproduction in Plants(3.3 - 3.7) 225. Structure and Function of Reproductive systems3.8 describe the structure and explain the function of the male and female reproductive systems 226. Structure and Function of Reproductive systems3.8 describe the structure and explain the function of the male and female reproductive systems 227. Structure and Function of Reproductive systems3.8 describe the structure and explain the function of the male and female reproductive systemsDRAW IN YOUR OWN DIAGRAMLABLE 228. MENSTRUAL CYCLE3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycleThe menstrual cycle in women is a recurring process, taking around 28 days.During the process, the lining of the uterus - womb - is prepared for pregnancy.If pregnancy does not happen, the lining is then shed at menstruation.Several hormones control this cycle.OestrogenThe hormone oestrogen is secreted by the ovaries.Oestrogen makes two things happen:it stops more ovum being maturedit causes the thinkening of the uterus liningProgesteroneProgesterone is a hormone secreted by ovaries.It maintains the lining of the uterus during the middle part of the menstrual cycle and duringpregnancy. 229. MENSTRUAL CYCLE3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle 230. MENSTRUAL CYCLE3.9 understand the roles of oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle 231. PLACENTA3.10 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo (TA)Diffuse fromfoetus to mother:1) CO22) water,3) UreaDiffuse frommother to foetus:1) O22) glucose,3) amino acids,4) minerals 232. PLACENTA3.10 describe the role of the placenta in the nutrition of the developing embryo (TA)The placenta isadapted for diffusionin much the sameway as otherexchange organs:1. Huge surface area (ithas lots of villi-likeprojections)2. Only a few cells thick3. Blood supplies keepthe concentrationgradients high4. Counter-currentsystem 233. AMNIOTIC FLUID3.11 understand how the developing embryo is protected by amniotic fluid (TA) 234. SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS3.12 understand the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary sexual characteristics. 235. INHERITANCE(Syllabus points 3.13 3.33) 236. REPRODUCTION (review)3.1 understand the differences between sexual and asexual reproductionThere are two types of reproduction; Sexual: reproduction in which two gametes(sex cells) fuse to create a new offspring thatis genetically different to the parents. Twoparents are involved. Asexual: reproduction without fusion ofgametes. It involves one parent only andproduces offspring that are geneticallyidentical to the parent (clones). 237. Fertilization (review)3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote thatundergoes cell division and develops into an embryoDefinitions Fertilization: Zygote: Embryo:A male and a female gamete fuseto form a zygotea cell that is the result offertilization. It will divide by mitosisto form an embryoAn organism in its early stages ofdevelopment, especially before ithas reached a distinctivelyrecognizable form. 238. Fertilization, Zygote, Embryo(Review)3.2 understand that fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell division and developsinto an embryo 239. Genes are on Chromosomes3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are locatedThe nucleus of every cellcontains DNA.The DNA is organized ingenes and the genes arelocated onChromosomes.The best way to thinkabout it is like a library. video press 240. 3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are locatedLIBRARYBooksChaptersWordsLettersNucleusChromosome(23 pairs)Gene(makes one protein)Group of 3 lettersDNA letters(A, C, T, G) 241. 3.13 understand that the nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located 242. Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific protein1) Genes are written in DNA code.2) The code can be translated into amino acids.3) Amino Acids are linked together to makeproteins.ONE Gene codes for ONE specific protein 243. Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific proteinA three-base sequence codes for each amino acid.base sequence amino acid 244. Genes Make a SPECIFIC Protein3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific proteinGenes dont actually make proteins they just contain the instructions on how to makethem.DNA stays in the nucleus but proteins are built in the cells cytoplasm. 245. 3.14 understand that a gene is a section of a molecule of DNA and that a gene codes for a specific proteinSo Your Genes code for Your Proteins 246. WHAT IS DNA?3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) withthymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)DNA is a very long molecule.It is shaped like a twistedladder.Two long strands make thebackbones and are connectedby rungs or links. 247. BASE PAIRS3.15 describe a DNA molecule as two strands coiled to form a double helix, the strands being linked by a series of paired bases: adenine (A) withthymine (T), and cytosine (C) with guanine (G)The Strands areconnected by BASEPAIRS Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)The bases only match:A-TC-G 248. Genes come in Variations3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristicsSometimes more than one version of a gene occurs.The different versions are called alleles(i.e. we all have the gene for iris pigment (protein),but there are different colours of iris pigment, samegene but different alleles) 249. Alleles give rise to Variation3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristicsoverview 250. Alleles give rise to Variation (2)3.16 understand that genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give rise to differences in inherited characteristicsAlleles give rise to a range of different inheritedcharacteristics in a population.These can include in humans:Eye ColourSkin ColourHitch Hikers ThumbRolling of the tongueEarlobe shapeBlood TypeMany many others.. 251. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominanceDominant:A gene allele that expresses over another allele inhomozygous and heterozyogus pairs. Shown in phenotype.bBRecessive:A gene allele that only expresses when it is matched withanother recessive allele and never when matched with adominant allele. Homozygous Recessive. Shown in phenotypeb b 252. