© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Police in AmericaPolice in America

Chapter NineChapter Nine

The Police and The Police and CrimeCrime

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The Police and CrimeThe Police and Crime Crime Control StrategiesCrime Control Strategies

– Proactive versus Reactive Proactive versus Reactive Proactive: Anticrime strategies initiated by the police Proactive: Anticrime strategies initiated by the police

themselves, not citizens requesting servicethemselves, not citizens requesting service Reactive: Anticrime strategies used by police when Reactive: Anticrime strategies used by police when

responding to a civilian’s request for serviceresponding to a civilian’s request for service– General versus SpecificGeneral versus Specific

Directed at the community at large vs. directed at particular Directed at the community at large vs. directed at particular crimes, places, offenders, or victimscrimes, places, offenders, or victims

– Particular crimesParticular crimes– Specific placesSpecific places– Specific offendersSpecific offenders– Specific victimsSpecific victims

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Crime Control AssumptionsCrime Control Assumptions

Citizens are co-producers of police servicesCitizens are co-producers of police services Police and other social institutions are Police and other social institutions are

interdependent interdependent – Communities, families, schools, labor markets, Communities, families, schools, labor markets,

workplaces, other criminal justice programsworkplaces, other criminal justice programs

Measuring effectiveness requires meaningful Measuring effectiveness requires meaningful definitions and reliable datadefinitions and reliable data

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Preventing CrimePreventing Crime

Routine patrol is primary crime prevention Routine patrol is primary crime prevention activityactivity

Specialized crime prevention unitsSpecialized crime prevention units– Meet with citizens to discuss crime prevention Meet with citizens to discuss crime prevention

optionsoptions– Work alongside neighborhood groupsWork alongside neighborhood groups– Educating youth about crime, drugs, and Educating youth about crime, drugs, and

gangsgangs

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Apprehending CriminalsApprehending Criminals

Second major crime-fighting responsibility Second major crime-fighting responsibility of police officersof police officers

Citizen Reporting of CrimeCitizen Reporting of Crime– Citizens act as “gatekeepers” of the criminal Citizens act as “gatekeepers” of the criminal

justice systemjustice system– Patrol officers rarely discover crimes in Patrol officers rarely discover crimes in

progressprogress– Some victims do not report crimes because Some victims do not report crimes because

they do not think the crime is importantthey do not think the crime is important

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Reporting and Unfounding CrimesReporting and Unfounding Crimes

““Unfounding” a Crime: Failure of a police Unfounding” a Crime: Failure of a police officer to complete an official crime report officer to complete an official crime report when a citizen reports a crime.when a citizen reports a crime.

Reasons for Unfounding a CrimeReasons for Unfounding a Crime– Citizens do not understand the criminal lawCitizens do not understand the criminal law– Insufficient evidenceInsufficient evidence– Abuse of officer’s discretionAbuse of officer’s discretion

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Criminal InvestigationCriminal Investigation

Myths About Detective WorkMyths About Detective Work Work is exciting and dangerousWork is exciting and dangerous Detectives are heroic, courageous and skillfulDetectives are heroic, courageous and skillful These myths create unreasonable public expectations These myths create unreasonable public expectations

about the ability of police to control crimeabout the ability of police to control crime The Organization of Detective WorkThe Organization of Detective Work

Located in separate unit of departmentLocated in separate unit of department Considered a high-status assignment to be a Considered a high-status assignment to be a

detectivedetective Offers great opportunity to control one’s work and Offers great opportunity to control one’s work and

exercise initiativeexercise initiative

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The Investigation ProcessThe Investigation Process The Preliminary InvestigationThe Preliminary Investigation

1. Identify and arrest suspects1. Identify and arrest suspects 2. Provide aid to victims2. Provide aid to victims 3. Secure crime scene and prevent 3. Secure crime scene and prevent

loss of evidenceloss of evidence 4. Collect relevant physical 4. Collect relevant physical

evidenceevidence 5. Prepare preliminary report5. Prepare preliminary report

Arrest Discretion Based on the following factors:

1. Strength of evidence

2. Seriousness of crime

3. Victim request of arrest

4. Victim and suspect are strangers

5. Suspect is hostile

Follow-Up Investigations Interview witnessesInterview witnesses

Canvass crime sceneCanvass crime scene

Discuss the case with patrol Discuss the case with patrol officers officers

Interview suspectsInterview suspects

Check records and NCIC filesCheck records and NCIC files

Reality of Detective Work Not glamorous or exciting

Superficial, routine, non-productive

Case Screening Based on seriousness of crime and existence of evidence

“ Case solvability factors”

