Cross Cultural Missions Cross Cultural Missions (Intercultural)(Intercultural)

Joshva RajaJoshva Raja

Session 10Session 10

1. Anxiety-Uncertainty Management 1. Anxiety-Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM)Theory (AUM)

"Individuals attempt to reduce uncertainty in "Individuals attempt to reduce uncertainty in initial interactions with strangers."--Berger and initial interactions with strangers."--Berger and Calabrese (Guirdham 205) Calabrese (Guirdham 205)

--The greater the amount of communication the --The greater the amount of communication the lower the uncertainty.lower the uncertainty.

three General Strategies For Reducing three General Strategies For Reducing Uncertainty Uncertainty 1. Passive Strategy- doing nothing and hoping 1. Passive Strategy- doing nothing and hoping that as time passes things will become clearer.that as time passes things will become clearer.2. Active Strategy- finding out as much as 2. Active Strategy- finding out as much as possible from other people.possible from other people.3. Interactive strategy- seeking out 3. Interactive strategy- seeking out opportunities to interact with people about opportunities to interact with people about whom uncertainty exists. Using those occasion whom uncertainty exists. Using those occasion to obtain as much information as possible. to obtain as much information as possible.

AssumptionsAssumptions 1. There is at least one person in the 1. There is at least one person in the

interaction that is unknown to the other.interaction that is unknown to the other.2. Strangers experience anxiety with initial 2. Strangers experience anxiety with initial interactions and are unsure how to behave. interactions and are unsure how to behave. 3. Both uncertainty and anxiety are 3. Both uncertainty and anxiety are independent elements of independent elements of interpersonal/intercultural communication.interpersonal/intercultural communication.4. The stranger's monitor their actions 4. The stranger's monitor their actions actively.actively.5. Interpersonal/Intercultural communication 5. Interpersonal/Intercultural communication is altered by all forms of communication. is altered by all forms of communication. 6. There can be an exaggeration of influence 6. There can be an exaggeration of influence of one group member over the entire group. of one group member over the entire group. (Guirdham 209) (Guirdham 209)

AxiomsAxioms 1. Increasing stranger's positive 1. Increasing stranger's positive

expectations.expectations.2. Increase in similarities between 2. Increase in similarities between members from different groups.members from different groups.3. Increase in networking among strangers 3. Increase in networking among strangers from different groups.from different groups.4. Increase in stranger's self-monitoring.4. Increase in stranger's self-monitoring.5. Increase in stranger's tolerance for 5. Increase in stranger's tolerance for ambiguity.ambiguity.6. Increase in attributional confidence 6. Increase in attributional confidence which in turn leads to an increase in inter-which in turn leads to an increase in inter-group adaptation.group adaptation.7. Decrease in anxiety leads to inter-group 7. Decrease in anxiety leads to inter-group adaptation.adaptation.8. Increase in uncertainty avoidance leads 8. Increase in uncertainty avoidance leads to increase in anxiety.to increase in anxiety.(Guirdham 210) (Guirdham 210)

Resources Resources Berger, C.R. (1979).Berger, C.R. (1979). Beyond Initial Beyond Initial

Interaction:Uncertainty, Understanding, and the Interaction:Uncertainty, Understanding, and the Development of Interpersonal Relationships. In Development of Interpersonal Relationships. In H. Giles & St.Clair (Eds.), Language and Social H. Giles & St.Clair (Eds.), Language and Social PsychologyPsychology (pp.122-144). Oxford:Blackwell. (pp.122-144). Oxford:Blackwell.

Berger, C.R. (1988).Berger, C.R. (1988). Uncertainty and Uncertainty and Information Exchange in Developing Information Exchange in Developing Relationships.Relationships. In S. Duck (Ed.) "Handbook of In S. Duck (Ed.) "Handbook of Personal Relationships" (pp.239-255). Personal Relationships" (pp.239-255). London:John Wiley.London:John Wiley.

Guirdham, M. (1999).Guirdham, M. (1999). Communication Across Communication Across Cultures.Cultures.Canada:MacMillian Press.Canada:MacMillian Press.