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominanceHomozygous: having identical alleles at correspondingchromosome Loci (Gene Location).Heterozygous: having dissimilar alleles atcorresponding chromosomal Loci.b B B B b b 253. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance 254. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance 255. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominancePhenotype: the set of observablecharacteristics Geneotypeof an individual resultingfrom the interaction of its genotypewith the environmentGenotype: The genetic makeup of a cell,an organism, or an individual withreference to a specific characteristic.EnvironemntPhenotype 256. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance 257. 3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominance 258. DEFINITIONS OF INHERITANCE TERMS3.17 understand the meaning of the terms: dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype and co-dominanceCodominance: A single gene has more than one dominant allele and both genes areexpressed.The meaning of the prefix "co-" is "together". Cooperate = work together. Coexist =exist together. Cohabitat = habitat together.When writing alleles remember:All alleles are CAPITAL letters*I remember codominance in the form of an example like so:red x ---> r d & h t s o t d 259. CODOMINANCE 260. Genetic Diagrams - Generations3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramGenerationsThere are the parents, then their offspring, and their offspring, etc. etc.Each generation has a name.The first plants or animals bred together are called the Parental generation, or P1 generation.Their offspring are called the First Filial generation, or F1 generation.Their offspring are called the Second Filial generation, or F2 generation.And so on. And so on. 261. Genetic Diagrams Punnett Squares3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramSOME SIMPLE EXAMPLES OF WHAT YOU CAN USE APUNNETT SQUARE FORSEED COLOUR FLOWER COLOUR GENDERpress 262. Genetic Diagrams Punnett Squares3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramP1P1P1Genotype of F2press 263. Genetic Diagrams Punnett Squares3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramHow to diagram patterns in monohybrid inheritance:1) Phenotype of Parents P12) Genotype of Parents3) Gametes Produced4) Genotype of F1 (you may need a Punnett square)5) Phenotype of F16) Gametes from F1 produced7) Genotype of F2 (you may need a Punnett square)8) Phenotype of F29) What are the ratios of F2 Phenotype and Genotypes 264. Genetic Diagrams Crossing3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramTo cross two tall plants1. The allele for tallness is H and is dominant to that for smallness, h.2. If the two plants are heterozygous, they will have a genotype, which contains the alleles Hh.3. Gametes of individuals contain half of the chromosomes. So only one of the alleles will bepresent in each gamete cell.So there will be 3tall plants for every1 small plant. Or toput it another way,there is a 75%chance that each F1(offspring) plant willbe tall.press 265. TESTCROSS3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagramGeneticists use the testcross to determine unknown GenotypesA testcross can reveal an unknown genotype1. Mate an individual of unknown genotype and ahomozygous-recessive individual2. In a test cross you breed an organism showing thedominant features with one showing the recessivefeature3. Each of the two possible genotypes (homozygousor heterozygous) gives a different phenotypic ratioin the F1 generation 266. TESTCROSS3.18 describe patterns of monohybrid inheritance using a genetic diagram 267. Pedigree Charts3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesA pedigree is a chart of the genetic history of family over several generations.Constructing a Pedigree Female MaleConnecting PedigreeSymbols MarriedCouple Siblings Fraternaltwins Identicaltwins Not Affected Affected Deceased 268. Example (Dominant or Recessive)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesIs the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?Affected Unaffectedaa AARECESSIVEAa Aa Aaaa aaaaAa Aaaa aaaa 269. Example (Dominant or Recessive)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesIs the Affected allele Dominant or Recessive?Affected UnaffectedAa aaAa AaDOMINANTaa aaAa Aa AaAAAA aaAa 270. Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (hard)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesDetermine if the pedigree chart shows: An autosomal disease-The disease Allele is not on SexChromosome (X Y)-The disease Allele can be dominant orrecessive X-linked disease-The disease Allele is found on X SexChromosome-( X = Normal Allele, Xr = Disease RecessiveAllele)pressIf it is a 50/50 ratio between men andwomen. The disorder is autosomal.Most of the males in the pedigree areaffected. The disorder is X-linkedpress 271. Interpreting a Pedigree Chart (additional)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesSex Linked diseases can include: Hemophilia (Xr) - Recessive Colour blindness (Xr) - Recessive The phenotype of a Carrieris NOT DISEASED 272. Example (Dominant or Recessive)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesExample of Pedigree Charts Is the affected trait Autosomal or X-linked?AUTOSOMALIf it is a 50/50 ratio between men andwomen. The disorder is autosomal. 273. Example (Dominant or Recessive)3.19 understand how to interpret family pedigreesSummary Pedigrees are family trees that explain your genetichistory. Pedigrees are used to find out the probability of achild having a disorder in a particular family. To begin to interpret a pedigree, determine if thedisease or condition is autosomal or X-linked anddominant or recessive. 