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Tests and measures to improve performance
Université de Franche-Comté, Besançon, France, 07 November, 2013
Dr Roger RamsbottomDepartment of Sport and Health SciencesOxford Brookes University
MONITORING THE TRAINING RESPONSE
Appreciate a programme involves appropriate training stress and recoveryUnderstand the reasons for repeated testing of the athlete / normal healthy individual to monitor progress during trainingAppreciate the physiological, biomechanical and psychological factors influencing performanceUnderstand the energy systems involved in specific movement requirements involved in competitionAppreciate test methodology and understand the data provided by both laboratory and field tests
LEARNING OUTCOMES
CONTINUUM OF TRAINING STAGES
ASSESSING POTENTIAL AND PERFORMANCE
Talent Identification (potential)A screening process to identify individuals with particular talent or potential within a given sport or sportsTID personnel visit schools/clubs to identify individuals for fast track sports development programmes
Athlete Testing and Assessment (performance)A sport-specific battery of tests aimed at existing athletes already in a sports science support systemAimed at improving the competitive performance of the individual athlete
REASONS FOR TESTING
1. Identify strengths and weaknessesconduct tests to measure important performance components2. Aid training programme prescriptione.g. training aimed at eliminating weaknesses3. Monitor progressassess effectiveness of the prescribed training programme4. Provide feedback and motivationfeedback provides the incentive to improve5. Educate coaches and athletesimproves understanding of performance components and the way different training interventions affect them6. Predict performance potentialcorrelation of test results with competitive performances allows performance prediction on the basis of tests
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES
Co-ordination
SkillEconomy
Energy Output
Aerobic Energy Production
Strength
Power
Psychological Status
Anaerobic Energy
Production
Environmental/Climatic
Responses
Performance
Body Composition
FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE – LABORATORY BESED ASSESSMENT MEASURES
Co-ordinationSkill
Economy
Energy Output
Aerobic Energy Production
Strength
Power
Psychological Status
Anaerobic Energy Production
Environmental/Climatic
Responses
Performance
Body CompositionBioelectrical ImpedanceBodPod
Environmentalchamber
Psychological assessment
MargariaWingateAOD
VO2max
Tlac
Wingate or equiv.
Isokinetic dynamometry
Submax. VO2
Biomechanical assessment
PERFORMANCE PROFILING
Can be tailored for different sports
Excellent tool for athlete involvement
Regular physiological testing should correspond to improvements in targeted areas
DETERMINANTS OF ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
%Type 1 Muscle Fibres
Performance Velocity
Performance Power
Resistance to Movement
Performance VO2
Lactate Threshold Power or Velocity
Lactate Threshold VO2
VO2 max
Economy of Movement
Gross Mechanical Efficiency
Muscle Capillary Density
Stroke Volume Aerobic Enzyme Activity
Distribution of Power and Technique
Functional Abilities
Performance Abilities
Morphological Components
TRAINING TECHNIQUES FOR ENDURANCE CYCLISTS
Prolonged distance
Aerobic intervals/Transition trainingPower/speed training
Resistance training
Base trainingGen. preparation
Several weeks before competition
Several weeks before competition
Off-season
Workout Training phase Duration Intensity(%HRmax)
Frequency(sessions/wk)
Primary benefits
1-6 hours
8-10 reps (x5 min with 1 min recovery)
8-10 reps (x1 min with 5-10 min recovery)
1 hour
60-75
85-90
Maximal
-
3-4
1-2
1-2
1-2
Impr. VO2max, endurance, ox.enz, efficiencyImpr. VO2max, maintain high power output, lactate tolerance
Enhanced max speed/power, incr. glycolyic enz. activityIncr. strength and endurance
1-2
1-2l
Jeukendrup (2002) High-performance cycling Pub. Human Kinetics, Leeds
ENERGY SYSTEMS USED FOR THE REGENERATION OF ATP
A brief resumé
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE THE CURRENCY OF ENERGY TRANSFER
ADENOSINE - O - P - O - P - O - P - OHO O O
OH OH OHHigh Energy
Bonds
TRIPHOSPHATE
ATP
ADP
Energy requiringprocesses (e.g.
muscle contraction) lead
to hydrolysis of ATP
to ADP
Oxidation ofFuel (food)
leads torephosphorylati
on of ADP to ATP
E E
ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS -1
1. ATP is broken down enzymatically to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) to yield energy for muscle contraction.
2. Phosphocreatine (PCr) is broken down enzymatically to creatine and phosphate, which are transferred to ADP to re-form ATP.
3. Glucose 6-phosphate; derived from muscle glycogen or blood- borne glucose through anaerobic glycolysis, is converted to lactate and produces ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation reactions.