Infante, D.A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D.F. Infante, D.A., Rancer, A.S., & Womack, D.F. (1997). (1997). Building Communication TheoryBuilding Communication Theory (3rd (3rd ed.) Prospect Heights, IL.:Waveland Press. ed.) Prospect Heights, IL.:Waveland Press.

Humanistic ApproachHumanistic Approach

A healthy individual will tend to see A healthy individual will tend to see congruence between their sense of congruence between their sense of who they are (self) and who they feel who they are (self) and who they feel they should be (ideal self). While no they should be (ideal self). While no one tends to experience perfect one tends to experience perfect congruence at all times, the relative congruence at all times, the relative degree of congruence is an indicator degree of congruence is an indicator of one's effectiveness to guide others of one's effectiveness to guide others and be guided by himself.and be guided by himself. (Carl (Carl Rogers)Rogers)

leader seeks to provide empathy, leader seeks to provide empathy, openness, and unconditional positive openness, and unconditional positive regard. regard. 

Maslow’s theoryMaslow’s theory Maslow's theory emphasizes motivation Maslow's theory emphasizes motivation

as the key to understanding human as the key to understanding human behavior behavior 

Peak experiences are defined by Maslow Peak experiences are defined by Maslow as moments in life which take us beyond as moments in life which take us beyond our ordinary perceptions, thoughts, and our ordinary perceptions, thoughts, and feelings. Typically, the individual feels feelings. Typically, the individual feels energized, more "alive" in that he/she is energized, more "alive" in that he/she is literally "enlightenment"), which comes literally "enlightenment"), which comes unexpectedly, and transforms the unexpectedly, and transforms the individual's understanding of individual's understanding of themselves and the world. themselves and the world. 

"A sense making process in which two "A sense making process in which two parties achieve a shared meaning."  parties achieve a shared meaning."  

ResourcesResources

Rogers, C. R. (1961) Rogers, C. R. (1961) On Becoming a On Becoming a Person. A therapist's view of Person. A therapist's view of psychotherapypsychotherapy, Boston: Houghton , Boston: Houghton Mifflin (1967 - London: Constable) Mifflin (1967 - London: Constable)

Rogers, C. R. (1980) Rogers, C. R. (1980) A Way of BeingA Way of Being, , Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Edward T. Hall defines culture as, "man's Edward T. Hall defines culture as, "man's medium; there is not one aspect of human life medium; there is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture. that is not touched and altered by culture. This means personality, how people express This means personality, how people express themselves (including shows of emotion), the themselves (including shows of emotion), the way they think, how they move, how problems way they think, how they move, how problems are solved, how their cities are planned and are solved, how their cities are planned and laid out, how transportation systems function laid out, how transportation systems function and are organized, as well as how economic and are organized, as well as how economic and government systems are put together and and government systems are put together and function. It is the least studied aspects of function. It is the least studied aspects of culture that influence behavior in the deepest culture that influence behavior in the deepest and most subtle ways" (Hall, 1976, p. 14). and most subtle ways" (Hall, 1976, p. 14).

Basically, the theory of High and Low Context Basically, the theory of High and Low Context Cultures refers to the way persons of different Cultures refers to the way persons of different cultures interact with each other throughout cultures interact with each other throughout their daily lives. their daily lives.

Colorado

Edward T HallEdward T Hall

Monochronic and Polychronic culturesMonochronic and Polychronic culturesHigh context culture and low context High context culture and low context

culturecultureProxemicsProxemics

The Silent Language, Beyond Culture, The Silent Language, Beyond Culture, The Dance of Life, The Dance of Life, and and Hidden Hidden DifferencesDifferences

Low context cultureLow context culture

Logical and linear Logical and linear Personal control over Personal control over the environmentthe environment

Present and future Present and future orientedorientedReliance on the Reliance on the verbal over the verbal over the nonverbal messagenonverbal messageCompetitiveCompetitiveChange over traditionChange over tradition

High context High context cultureculture

Relational and Relational and intuitiveintuitiveLove and harmony Love and harmony with naturewith naturePast orientedPast orientedReliance on non-Reliance on non-verbal codes over verbal codes over verbal messagesverbal messagesCooperativeCooperativeTraditions over Traditions over change change