274. Monohybrid Cross Probability3.20 predict probabilities of outcomes from monohybrid crossesGIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:GIVE THE GENOTYPE RATIO:GIVE THE PHENOTYPE RATIO: 275. Male or Female3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a male 276. Male or Female3.21 understand that the sex of a person is controlled by one pair of chromosomes, XX in a female and XY in a maleXX = FemaleXY = Male 277. Determine the Sex (diagram it)3.22 describe the determination of the sex of offspring at fertilisation, using a genetic diagram 278. Diploid Cell Division3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes 279. What are homologous chromosomes?3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomesDifferent organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humanshave 46 chromosomes. This is the diploid number of humans.Chromosomes can be grouped in pairs called homologouschromosomes. In each pair, one chromosome has been inheritedfrom the mother and the other inherited from the father.homologous pairchromosome frommotherchromosome fromfather 280. What are homologous chromosomes?3.23 understand that division of a diploid cell by mitosis produces two cells which contain identical sets of chromosomes2nBody cells are: 2n - DiploidSex Cells are: n - Haploid2n2n 281. What is Mitosis good for?3.24 understand that mitosis occurs during growth, repair, cloning and asexual reproductionMITOSISGROWTHNew cell growthNerve cells(tissue)Muscle cells(tissue)RepairScar tissueReplace old cellsRBCSkinCloning Dolly the sheepAsexualReproductionBuddingBacteria & YeastCuttings, Bulbs,Tubers, RunnersWillowTulipsPotatoesStrawberries 282. Meiosis Makes Gametes3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in theformation of genetically different haploid gametes 283. Meiosis Makes Gametes3.25 understand that division of a cell by meiosis produces four cells, each with half the number of chromosomes, and that this results in the formation ofgenetically different haploid gametes3.27 know that in human cells the diploid number of chromosomes is 46 and the haploid number is 23MITOSIS MEIOSIS1) Produces 2 daughter cells2) Daughter cells are diploid(have 23 pairs of chromosomes)3) Daughter cells are geneticallyidentical to each other.3) Gametes are different toeach other4) Gametes are different tothe parent cell (crossing over ofgenetic material)5) Two stage process6)Happens in Reproductiveorgans only4) Daughter cells are geneticallyidentical to the parent cell (nogenetic crossing over)5) One stage process6) Happens everywhere in thebody1) Produces 4 gamete cells2) Daughter cells are haploid(Only have 23 chromosomes) 284. Random Fertilization and Variation3.26 understand that random fertilisation produces genetic variation of offspring 285. Key Word basic SummaryThis topic, more than any other, confuses people. Remember these!DNA: A genetic codeGene: One instruction in the code telling a cell how to make aspecific proteinAllele: A different version of a geneChromosome: Coiled up DNAHaploid number: the number of different chromosomes in a cell (23)Diploid number: the total number of chromosomes in a cell (46)Cell Division:There are two types of cell division;- Mitosis used for growth, repair & asexual reproduction- Meiosis used to produce gametes for sexual reproduction 286. Nature Vs Nurture3.28 understand that variation within a species can be genetic, environmental, or a combination of bothVariation 287. Mutations(not all x-men get superpowers)3.29 understand that mutation is a rare, random change in genetic material that can be inherited3.31 understand that many mutations are harmful but some are neutral and a few are beneficialMutation - a rare, random change in the genetic code of a gene.The mutated gene will produce a slightly different protein tothe original non-mutant gene. The new protein might;A) Work just as well as it did before (neutral mutation)B) Work better than before (beneficial mutation)C) Work worse / not at all (harmful mutation)Beneficial mutations give a selective advantage to the individual.Individuals with this kind of mutated allele are more likely to survive,reproduce and pass their alleles on. This is the basis of:Natural Selection 288. Evolution by Natural Selection3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selectionEvolution is the process by which the range oforganisms on Earth changeNew species arise through a process known asNATURAL SELECTION1) Living organisms produce more offspring than are neededto replace them, not all of these off-spring grow up andbreed themselves. These offspring have different alleles.2) Those organisms best suited to their local environmentsurvive best and breed, passing on their genetic(genes/DNA) information to the next generation3) In this way the different forms will become more andmore different until eventually they are a new species 289. WHAT IS THE SELECTION METHOD3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selectionHOW TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN PASSING ON YOURGENES (A HOW TO 5 STEP GUIDE):1) BE ATTRACTIVE (physical and social traits can make you moresuccessful with the opposite sex)2) REPRODUCE OFTEN (The more offspring you make the better)3) DONT WASTE YOUR RESOURCES (Invest only the minimalamount of resources in offspring to see them through toreproduction)4) HAVE A DEEP GENE POOL (The more variable your offspringthe better chance of some of them surviving unexpectedcatastrophes. A little bit of mutation/lots of alleles is not a badthing)5) STAY ALIVE!! (Live long enough to reproduce....then die.) 290. DARWIN SAID IT BEST3.30 describe the process of evolution by means of natural selectionDarwin came up with this theory1) Darwins 1st Observation: Not allindividuals survive2) Darwins 2nd Observation: There isvariation in a species3) Darwins Conclusion: The betteradapted individuals survive (thefittest) and reproduce, passing theiralleles onto the next generation.Over time this process leads to evolution.www.darwinawards.com/ 291. THE SUPERBUGS3.32 understand that resistance to antibiotics can increase in bacterial populations, and appreciate how such an increase can lead to infectionsbeing difficult to control1) Bacteria reproduce very frequently so mutations (different alleles) are common.2) These mutations can mean that they are no longer affected/controlled by a certainantibiotic3) Surviving generations carry the mutation (allele)making it easier for them to survive.4) If bacteria evolve over many generations to be resistant to drugs we are treatingthem with then they are difficult to control5) Sometimes they can be controlled using a different antibiotic6) These bacteria in turn become resistant to new antibiotics due to the high rate orreproduction and random mutations7) Currently some are becoming resistant to all current know antibiotics.Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA or golden staph), vancomycin-resistantEnterococcus (VRE) and multi-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-TB) 292. The Makings of a Mutant (TA)3.33 understand that the incidence of mutations can be increased by exposure to ionising radiation (for example gamma rays, X-rays andultraviolet rays) and some chemical mutagens (for example chemicals in tobacco).(TA)Mutations are: a) inherited b) happen on their own(although this is rare).The frequency that mutation occurs naturally can beincreased by exposure to radiation gamma rays X-rays ultraviolet raysAndChemical mutagens chemicals in tobacco..Not Nicotine!) 293. Ecology & Environment 294. Definitions4.1 understand the terms population, community, habitat and ecosystem Population: all the individuals of a particularspecies within a defined area Community: a group of different populationsliving in the same area Habitat: the physical, chemical and biologicalenvironment in which an organism lives Ecosystem: a community of living things andthe environment in which they live 295. How to Use a Quadrat (1)4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats. A quadrat can be used to calculatethe total population of a species(e.g. snails). Simply count the number ofindividuals in the quadrat. This technique only works for largeorganisms which can bedistinguished as individuals and donot move fast (not always easy forplants, e.g. grass and tigers) 296. How to Use a Quadrat (2)4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats. A quadrat can be used tocalculate the percentage coverof a species (e.g. moss). The quadrat is divided into100 smaller squares. The percentage cover of thequadrat is simply the numberof squares filled with thespecies. 297. How to Use a Quadrat (3)4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats. A quadrat can be used tocalculate the percentagefrequency of a species (e.g.daisies in a field). The quadrat is divided into 100smaller squares. You simply counta 1 for each square the species isin and a 0 for those where it isabsent. This gives you an indication of thefrequency of the species, it doesnot tell you the total population. 298. USE of A Sample Quadrat4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats.The best use of a quadrat is in obtaining a sample(it is not practical to count all of the species)e.g. one cannot count all of the grass plants in a field!Ecologists use quadrats to sample from a habitat. 299. You can use the data to:4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats.Compare different species in ONEareaCompare the same species in TWOor MORE areas 300. Using a Quadrat4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats.Sampling:1) Sample has to be random (so no bias isintroduced).2) Samples have to be representative, so we have totake a large enough sample. At least 5% ofhabitat. 301. Using a Quadrat4.2 explain how quadrats can be used to estimate the population size of an organism in two different areas4.3 explain how quadrats can be used to sample the distribution of organisms in their habitats.How to make a quadrat sample? Find the boarders of your habitat (measure) Divide your habitat into a grid with X and Y coordinates. Randomly place your quadrat (use a random numbers for X & Ycoordinates) Count number or organism/organisms, percentage cover orfrequency of organisms. Record all data in a table. Repeat until a large enough sample size is completed Average all data Scale up average (multiply average per quadrat by number ofquadrats in habitat) Compare:1. Different species in same habitat2. Same species from a different habitat 302. Review from the past4.4 explain the names given to different trophic levels to include producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers and decomposers 303. Feeding Relationships4.4 explain the names given to different trophic levels to include producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumers and decomposersFood chains are used to show the relationshipsbetween species in a habitat. E.g.The secondary Consumer (eats the PrimaryConsumer)The Primary Consumer (eats the producer)The Primary Producer (all food chains start with this)FOXRABBITGRASSEach level in a food chain is called a Trophic Level 304. Definitions of Different Trophic levels4.4 explain the names given to different trophic levels to include producers, primary, secondary and tertiary consumersand decomposers Producers:Plants (use sunlight to obtain nutrients) Primary Consumer:Herbivores (plant eaters) Secondary Consumer:Carnivore (animal / herbivore eaters) Tertiary Consumer:Carnivore (animal / carnivore eaters) Decomposers:Usually a bacterium or fungi, that breaks down the cells ofdead plants and animals into simpler substances. 305. FOOD WEBS4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transferFood chains can be built up into complex foodwebs. The difference between food chains andfood webs is that food webs have branches,chains never do. 306. A Pyramid of Numbers4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transferIn a pyramid of numbers, the length of each barrepresents the number of organisms at eachtrophic level in a specified area. 307. Pyramid of numbers (complex)4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer 308. Pyramid of Biomass4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transferIn a pyramid of biomass, the length of each bar represents theamount of organic matter biomass at each trophic level in aspecified area.At each trophic level, the amount of biomass andenergy available is reduced, giving a pyramid shape. 