4. The products of carbohydrate, lipid, protein and alcohol metabolism can enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA or Krebs) cycle in the mitochondria and be oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation and yields energy for the synthesis of ATP.
There are four different mechanisms involved in the generation of energy for muscle contraction:
1
3
4
2
ENERGY RESUPPLY SYSTEMS - 2
1. ATPQ. How long does the initial supply of ATP last?
2. CREATINE PHOSPHATEQ. What provides the first line of resupply?
Q. How long does this supply last?
3. ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSISR. What is the next source of resupply?
Q. How long does this supply last?
A.
4. AEROBIC METABOLISMQ. What is the final source of resupply?
Q How long does this supply last?
ANAE
ROBIC
AERO
BIC
Approximately 1 second
‘Alactic ‘Anaerobic Metabolism – Phospho Creatine
ADP + PCr ATP + C
Between 5 and 8 seconds
‘Lactic’ Anaerobic Metabolism - Anaerobic GlycolysisBreakdown of Glucose in the absence of oxygen
As long as carbohydrate is available – but the rateof ATP generation slows down as the end products(Lactic acid/ Hydrogen Ions) accumulate
Aerobic MetabolismBreakdown of fuel (CHO, fat or protein) in thePresence of oxygen
As long as the fuel supply – but the rate of supply of oxygen is the limiting factor to ATPregeneration and therefore speed in events lasting between 2mins and 1.5hrs. At the end long events (>1.5hrs) stores of glycogen and the capacity to metabolise fat determine theability to maintain speed
‘ALACTIC’ ANAEROBIC METABOLISM - THE PHOSPHOCREATINE SHUTTLE
1. During short-term exercise (1-8 s), energy released on hydrolysis of PCr is used to re-phosphorylate ADP to form ATP (MM-CK)
2. Free Cr-- diffuses to the mitochondrion where it is rephosphorylated (Mi-CK) by aerobically generated ATP
3. The PCr then shuttles back to the muscle fibre, ready again to provide phosphate-bond energy for the re-phosphorylation of ADP
ATP and PCr are non-aerobic sources of phosphate bond energy.
1
2
3
MM-CK – Muscle (M isoform) of Creatine KinaseMi-CK – Mitochondrial Creatine Kinase
THE MAJOR BIOCHEMICAL PATHWAYS FOR ATP PRODUCTION
Anaerobic and Aerobic
Metabolism
ENERGY SUPPLY DURING ‘ALL OUT’ EXERCISE
LABORATORY ASSESSMENT OF PERFORMANCE AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES SHOULD SPECIFICALLY ADDRESS
- Energy Systems- Muscle Groups- Movement Patterns
….utilised during competition.
LABOARTORY AND FIELD TESTS: EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS TESTS/SPORTS
Performance Component Laboratory/Rowing Field/Soccer
Aerobic Power Incremental test with GE analysis on rowing ergometer
Progressive shuttle-run test (bleep test)/Bangsbo Yo-Yo Tests
Anaerobic Power Specific rowing ergometer power test
Standing jump/sprint
Anaerobic threshold
Incremental test with lactate analysis on rowing ergometer
Conconi Test
Anaerobic Capacity
Maximum accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD)
High intensity shuttle run test (HIST)
Strength Isokinetic dynamometry 1 Repetition Maximum
Economy Submaximal VO2 Experienced coaching ‘eye’
TESTING AND ASSESSMENT GUIDELINES
Respect the athlete’s rights- informed consent- data protection- safetyUndertake appropriate tests- relevance- specificity- practicality- validityEnsure good quality control- precision- reliability- sound test interpretation
DEREMINING ANAEROBIC POWER AND CAPACITY
DETERMINING ANAEROBIC POWER AND CAPACITY
Jump TestsMargaria Step
Wingate
AOD
MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE POWER: SARGEANT (VERTICAL) JUMP TEST
Simple Vertical Jump test- based on measure of height gained- improves with countermovement- tendency to improve with practice
Muscle Power is calculated according to the following equation:
Power (kg m s-1) = 4.91/2 x body mass x Jump height1/2.