Caseload varies: nominal, workable, and actual

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Measuring the Effectiveness of Measuring the Effectiveness of Criminal InvestigationsCriminal Investigations

The Clearance RateThe Clearance Rate Traditional measure of success in a criminal investigationTraditional measure of success in a criminal investigation Only 21% of all reported Index crimes are cleared NationallyOnly 21% of all reported Index crimes are cleared Nationally Unreliable since it is based on only reported crimes and data Unreliable since it is based on only reported crimes and data

can be manipulatedcan be manipulated

Defining an ArrestDefining an Arrest Legally arrested: deprived of rights by legal authorityLegally arrested: deprived of rights by legal authority Behaviorally arrested: asked by police officer to stop, told they Behaviorally arrested: asked by police officer to stop, told they

are under arrest, or physically restrained by officerare under arrest, or physically restrained by officer Subjectively arrested: when an individual believes he/she is not Subjectively arrested: when an individual believes he/she is not

free to gofree to go Officially arrested: when officer makes an official report of arrestOfficially arrested: when officer makes an official report of arrest

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Success and Failure in Solving Success and Failure in Solving CrimesCrimes

Three main Three main case solvability factorscase solvability factors::– 1. Case Structural Factors1. Case Structural Factors

Related to the crime committedRelated to the crime committed

– 2. Organizational Factors2. Organizational Factors Lack of resources does not keep clearance rates Lack of resources does not keep clearance rates

lowlow

– 3. Environmental Factors3. Environmental Factors Characteristics of the community the police work inCharacteristics of the community the police work in Officers have no control over these factorsOfficers have no control over these factors

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Success and Failure in Solving Success and Failure in Solving Crimes ContinuedCrimes Continued

Officer ProductivityOfficer Productivity– Some officers make more arrests than othersSome officers make more arrests than others– Quality of arrests differs as well: many arrests Quality of arrests differs as well: many arrests

do not lead to a convictiondo not lead to a conviction The Problem of Case AttritionThe Problem of Case Attrition

– Only ½ of felony arrests result in convictionOnly ½ of felony arrests result in conviction– Detectives and officers typically express little Detectives and officers typically express little

interest in why this happens and how to fix itinterest in why this happens and how to fix it

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The Use of Eyewitness Identification, The Use of Eyewitness Identification, Criminalistics, and DNA in InvestigationsCriminalistics, and DNA in Investigations Eyewitness IdentificationEyewitness Identification

– Typically unreliable due to problems with human Typically unreliable due to problems with human perception and memoryperception and memory

CriminalisticsCriminalistics– Technical specialists in crime lab analyze evidence, Technical specialists in crime lab analyze evidence,

etc.etc.

DNADNA– All DNA samples forwarded to the FBI and put into All DNA samples forwarded to the FBI and put into

the National DNA Indexing Systemthe National DNA Indexing System Stores forensic data and convicted offender index dataStores forensic data and convicted offender index data

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Improving Criminal InvestigationsImproving Criminal Investigations

Changes in community policingChanges in community policing– Structural changesStructural changes

Headquarters changed to beats and precinctsHeadquarters changed to beats and precincts Assigning investigators to particular areasAssigning investigators to particular areas

– Procedural changesProcedural changes Greater intergovernmental communicationGreater intergovernmental communication Assistance from other criminal justice orgs.Assistance from other criminal justice orgs.

– Functional changesFunctional changes Role and responsibility changes for investigatorsRole and responsibility changes for investigators

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Special Investigative TechniquesSpecial Investigative Techniques

Undercover Police Undercover Police WorkWork– Deliberate deception Deliberate deception

that may promote a that may promote a habit of lyinghabit of lying

– Befriending criminals Befriending criminals May erode the May erode the

standards of policingstandards of policing

– Less supervisionLess supervision

InformantsInformants– Used especially in Used especially in

victimless crimesvictimless crimes– Criminals who possess Criminals who possess

special knowledge special knowledge – Potential problems Potential problems

because police must because police must give something in give something in return for access to return for access to that informationthat information

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Policing DrugsPolicing Drugs Drug Enforcement StrategiesDrug Enforcement Strategies

– Supply reduction strategySupply reduction strategy Buy and bust Buy and bust ““Trading up”Trading up” Long-term undercover workLong-term undercover work Drug crackdown: intensive enforcement effortDrug crackdown: intensive enforcement effort

– Demand reduction strategyDemand reduction strategy Drug education programsDrug education programs