309. Pyramid of Biomass4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer 310. Compare Numbers to Biomass4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energytransfer 311. Pyramid of Energy4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer It is a graphical representation of the trophic levels,by which the incoming solar energy is transferred tothe ecosystem. It shows the total energy flow in the ecosystem. There does not exist an inverted energy pyramid. 312. Pyramid of Energy4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of number, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer4.6 understand the transfer of substances and of energy along a food chain4.7 explain why only about 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.Energy is never lost, it is transferred.Not all the energy is transferred to the nextstage is converted into growth. 313. Pyramid of Numbers, Biomass & Energy4.5 understand the concepts of food chains, food webs, pyramids of numbers, pyramids of biomass and pyramids of energy transfer 314. Cycles within Ecosystems4.8 describe the stages in the water cycle, including evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation (TA)transpiration 315. Some quick definitions4.8 describe the stages in the water cycle, including evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation (TA)Evaporation: To change from a liquid or solid stateinto vapour.Condensation: To become liquid or solid, as a gas orvapour.Precipitation: Rain, snow, sleet, dew, etc, formedby condensation of water vapour in theatmosphere.Transpiration: The passage of watery vapourthrough the skin or through any membrane or porein plants. 316. CARBON CYCLE4.9 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion 317. Some quick definitions4.9 describe the stages in the carbon cycle, including respiration, photosynthesis, decomposition and combustion Respiration : The process in living organisms oftaking in oxygen from the surroundings andgiving out carbon dioxide (external respiration). Photosynthesis : The synthesis of organiccompounds from carbon dioxide and water (withthe release of oxygen) using light energyabsorbed by chlorophyll. Decomposition : To break down (organic matter)physically and chemically by bacterial or fungalaction. Combustion : The process of burning 318. NITROGEN CYCLE4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria anddenitrifying bacteria (specific names of bacteria are not required). (TA) 319. NITROGEN CYCLE4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria anddenitrifying bacteria (specific names of bacteria are not required). (TA) 320. NITROGEN CYCLE4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria anddenitrifying bacteria (specific names of bacteria are not required). (TA) 321. NITROGEN CYCLE4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifyingbacteria and denitrifying bacteria (specific names of bacteria are not required). (TA) 322. Nitrogen Cycle4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria and denitrifying bacteria(specific names of bacteria are not required). (TA)This is not particularly easy to understand. You need toknow the roles of all the different bacteria. There are 4; Decomposers turn nitrogen in protein into ammonium+)(NH4-) into Nitrites Denitrifying Bacteria turn Nitrates (NO3-) into ammonium (NH4(NO2+ ) into Nitrogen gas (N2)+) into nitrites Nitrifying bacteria turn ammonium (NH4-) and then nitrates (NO3(NO2-)+) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria turn N2 into ammonium (NH4 323. WAIT!!!4.10 describe the stages in the nitrogen cycle, including the roles of nitrogen fixing bacteria, decomposers, nitrifying bacteria and denitrifying bacteria (specific names ofbacteria are not required). (TA)There is more that you are not expected to know fromyour syllabus, but may be included as additionalinformation in your exam on the Nitrogen Cycle Extension - leguminous plants All of the above bacteria are naturally present in thesoil. The only exception to this is that some Nitrogen-fixingbacteria (e.g. Rhizobium) live in the roots ofsome plants. These plants are called legumes (e.g.peas, clover etc). They have a symbiotic relationshipwith the bacteria i.e. both the bacteria and the plantbenefit from working together. 324. Human influences on the environment4.11 understand the biological consequences of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and by carbon monoxideAcid rain:SO2, CO2 and NOx (oxides of nitrogen) dissolve inrain to form Sulphuric Acid, Carbonic Acid andNitric Acid.This falls as acid rain, which destroys soil,pollutes waterways and causes erosion. 325. BIOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES4.11 understand the biological consequences of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and by carbon monoxide1) Acid rain can 'burn' trees. This stops photosynthesis.2) Sulphuric acid causes Calcium and Magnesium to beleached out of the soil. Without Calcium and Magnesiumions in the soil plants leaves turn yellow/wither and theplant can't grow.3) Reduce the pH of the streams & lakes. The affect isthat it releases aluminum ions (Al3+) which causes thethickening of mucus in the fishes gills. Fish have difficultyin obtaining oxygen. The fish numbers decrease. 326. CO4.11 understand the biological consequences of pollution of air by sulfur dioxide and by carbon monoxideCarbon Monoxide (CO) is a gas added to the atmosphereby the combustion of fossil fuels (particularly coal)burned with insufficient oxygen. Carbon monoxide combines with our hemoglobininside our blood and blocks hemoglobin from carryingoxygen which reduces oxygen circulation. This is toxic, too much carbon monoxide can be fatal. 