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bio 101
Citation preview
Sylvia S
. Mad
er
Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor
BIOLOGY10th Edition
Molecular Biology of the Gene
Chapter 12: pp. 211 - 232
1
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
b.
3.4 nm
2 nm
0.34 nm
GC
A
T
TA
P
P
P
P
CG
G
CComplementary
base pairing
Sugar hydrogen bonds
sugar-phosphatebackbone
2
Outline
Genetic Material
Transformation
DNA Structure
Watson and Crick
DNA Replication
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic
Replication Errors
Transcription
Translation
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome
3
Genetic Material
Frederick Griffith investigated virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae Concluded that virulence passed from the
dead strain to the living strainTransformation
Further research by Avery et al.Discovered that DNA is the transforming
substanceDNA from dead cells was being incorporated
into genome of living cells
4
Griffith’s Transformation Experiment
Mice were injected with two strains of pneumococcus: an encapsulated (S) strain and a non-encapsulated (R) strain.The S strain is virulent (the mice died); it has a
mucous capsule and forms “shiny” colonies.The R strain is not virulent (the mice lived); it
has no capsule and forms “dull” colonies.
5
Griffith’s Transformation Experiment
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
capsule
Injected live S strain hascapsule and
causes mice to die.
a. b.
Injected live R strain hasno capsule
and mice do not die.
c.
Injected heat-killed S strain does not cause
mice to die.
d.
Injected heat-killed S strain plus liveR strain causes
mice to die. Live S strain iswithdrawn from
dead mice.
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7
Transformation of Organisms Today
Result the so-called genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Invaluable tool in modern biotechnology today Commercial products that are currently much used Green fluorescent protein (GFP) used as a marker
A jellyfish gene codes for GFP The jellyfish gene is isolated and then transferred to a
bacterium, or the embryo of a plant, pig, or mouse. When this gene is transferred to another organism, the
organism glows in the dark
8
Transformation of Organisms
A normal canola plant (left) and a transgenic canolaplant expressing GFP (right) under a fluorescent light.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(Bacteria): © Martin Shields/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (Jellyfish): © R. Jackman/OSF/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; (Pigs): Courtesy Norrie Russell, The Roslin Institute; (Mouse): © Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (Plant): © Dr. Neal Stewart
9
Structure of DNA
DNA contains:Two Nucleotides with purine bases
Adenine (A)Guanine (G)
Two Nucleotides with pyrimidine basesThymine (T)Cytosine (C)
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11
Chargaff’s Rules
The amounts of A, T, G, and C in DNA: Identical in identical twins Varies between individuals of a species Varies more from species to species
In each species, there are equal amounts of: A & T G & C
All this suggests DNA uses complementary base pairing to store genetic info
Human chromosome estimated to contain, on average, 140 million base pairs
Number of possible nucleotide sequences, 4,140,000,000
12
Nucleotide Composition of DNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
O
N
N
CH
CH
C
C
NH2
cytosine(C)
3 C C2
C1
OHO P O
O
H
HH
HH
OH
CH3
O
HN
N
C
CH
C
C
OHO P O
O
H
HH
HH
OH
HN
N
N
CCH
O
C
CC
NH2N
C2
C2
C1
C1
OHO P O
O
guanine(G)
phosphate
H
HH
HH
OH
N
N
N
HCCH
NH2
C
CC
N
4
3 C2
C1
5 O
O
O
O
O
O
H
HH
HH
OH
c. Chargaff’s data
DNA Composition in Various Species (%)
Species
Homo sapiens (human)
Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly)
Zea mays (corn)
Neurospora crassa (fungus)
Escherichia coli (bacterium)
Bacillus subtilis (bacterium)
31.0
27.3
25.6
23.0
24.6
28.4
31.5
27.6
25.3
23.3
24.3
29.0
19.1
22.5
24.5
27.1
25.5
21.0
18.4
22.5
24.6
26.6
25.6
21.6
A T G C
a. Purine nucleotides b. Pyrimidine nucleotides
nitrogen-containingbase
sugar = deoxyribose
thymine(T)
adenine(A)
HO P O CH2
5CH2
5CH2
5CH2
C
4 C
4 C
4 C
C
3 C
3 C
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Animation
14
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15
Watson and Crick Model
Watson and Crick, 1953
Constructed a model of DNA
Double-helix model is similar to a twisted ladder
Sugar-phosphate backbones make up the sides
Hydrogen-bonded bases make up the rungs
Received a Nobel Prize in 1962
16
Watson/Crick Model of DNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a: © Kenneth Eward/Photo Researchers, Inc.; d: © A. Barrington Brown/Photo Researchers, Inc.
P
P
P
P
c.
b.
complementarybase
sugar-phosphatebackbone
3.4 nm
2 nm
0.34 nm
P
P
SS
4
5 end 3 end
11
23
23
5
4
5
CG
G
C
C
G
T
T
A
A
C
G
a.
d.d.