Minorities and the War on DrugsMinorities and the War on Drugs– African Americans arrested more frequently than African Americans arrested more frequently than

whites, although usage is about the samewhites, although usage is about the same Demand Reduction: The D.A.R.E ProgramDemand Reduction: The D.A.R.E Program

– Operating in 70 percent of all public school systemsOperating in 70 percent of all public school systems

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Policing Gangs and Gang-Related Policing Gangs and Gang-Related CrimeCrime

Gang SuppressionGang Suppression– The police gang unit: specialized unitThe police gang unit: specialized unit– Has at least one sworn officer whose job it is Has at least one sworn officer whose job it is

to engage in gang control effortto engage in gang control effort Gang Prevention: G.R.E.A.T. ProgramGang Prevention: G.R.E.A.T. Program

– Gang Resistance Education and TrainingGang Resistance Education and Training– Operates in all 50 statesOperates in all 50 states– Study showed that it was not very effective at Study showed that it was not very effective at

preventing students from joining gangspreventing students from joining gangs

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Policing Career CriminalsPolicing Career Criminals

Career Criminals: People believed to be Career Criminals: People believed to be committing a high rate of offensescommitting a high rate of offenses

Repeat Offender ProgramsRepeat Offender Programs– Targeting suspected high-rate offenders for Targeting suspected high-rate offenders for

surveillance and arrestsurveillance and arrest– Targeting those with outstanding warrants Targeting those with outstanding warrants – Case-enhancement programs to provide Case-enhancement programs to provide

information about offendor historiesinformation about offendor histories

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Policing Guns and Gun CrimesPolicing Guns and Gun Crimes

Victims are most likely to be Black, American Victims are most likely to be Black, American Indian and HispanicIndian and Hispanic

Men are twice as likely to be victims compared Men are twice as likely to be victims compared to womento women

Gun SuppressionGun Suppression– Project Safe Neighborhood (PSN)Project Safe Neighborhood (PSN)– Kansas City Gun ExperimentKansas City Gun Experiment

Targeted a high-crime precinct with problem-oriented Targeted a high-crime precinct with problem-oriented policing and directed patrolpolicing and directed patrol

As a result, gun crimes fell 49%As a result, gun crimes fell 49%

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Policing Hate CrimePolicing Hate Crime

Hate CrimeHate Crime – bias motivated crimes – bias motivated crimes The Scope and Nature of Hate CrimeThe Scope and Nature of Hate Crime

– 50.8% racial bias50.8% racial bias– 18.4% religious bias18.4% religious bias– 16.6% sexual orientation bias16.6% sexual orientation bias– 13.2% ethnic/national origin bias13.2% ethnic/national origin bias

– Five main characteristics of Hate CrimesFive main characteristics of Hate Crimes Higher level of assaults against persons than crimes generallyHigher level of assaults against persons than crimes generally More violentMore violent Attacks preceded by series of confrontations that escalate in severityAttacks preceded by series of confrontations that escalate in severity More likely to be committed be group perpetratorsMore likely to be committed be group perpetrators Likely to be committed by someone the victim knowsLikely to be committed by someone the victim knows

Police Response to Hate CrimePolice Response to Hate Crime– Creation of specialized bias crime unitsCreation of specialized bias crime units

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Policing TerrorismPolicing Terrorism

The Scope and Nature of TerrorismThe Scope and Nature of Terrorism– Terrorism: “The unlawful use of force or violence Terrorism: “The unlawful use of force or violence

against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof in furtherance of political or social objectives.”thereof in furtherance of political or social objectives.”

Domestic TerrorismDomestic Terrorism– Planned and carried out by Americans on American Planned and carried out by Americans on American

soilsoil Foreign TerrorismForeign Terrorism

– Terrorist activities coordinated and perpetrated by Terrorist activities coordinated and perpetrated by foreign persons or countries against the U.S.foreign persons or countries against the U.S.

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Responding to TerrorismResponding to Terrorism

In the wake of September 11In the wake of September 11– Department of Homeland Security createdDepartment of Homeland Security created– Increasing number of U.S. Coast Guard and Increasing number of U.S. Coast Guard and

Customs Service personnelCustoms Service personnel– FBI Office of IntelligenceFBI Office of Intelligence– FBI Counterterrorism WatchFBI Counterterrorism Watch– Local police first to respond in a terrorist eventLocal police first to respond in a terrorist event

But issues between federal law enforcement But issues between federal law enforcement agencies and local police arise due to refusal to agencies and local police arise due to refusal to share critical informationshare critical information