327. Greenhouse Gasses4.12 understand that water vapour, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane and CFCs are greenhouse gases4.13 understand how human activities contribute to greenhouse gases 328. Global Warming4.14 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may lead toglobal warming and its consequencesGreenhouse gases trap heat around the surfaceof the Earth and are needed to keep the planetwarm enough for life.1) Incoming shortwave radiation passes through the atmosphere andhits the Earth, where it is absorbed. (LIGHT)2) The Earth re-emits the radiation as longer-wavelength Infra-Redradiation. (HEAT)This is the problem.3) Too much IR radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases on its wayout of the atmosphere. This traps the too much heat in theatmosphere. 329. GREENHOUSE EFFECTGOOD4.14 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may lead to global warming and its consequences 330. GREENHOUSE EFFECTBAD4.14 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may lead to globalwarming and itsconsequences 331. GREENHOUSE EFFECT4.14 understand how an increase in greenhouse gases results in an enhanced greenhouse effect and that this may lead to global warming and itsconsequencesThe theory goes that the greenhouse effect is causingglobal warming, which is bad. Global warming mightcause:a) Polar ice cap melting (Sea levels rising)b) Extinction of species living in cold climatesc) Changes in rainfall (both droughts and flooding)d) Changes in species distribution (i.e. tropical speciesspreading, like mosquitoes) 332. Eutrophication4.15 understand the biological consequences of pollution of water by sewage, including increases in the number of micro-organismscausing depletion of oxygen (TA)4.16 understand that eutrophication can result from leached minerals from fertiliserEutrophication is what happens when too much chemicalfertiliser is used on crops and it washes/leaches into riversand streams.(also nitrates can come from sewage)1) The nitrates in the fertilisers are essential to get crops togrow well and increase yields.NITRATES ADDED2) However, if too much is used, or it rains soon after it isadded to fields, the fertiliser gets washed away.RUN OFF3) The nitrates then help plants in the rivers and streams togrow very quickly, especially algae.ALGAL BLOOM 333. 4) But after the initial massive growth in algaethere isn't enough light and water plants dieMASSIVE PLANT DEATH5) Without sunlight and when the nitrates runout MOST of the algae dieMASSIVE ALGAL DECAY6) All those dead plant start to decay. Respiringbacteria remove oxygen from the water.ANOXIC CONDITIONS7) No Oxygen kills fish and other animals.ANIMAL DEATH AND DECAY 334. 8) Then even more algae and animals die.MORE DEATH & DECAY9) pH levels fall as decomposition produces acidspH DROPS10) Everything dies and waterway can no longersupport lifeTOTAL DEATHSo farmers have to be very careful using fertilisersso as not to wipe out all river and lake life. 335. Simply but Clearly4.15 understand the biological consequences of pollution of water by sewage, including increases in the number of micro-organisms causingdepletion of oxygen (TA)Nitrates >Algae Grow >Algae Die >Algae Decay >No Oxygen >Fish &Animals Die 336. Deforestation4.17 understand the effects of deforestation, including leaching, soil erosion, disturbance of the water cycle and of thebalance in atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxideCutting down trees and not replacing causes: Leaching of soil minerals Soil erosion / washed and blown away (no rootsholding soil together) Desertion (new deserts forming) Disturbance of the water cycle (less transpirationcan lead to flooding and / or drought) Increase in CO2 levelsLess photosynthesis Decrease in O2 productionBurning trees 337. Section 5Use of Biological Resources a) Food production b) Selective breeding c) Genetic modification (genetic engineering) d) Cloning 338. Food productionCROP PLANTS5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshousesGreenhouses and polythene tunnels raise the temperature, which increasesthe rate of photosynthesis, which increases crop yield.(Yield - The total mass of the edible part of crop.)1) If the level of CO2 in the greenhouse is increased the yield will furtherincrease .2) Heating units increase temperature and CO2. (combustion)(remember, CO2 is a limiting factor in photosynethsis)3) In winter months using artificial lights gives a longer day for growing4) Transparent glass and plastic allow short wave energy in (light) and reflectlong wave energy back (heat) to keep temperature high. 339. Glasshouses and Polythene tunnels5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain crops5.2 understand the effects on crop yield of increased carbon dioxide and increased temperature in glasshouses 340. What is grown5.1 describe how glasshouses and polythene tunnels can be used to increase the yield of certain cropsHigh value crops are grown in polythene tunnels andgreenhouses.Some examples are: Strawberries Tomatoes FlowersOnly high value crops make sense to grow in this intensiveway.(Value of crop must exceed cost of production) 341. Fertilizer and Crop Yield5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yieldIf fertilizers are added (specifically those that containPotasium, Nitrate and Phosphate KNP fertilisers) thenthe yield will increase even more!Potassium essential for plant membranesNitrate essential for making plantproteinsPhosphate essential for DNA and membranes 342. Fertilizer and Crop Yield5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yield Nitrogen is used to makeprotiens Proteins increase biomass (moreplant) Increase in biomass increasesmarketable part of the crop( on a plant) Increased crop increases revenue(the cost of fertilizer must be lessthen the increase in value of thecrop) 343. Eutrophication againSimply but Clearly5.3 understand the use of fertiliser to increase crop yieldNitrates >Algae Grow >Algae Die >Algae Decay >No Oxygen >Fish &Animals Die 344. Pest Control5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control withcrop plantsPest Control can also be used to increase Yield. This can be doneeither using pesticides or biological controls. Pesticide a chemical that kills pests (anything that eats yourcrop), but does not harm the crop plant