NewTest:
MEASURING MAXIMAL MUSCLE POWER: MARGARIA STAIR CLIMB TEST
Simple stair run test- timed by 2 pressure
mats >1.05 vertical metres apart
- steps climbed 2 or 3 at a time
- test time < 1 sec
Power is calculated by the following equation:
mass (kg) x vertical displacement (m) x 9.8time (s)
Power (W) =
MEASURING INTERMEDIATE-TERM MUSCLE POWER: WINGATE TEST
30 s maximal cycle ergometer testProvides data on:- peak power output (highest power output in any 5 s period)- mean power output (over 30 s)- fatigue index (difference between peak power output and min power output divided by PPO (or time))
0100200300400500600700800900
0 10 20 30
Time (s)
Pow
er (W
)
Length of test can be modified to make it more event specific
ESTIMATING ANAEROBIC CAPACITY: (MAXIMUM) ACCUMULATED OXYGEN DEFICIT
1. Perform multiple submaximal tests to determine the linear regression equation relating VO2 (mL min-1) and Power (W)
2. Regression line is extrapolated to ‘supramaximal’ workloads to enable theoretical VO2 estimate of supramaximal work
3. Undertake intense exercise bout lasting 2-5 min, measuring VO2 throughout
– may be all out for defined period or constant intensity
4. The AOD is the difference between the measured VO2 and the VO2 equivalent of the work done, based on the VO2 power regression
DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
DETERMINING AEROBIC POWER AND ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
MLSSTLAC
TVENT
Economy
VO2max
MEASURING AEROBIC POWER: LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS
LaboratoryMaximalDirect measure of VO2max using pulmonary gas exchange:motorised treadmill, cycle or other sport-specific ergometrySubmaximalÅstrand 6-min cycle ergometer testFieldMaximalProgressive Multi-stage Shuttle-run TestYo-Yo Tests (Recovery and Endurance)Cooper 12 minute runSubmaximalBench stepping (e.g. Chester Step Test)Rockport 1 mile walk
MEASURING AEROBIC POWER IN THE LABORATORY: COMMON PROTOCOLS
1.Supramaximal test: usually over race time – e.g. 6 minutes for rowers
2.Ramp test: continuous and seamless increase in speed/power
3.Incremental test: step increases in speed/ power; may be continuous or discontinuous
Ramp & incremental are undertaken to volitional exhaustion.
Measures:• Expired air is normally collected either
continuously or for 1 minute at relevant points throughout the test for determination of gas exchange variables (VE, VO2 , VCO2 ).
• Heart rate and RPE are usually recorded• Blood may also be removed for (lactate
or other metabolites) analysis
1. Supramaximal
2. Ramp
3. Incremental(continuous ordiscontinuous)
Time
Work rate
Workrate @ VO2max
MEASURING AEROBIC POWER INTHE LABORATAORY
Criteria for identifying VO2max in an incremental test:
- VO2 should level off at the highest exercise intensity (<2.0mL.kg-1.min-1 or 3% increase) despite an increase in the work rate. Otherwise VO2peak.- RER >1.15- Heart rate within 10 beats of predicted maximum- Post-exercise (4-5 min) total blood lactate > 8.0 mMol.L-1
- Subjective fatigue and volitional exhaustion- RPE of 19-20 on Borg Scale
Requirements for valid assessment. The exercise must:• utilise at least 50% of total muscle mass• be continuous and rhythmical• be undertaken for a prolonged period (>4min)• be performed under standard conditions avoiding excessive heat, humidity,
pollution or altitudeResults must be independent of motivation or skill
LABORATORY TESTS TO PREDICT ENDURANCE PERFORMANCE
Maximal Lactate Steady State (MLSS):- accurate determination of the maximum exercise intensity at which LA levels remain stable- invasive and requires multiple laboratory visitsLactate Threshold (TLAC):- provides an estimate of MLSS using an incremental exercise test- rapid, but invasive and not always representative of MLSS- affected by glycogen depletionVentilatory Threshold (TVENT):- provides a non-invasive estimate of MLSS- rapid and non-invasive, but results not always easy to interpretExercise economy:- oxygen cost at a given submaximal power output
MAXIMAL LACTATE STEADY STATE
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
Blo
od la
ctat
e (m
Mol
.L-1
)
200 W220 W
240 W
260 W
280 W
300 W
MLSS workrate
LACTATE THRESHOLD (TLAC)Whole blood
lactate (mM)
10
8
6
4
2
0
Increasing Work rate / Speed
Lactate Threshold-1
(TLAC
)
Lactate Threshold-2
(TLAC
)
FIXED BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATION
Fixed blood or ‘reference’ lactate concentrations is a simple way of identifying lactate thresholds. The measurement of LT1 and LT2 is simply performed by determining the power output at the set blood lactate concentrations
Using reference blood lactate concentrations helps to minimize the biological variation in terms of where the inflection points are perceived to be in the blood lactate curve
REFERENCE BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATIONS
TRAINING ZONES BASED ON THE BLOOD LACTATE CURVE