MONOCHRONIC PEOPLE POLYCHRONIC PEOPLE

do one thing at a time do many things at once

concentrate on the jobare highly distractable and subject

to interruptions

take time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously

consider an objective to be achieved, if possible

are low-context and need information

are high-context and already have information

are committed to the jobare committed to people and

human relationships

adhere religiously to plans change plans often and easily

are concerned about not disturbing others; follow rules of privacy and consideration

are more concerned with those who are closely related (family, friends, close business associates) than with privacy

show great respect for private property; seldom borrow or lend

borrow and lend things often and easily

emphasize promptnessbase promptness on the

relationship

are accustomed to short-term relationships

have strong tendency to build lifetime relationships

Resources Resources

Hall, Edward T., Hall, Edward T., Beyond CultureBeyond Culture, Anchor , Anchor Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, Press/Doubleday, Garden City, New York, 19761976

Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed, Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed, Hidden Hidden Differences, Doing Business With the Differences, Doing Business With the JapaneseJapanese, Anchor Press, Doubleday: , Anchor Press, Doubleday: Garden City, New York, 1987Garden City, New York, 1987

Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed, Hall, Edward T., and Mildred Reed, Understanding Cultural DifferencesUnderstanding Cultural Differences, , Intercultural Press, Inc., 1990. Intercultural Press, Inc., 1990.

The Sapir-Whorf HypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Linguistic Determinism refers to the idea Linguistic Determinism refers to the idea that the language we use to some extent that the language we use to some extent determines the way in which we view and determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. think about the world around us.

language influences (or controls) the way language influences (or controls) the way someone thinks about reality.someone thinks about reality.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis sheds light on The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis sheds light on how similar words carry a different how similar words carry a different meaning when translated into another meaning when translated into another languages. Because someone might be languages. Because someone might be raised in American culture, this means raised in American culture, this means that they will struggle to relate foreign to that they will struggle to relate foreign to foreign cultures due to the different foreign cultures due to the different conventions of other languages.conventions of other languages.

Resources Resources

Chandler, D. Chandler, D.   The Sapir-Whorf The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.  Hypothesis.  <http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Docu<http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/whorf.html>  (2002, ments/short/whorf.html>  (2002, March)March)

"Current Interpretations of the Sapir-"Current Interpretations of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis."  Whorf Hypothesis."  <http://www.geocities.com/CollegePa<http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/4110/whorf.html>  (2002, March)rk/4110/whorf.html>  (2002, March)

HOFSTEDE'S CULTURAL HOFSTEDE'S CULTURAL PATTERNSPATTERNS

Hofstede developed a model that identifies Hofstede developed a model that identifies five primary dimensions to differentiate five primary dimensions to differentiate cultures. cultures.

Power distance - It suggests that a society's Power distance - It suggests that a society's level of inequality is endorsed by the followers level of inequality is endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders. Power and as much as by the leaders. Power and inequality, of course, are extremely inequality, of course, are extremely fundamental facts of any society and anybody fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'. some are more unequal than others'.

IndividualismIndividualism

On the individualist side we find societies in On the individualist side we find societies in which the ties between individuals are which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family. him/herself and his/her immediate family. On the collectivist side, we find societies in On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. unquestioning loyalty.

Masculinity/FemininityMasculinity/Femininity

(a) women's values differ less among societies (a) women's values differ less among societies than men's values; (b) men's values from one than men's values; (b) men's values from one country to another contain a dimension from country to another contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other. The assertive pole has been values on the other. The assertive pole has been called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole called 'masculine' and the modest, caring pole 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries 'feminine'. The women in feminine countries have the same modest, caring values as the have the same modest, caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as somewhat assertive and competitive, but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men's values and women's values. gap between men's values and women's values.

Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such situations by strict laws and possibility of such situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding we have it'. People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, by inner nervous energy. The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side. side.

Long Term/Short Term Long Term/Short Term OrientationOrientation

Values associated with Long Term Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's obligations, and protecting one's 'face'. 'face'.