Biological control introducing a biological organism which willeat the pest, but not the crop plant (e.g. birds are sometimesencouraged inside greenhouses because they eat caterpillars) 345. Name some cides5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plants Herbicides Insecticides Fungicides Molluscicides Fratricides Suicides Homicide Uxoricide Matricide Patricide Vatricide Deicide Tomeicide MundicidePlantsInsectsFungiShellfishBrotherSelfPersonWifeMotherFatherPoetsGodBooksEverything 346. Pesticides5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plantsDisadvantages of using pesticides: pesticides may enter andaccumulate in food chains pesticides may harm organismswhich are not pests some pesticides are persistent.DDT 347. Biological Control5.4 understand the reasons for pest control and the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides and biological control with crop plantsAdvantages and disadvantages ofbiological control, to include: advantages: no need for chemical pesticides does not need repeated treatment disadvantages: predator may not eat pest may eat useful species may increase out of control may not stay in the area where it isneeded. 348. Micro Organisms5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of beerYeastRemember that yeast are capable of respiring1) aerobically (producing CO2 and water)&2) anaerobically (producing CO2 and ethanol).Yeast are therefore used in the brewing industry. 349. MAKING BEER5.5 understand the role of yeast in the production of beerIn order to make beer: barley seeds are allowed to germinate by soakingthem in warm water (This is called malting). The germinating barley seeds break down theircarbohydrate stores, releasing sugar. After a couple of days the barley seeds are gentlyroasted (which kills them). The dead seeds are put into a fermenter withyeast. The yeast use the sugar for anaerobic respirationand produce ethanol. 350. Well its beer 351. EXPERIMENT5.6 describe a simple experiment to investigate carbon dioxide production by yeast, in different conditionsYou need to know:An experiment that shows the production of CO2 by yeast, indifferent conditions:IV (choose one and keep the others constant):a) Type of sugarb) Concentration of sugar (mass meter/measuring cylinder - %)c) Temperature of solution (thermometer 0C)DV (Measure one):a) Height of frothy bubbles (ruler - cm)b) Volume of CO2 produced (gas syringe - mL)c) Volume of CO2 from delivery tube to inverted container overwater (graduated cylinder mL)The best example is to mix a yeast suspension with sucroseAny CO2 produced can be collected over water or bubbled throughlime water or hydrogen carbonate indicator 352. 5.6 describea simpleexperimentto investigatecarbondioxideproduction byyeast, indifferentconditions 353. Graphs and Limiting Factors5.6 describe a simple experiment to investigate carbon dioxide production by yeast, in different conditionsThe rate of CO2 production levels off in theexperiments over time.Reason:1) Sugar (glucose/sucrose) is a limiting factor2) Ethanol is produced which is toxic to micro-organisms(yeast) 354. MAKING YOGHURT5.7 understand the role of bacteria (Lactobacillus ) in the production of yoghurt (TA)Lactobacillus bacterium is This bacterium is used to turn milkinto yoghurt.It uses lactose sugar in the milk to produce lactic acid byanaerobic respiration.A. The lactic acid affects the milk proteins, making theyoghurt curdle (go solid) and giving it the characteristictart taste.B. lowers the pH of milk to inhibit harmful to humanbacterial growth 355. Industrial Fermenters5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter,including aseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms(TA)Fermenters are huge containers that hold up to 200,000dm3 of liquid.They make it possible to control the environmental conditions such as:1. Temperature2. Oxygen3. Carbon Dioxide concentrations4. pH5. Nutrient levelsThis allows microorganisms can grow and respirewithout being limited and can work as efficiently aspossible(High Yield) 356. MAKING MONEY FROM BACTERIA5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, includingaseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms (TA)It is very important the everything in thefermenter is sterile, so that only themicroorganisms that are wanted grow in theculture.Fermenters are used to produce commercially: Penicillin (antibiotic) in aerobic conditions Beer (ethanol) in anaerobic conditions Yoghurt (lactic acid) in anaerobic conditions 357. FERMENTER5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including asepticprecautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms (TA)Important details:Water Cooling jacket keeps the microorganisms at optimum temperature.They will produce lots of heat through respiration, therefore need to becooled!Paddles keep stirring the mixture. This stops waste products from building upand keeps the air evenly mixedNutrient medium supplies the microorganisms with fuel for respirationSterile Air supply supplies clean O2 for respiration (note: this is not requiredin anaerobic fermentation processes)Data-logger monitors temperature and pH, keeps the fermenter at optimumconditions 358. Fermenter Diagram5.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, including asepticprecautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms (TA)You dont need to beable to draw this out,but you could beasked to label adiagram of afermenter or beasked to explain thefunction of thevarious parts of afermenter. 