HR and RPE can be use to control / monitor training
VENTILATORY THRESHOLD (TVENT)
5
4
3
2
1
0
250
200
150
100
50
0
VentilatoryThreshold-1
(TVENT)
VE
(L.min-1)
VO2
(L.min-1)
Increasing Work rate / Speed
VentilatoryThreshold-2
(TVENT)
Tvent-2 = respiratory compensation pointTvent-1 = metabolic threshold
COINCIDENCE OF TLAC WITH TVENT
Whole blood lactate (mM)
10
8
6
4
2
0Work rate / Speed
Lactate Threshold(TLAC)
5
4
3
2
1
0Work rate / Speed
VO2 (l.min-1)
250
200
150
100
50
0
VE (l.min-1)
VentilatoryThreshold
(TVENT)
Glycogen depleted
Normal Glycogen levels
CALCULATING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM RESPIRATORY DATA
CALCULATING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM RESPIRATORY DATA
Ventilatory equivalent method
Initially both the VE/VO2 and VE/VCO2 decrease. Later an intensity is reached where VE/VO2 increases at a much faster rate
CALCULATING AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC THRESHOLDS FROM RESPIRATORY DATA
V-slope method
Tvent is the point at which VCO2 increases at a faster rate than VO2
PROTOCOL FOR MEASURING RUNNING ECONOMY
1) Conduct a VO2max test on a treadmill2) From the data develop a regression equation relating VO2 (mL kg-1 min-1) to running speed (m s-1; km h-1) 3) Measure the oxygen cost at 60, 70, 80 and 90% VO2max4) Plot O2 uptake (y axis) against running speed (x axis)
CALCULATING ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD FROM HEART RATE DATA?
Deflection from linearity at high intensities has been associated withblood lactate accumulation (Conconi et al, 1982) and anaerobic threshold.
Can be performed in the field and related to the disciplines’ velocity.However, measure is not always evident and there are questions over its reliability.
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS – HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 1
Incremental treadmill testHR and lactate responseHow can it help the athlete?
Can aid:Training prescription
E = Easy runningS = Steady runningT = Tempo runningI = Interval training
Has the training period had the desired effect?
How does the data fit within the norms?
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS – HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 2
NormsNBA Guards
60-65 ml kg-1min-1 (V02 max) NBA Forwards and Centres
55-60 ml kg-1min-1 National League Average
52 ml kg-1min-1
(Range 33-65 ml kg-1min-1)
Most team sports use field testingUsing sport specific movement patterns
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS – HOW CAN THEY BE UTILIZED? 3
17.7m
12.7m
In
A B5m
Normative Data
England Senior Men/Women 55.4 / 50.8 mL.kg-1min-1 VO2 max
Single sprint <2.6/<2.9 s
Run Three <9.5/<11.0 s
505 Cricket Agility Test <1.9/2.2 s
Rolling Start
MONITORING TRAINING LOADThere is a distinct difference between training volume, intensity and load.
Training volume does not incorporate training intensity over the session, and therefore does not provide a valid measure of training load (e.g. distance, time, total weight lifted, time at crease (cricket), points / games (racket sports).
Conversely while training intensity helps to describe how hard a session was, it does not provide any guide as to how long the session was (e.g. velocity, heart rate, %VO2 reserve, lifts per min, recovery time between sprints).
Therefore the product of the two variables is equivalent to the ‘load’ of the training session.
TRAINING IMPULSE (TRIMPS) LOADING
A simple method to calculate training load is the average heart rate across the session multiplied by its duration (training impulse or TRIMPS)
The purpose of TRIMPS is to provide a quantitative measure of ‘load’ using the HR response observed during the session
TRIMPS is only suited to endurance exercise with limited HR variation
TRIMPS does provide a simple and objective measure of training load from a session
TRIMPS load: Duration (min) x HRaverage (b min-1)
MONITORING TRAINING LOAD
http://www.ismarttrain.com/articles/TRIMPS.php
OVERVIEW OF ATHLETE ASSESSMENT
Factors that contribute to performance in a sport need to be identified prior to designing a testing protocolThose attributes most necessary of a top class competitor are the ones to assess in order to identify strengths and weaknessesThe energy systems, muscle groups and movement patterns used in competition are the ones to assess in physiological testsTests should adhere to well established guidelines which respect the rights of the athlete and ensure validity, accuracy and reliability of the resultsTest results should be fed back to athletes and coaches in an understandable way which provides the basis for future training programmes and a source of motivationReally important to be aware of normative data for the tests you use and to have “population specific” normsTesting should be undertaken regularly as part of an ongoing and adaptable programme of monitoring.