Minority and Majority IdentityMinority and Majority Identity

Minority children are faced with social Minority children are faced with social challenges that white children do not challenges that white children do not have to deal with. "White children do not have to deal with. "White children do not need to attend to the norms and values need to attend to the norms and values of minority groups unless they have of minority groups unless they have direct exposure in their neighborhoods direct exposure in their neighborhoods and schools. Minority children, however, and schools. Minority children, however, are exposed to and compare themselves are exposed to and compare themselves to White cultural norms through to White cultural norms through television, books, and other media" television, books, and other media" (Nakayama 37). (Nakayama 37).

MinorityMinority

1. Conformity 1. Conformity 2. Dissonance 2. Dissonance 3. Resistance/ 3. Resistance/ denial denial 4.Introspection 4.Introspection

5. Synergetic 5. Synergetic articulation articulation

1. Contact 1. Contact 2. 2. Disintegration Disintegration 3. 3. Reintegration Reintegration 4. Pseudo-4. Pseudo-independent independent 5. Autonomy 5. Autonomy

MajorityMajority

ReferencesReferences

Aoki, Eric. "Cultural Definitions." Co-Aoki, Eric. "Cultural Definitions." Co-Cultural Communication Lecture, Colorado Cultural Communication Lecture, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins. 10 Sep. 2003.State University, Ft. Collins. 10 Sep. 2003.

Gallagher, Charles A. "Miscounting Race: Gallagher, Charles A. "Miscounting Race: Explaining Whites' Misperceptions of Explaining Whites' Misperceptions of Racial Group Size." Racial Group Size." Socialogical Socialogical PerspectivesPerspectives 46,3 (2003): 381-396. 46,3 (2003): 381-396.

Greenblatt, Alan. "Are Blacks still Greenblatt, Alan. "Are Blacks still Handicapped by Racism?" Handicapped by Racism?" CQ ResearcherCQ Researcher 13,25(2003). 13,25(2003).

Huntington and CivilizationsHuntington and Civilizations

It is my hypothesis that the fundamental It is my hypothesis that the fundamental source of conflict in this new world will not be source of conflict in this new world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. primarily ideological or primarily economic. The great divisions among humankind and The great divisions among humankind and the dominating source of conflict will be the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nation states will remain the most cultural. Nation states will remain the most powerful actors in world affairs, but the powerful actors in world affairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of different between nations and groups of different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will be civilizations. The clash of civilizations will be the battle lines of the future.the battle lines of the future.

http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/irvinem/CCT510/Sources/Huntington-ClashofCivilizations-1993.html

Theories for what?Theories for what?

Theories about intercultural communication Theories about intercultural communication hypothesize that when people of different hypothesize that when people of different cultures meet, they have four options cultures meet, they have four options (Krieger 1991: 98; Wijsen 2003: 273): (Krieger 1991: 98; Wijsen 2003: 273):

a. Some people identify strongly with the a. Some people identify strongly with the own religious culture. After meeting the own religious culture. After meeting the other they “jump back” to what is known to other they “jump back” to what is known to them. them.

b. Other people identify with the b. Other people identify with the religious culture of the other. They religious culture of the other. They “cross over” to the other culture and “cross over” to the other culture and forget about their own. forget about their own.

c. Again other people identify with c. Again other people identify with none of the religious cultures. They none of the religious cultures. They live in a “cultural no-man’s land”.live in a “cultural no-man’s land”.

d. But most people create an d. But most people create an intermediate set of beliefs and intermediate set of beliefs and practices which offers a synthesis practices which offers a synthesis between the two.between the two.

ModelsModels

In the literature three models of In the literature three models of intercultural communication and intercultural communication and hermeneutics are distinguished (Mall 2000; hermeneutics are distinguished (Mall 2000; Sundermeier 2003: 70-72): Sundermeier 2003: 70-72): a. The “equality model”: This model a. The “equality model”: This model stresses “sameness”: The others are like stresses “sameness”: The others are like us; all people are equal. us; all people are equal. b. The “alterity model”: This model stresses b. The “alterity model”: This model stresses “otherness”: The others are not like us; “otherness”: The others are not like us; they are strangers, potential enemies. they are strangers, potential enemies. c. The “analogy model”: This model c. The “analogy model”: This model stresses “complementariness”. The others stresses “complementariness”. The others are like us but not the same. are like us but not the same.