359. STOPPING THE O2, RELEASING CO25.8 interpret and label a diagram of an industrial fermenter and explain the need to provide suitable conditions in the fermenter, includingaseptic precautions, nutrients, optimum temperature and pH, oxygenation and agitation, for the growth of micro-organisms (TA)The valve releases CO2 under pressure stops Oxygen andmicroorganisms from entering 360. Why Fish farming(overview)5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control ofintraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding. Control feeding diet quality and frequency Control water quality, temperature and waste removal Control predation Control disease and parasites Select for species, size and quality No boats needed and a guaranteed harvest Less overfishing of natural wild fish stocks No risk of catching unwanted (non-marketable species) 361. Fish farming5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control ofintraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding.Fish are farmed in fish farms because they are agood source of protein.1) Fish farms keep lots of fish in very small tanks tominimize space requirements.2) To stop the fish fighting with each other theseprecautions are taken; 362. Fish farming5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control ofintraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding.To reduce predation: Nets cover tanks Barriers separate tanks 363. Basic Points5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, includingmaintenance of water quality, control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of wasteproducts, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding.- Different fish species are kept inseparate tanks. This stopscompetition between species offish (interspecific competition)- Fish of different genders are keptseparately (unless they are beingbred)- Fish of different ages are keptseparately. This stops competitionbetween fish of the same species(intraspecific competition) 364. INCREASING YIELD5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality,control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use ofselective breeding.The fish are fed often and in small amounts, or fed withprotein-rich food(where does the protein come from?)Sometimes hormones are added to the water to speedgrowth.Only the biggest and most healthy fish are allowed tobreed.(The small and unhealthy fish end up as fish food.)This is an example of selective breeding. 365. INCREASING YIELD, DECREASING DISEASE, MAKINGSUPERBUGS AND AFFECTING CONSUMERS5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality, control of intraspecific andinterspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use of selective breeding.The use of antibiotics will increase the rate of growth (yield) &decrease incidence of disease.Pesticides decrease the growth and spread of parasitesNegatives:1. It can also selectively breed antibiotic resistant bacteria.2. Pesticides can kill other invertebrates3. Pollution from organic material leads to eutrophication4. Antibiotics may not degrade and can be passed on toconsumers (humans). 366. DECREASING DISEASE5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality,control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use ofselective breeding.Water is closely monitored.Fish are continuously supplied with fresh sterilewater so that wastes and excess nutrients arewashed out constantly.The fish are kept in sterile water to limit disease,which would spread very quickly in the crampedponds. 367. DECREASING DISEASE5.9 explain the methods which are used to farm large numbers of fish to provide a source of protein, including maintenance of water quality,control of intraspecific and interspecific predation, control of disease, removal of waste products, quality and frequency of feeding and the use ofselective breeding.C:O:R:M:M:S:QuestionAnswer Notes MarksC different temperatures / eq;O same species / size/ age/gender/eq;R repeat / eq;M1 mass / length / number / eq;M2 time period stated;(one day minimum)S1 and S2 same food type / same food mass /same oxygen / tank size /fish density stated / eq;;6Total 6 368. Selective Breeding5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding. 369. Definition5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding.Selective Breeding:a. Individuals with desired characteristics arebred togetherb. This is to produce offspring which expressdesired characteristics.c. Offspring with desired characteristics arebredd. Repeat over many generations 370. Examples:Examples5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding.Increased yield and reduction of stem length in wheatIncreased yield of meat and milk in cattle. 371. Selective Breeding Points5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding. Process of controlled sexual reproduction Potentially can take thousands of years Can lead to huge variation in a species.Example: dog family 372. Selective Breeding(a simple how to guide. again)5.10 understand that plants with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding5.11 understand that animals with desired characteristics can be developed by selective breeding. Identify individual organisms that have adesirable trait in a population. Breed these individuals together. From offspring choose those with thedesirable trait. Breed these offspring together. Continue for a long, long, long time 373. Genetic ModificationSyllabus points 5.12 5.20 374. GeneticModificationSyllabus points 5.12 5.20Review thestructure of DNA:DNA is a double-stranded molecule. The strands coil up to form a double-helix. The strands arelinked by a series of paired bases.Thymine (T) pairs with Adenine (A)Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) 375. Process of Genetic Engineering5.14 understand that large amounts of human insulin can be manufactured from genetically modified bacteria that are grown in a fermenterThe example you need to know is the creation of E colibacteria that makes human insulin.However, a more fun example is Alba, the glow-in-the-darkbunny, and pigs that makes the protein luminol (FGP)(taken from a jellyfish!) 376. TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS5.12 describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join pieces of DNA togetherThe organism that receives the new gene from adifferent species is a transgenic organism. 377. PROCESS5.12 describe the use of restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and ligase enzymes to join pieces of DNA together1) Plasmids are isolated from a bacterium.2) They are cut open with a specific restrictionenzyme.3) The gene to be transferred is cut from the donorDNA us