Christian mission and Christian mission and Intercultural skillsIntercultural skills

This is true for communication researchers This is true for communication researchers in the Netherlands (Hofstede 1991, Pinto in the Netherlands (Hofstede 1991, Pinto 1990, Shadid 1998, Trompenaars 1993, 1990, Shadid 1998, Trompenaars 1993, Hamelink 1979, Vink 2004) as well as for Hamelink 1979, Vink 2004) as well as for those in other countries (Kincaid 1988, those in other countries (Kincaid 1988, Gudykunst and Kim 1992; Kim 2002), Gudykunst and Kim 1992; Kim 2002), except for ‘applied’ theories of Christian except for ‘applied’ theories of Christian communication (Kraemer 1956, Nida 1960, communication (Kraemer 1956, Nida 1960, Hesselgrave 1979, Kraft 1991). The present Hesselgrave 1979, Kraft 1991). The present research program aims to bridge this gap. research program aims to bridge this gap.

http://www.ru.nl/nim/chair_for_missiology/research_programme/

New terms in MissionNew terms in Mission

Communi-actionCommuni-actionSpec-actorSpec-actorCo-actorCo-actor

Methods of teaching across Methods of teaching across CulturesCultures

Banking and Dialogic (Paulo Freire)Banking and Dialogic (Paulo Freire)Crossing boundaries (Martin Buber – I Crossing boundaries (Martin Buber – I

thou relationship not I-it relationship)thou relationship not I-it relationship)Respect and critique (Role of Organic Respect and critique (Role of Organic

Intellectual -Intellectual - Gramsci)Gramsci)Recognising and Bringing out Recognising and Bringing out

meanings within (Kierkegaard) meanings within (Kierkegaard)

Cross Cultural skillsCross Cultural skills

Willingness (Viruppu-Willingness (Viruppu-Tamil Words)Tamil Words)

Contact (Thodarbu)Contact (Thodarbu) Relationship (Uravu)Relationship (Uravu) Understanding (Purivu) Understanding (Purivu) Courage (Thunivu)Courage (Thunivu) Humbleness(Panivu) Humbleness(Panivu) Kindness (Kanivu)Kindness (Kanivu)

De Nobili a Hinduized Missionary

Cross Cultural teaching skillsCross Cultural teaching skills

Listen to the otherListen to the otherSee the contextSee the contextTouch the handsTouch the handsObserve the actsObserve the actsSmell the fragranceSmell the fragranceFeel the environmentFeel the environmentThink of good thingsThink of good thingsTaste the foodTaste the food Imagine the mind of the otherImagine the mind of the other

Cross Cultural starting pointsCross Cultural starting points

Misunderstanding leads to Misunderstanding leads to UnderstandingUnderstanding

Confusion leads to Fusion of culturesConfusion leads to Fusion of culturesUnity is not uniformityUnity is not uniformityOneness is not samenessOneness is not samenessChaos is starting point of creationChaos is starting point of creation

Because these people broke Because these people broke their cultural barriers they could their cultural barriers they could

transform the world!transform the world!

Egyptian Nurses in ExodusEgyptian Nurses in ExodusPeter and Paul in the first Christian Peter and Paul in the first Christian

Council in JerusalemCouncil in JerusalemFrancis of AssisiFrancis of AssisiMahatma Gandhi and Nelson Mahatma Gandhi and Nelson

MandelaMandelaMother TheresaMother Theresa

Directions in Cross Cultural Directions in Cross Cultural teachingteaching

Huntington Thesis 1992 – Clash of Huntington Thesis 1992 – Clash of Civilizations - Grouping of cultures Civilizations - Grouping of cultures

Edward Said – Clash of Ignorance between Edward Said – Clash of Ignorance between cultural groupscultural groups

Others not Monolithic groups – rather Others not Monolithic groups – rather heterogeneous groups. heterogeneous groups.

Each cultural group have a common origin Each cultural group have a common origin is questionable!is questionable!

Are we progressing towards a better Are we progressing towards a better world?world?