5 end
sugar
hydrogen bonds
17
X-Ray Diffraction of DNA
Rosalind Franklin studied the structure of DNA using X-rays.
She found that if a concentrated, viscous solution of DNA is made, it can be separated into fibers.
Under the right conditions, the fibers can produce X-ray diffraction pattern She produced X-ray diffraction photographs. This provided evidence that DNA had the following
features: DNA is a helix. Some portion of the helix is repeated.
18
X-Ray Diffraction of DNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
© Photo Researchers, Inc.; c: © Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
X-ray beam
b.c.
Rosalind Franklin
diffraction pattern
CrystallineDNA
diffractedX-rays
a.
19
Replication of DNA
DNA replication is the process of copying a DNA molecule.
Replication is semiconservative, with each strand of the original double helix (parental molecule) serving as a template (mold or model) for a new strand in a daughter molecule.
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21
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23
Replication: Eukaryotic
DNA replication begins at numerous points along linear chromosome
DNA unwinds and unzips into two strands
Each old strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand
Complementary base-pairing forms new strand on each old strand
Requires enzyme DNA polymerase
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26
Replication: Eukaryotic
Replication bubbles spread bi-directionally until they meet
The complementary nucleotides join to form new strands. Each daughter DNA molecule contains an old strand and a new strand.
Replication is semiconservative:
One original strand is conserved in each daughter molecule i.e. each daughter double helix has one parental strand and one new strand.
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28
Semiconservative Replication of DNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
region of parentalDNA double helix
G
G
G
T
A
A
C
C
3'5'
AT
C G
A T
A
G
GC
C G
A
region ofreplication:new nucleotidesare pairingwith those ofparental strands
region ofcompletedreplication
daughter DNA double helix
oldstrand
newstrand
daughter DNA double helix
oldstrand
newstrand
CC
A
AT
T
GG
TA
TA
CG
AT
AT
A
CGA
TAT
A
TA
CG
CG
A
G
T
A
C
G
C
G
A
Animation
29
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31
Science Focus: Aspects of DNA Replication
GC
AT
T
GC
G C
AP
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P is attached hereOH
CH2
C
C C
C
H H
H
H H
OH
OHO
base is attached here
5 end
3 end 5 end
template strandDirection of replication
new strand
Deoxyribose molecule
RNA primer
3
3
5
3
5
5parental DN A helix
helicase at replication fork
leading new strand
template strand
template strand
lagging strand
DNA polymerase
DNA polymeraseDNA ligase
Okazaki fragment
Replication fork introduces complications
5
7
6
4
3
2
1
DNA polymeraseattaches a newnucleotide to the 3carbon of theprevious nucleotide.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
5
4
3 2
1
3 end
3
32
Replication: Prokaryotic
Prokaryotic Replication
Bacteria have a single circular loop
Replication moves around the circular DNA molecule in both directions
Produces two identical circles
Cell divides between circles, as fast as every 20 minutes
33
Replication: Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
origin
replication isoccurring in
two directions
replication iscomplete
replication fork replication bubble
a. Replication in prokaryotes
parental strand
daughter strand
new DNAduplexes
b. Replication in eukaryotes
34
Replication Errors
Genetic variations are the raw material for evolutionary change
Mutation:
A permanent (but unplanned) change in base-pair sequence
Some due to errors in DNA replication
Others are due to to DNA damage
DNA repair enzymes are usually available to reverse most errors
35
Function of Genes
Genes Specify EnzymesBeadle and Tatum:
Experiments on fungus Neurospora crassaProposed that each gene specifies the synthesis of
one enzymeOne-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis
Genes Specify a PolypeptideA gene is a segment of DNA that specifies the
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Suggests that genetic mutations cause
changes in the primary structure of a protein
36
Protein Synthesis: From DNA to RNA to Protein
The mechanism of gene expressionDNA in genes specify information, but
information is not structure and functionGenetic info is expressed into structure &
function through protein synthesisThe expression of genetic info into
structure & function:DNA in gene controls the sequence of
nucleotides in an RNA moleculeRNA controls the primary structure of a protein
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38
The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
nontemplate strand
3'5'
A G G G A C C C C
T C G C T G G G G
5'3'
template strandtranscriptionin nucleus
3'5'
mRN
DNA
A G G G A C C C C
codon 1 codon 2 codon 3
polypeptide
translationat ribosome
N N NC C C C C C
R1 R2 R3
Serine Aspartate Proline
O O O
39
Types of RNA
RNA is a polymer of RNA nucleotidesRNA Nucleotides are of four types: Uracil,
Adenine, Cytosine, and GuanineUracil (U) replaces thymine (T) of DNATypes of RNA
Messenger (mRNA) - Takes genetic message from DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm
Ribosomal (rRNA) - Makes up ribosomes which read the message in mRNA
Transfer (tRNA) - Transfers appropriate amino acid to ribosome when “instructed”
40
Structure of RNA
G
U
A
C
S
S
S
S
P
P
P
P
ribose
G
U base isuracil insteadof thymine
A
C
one nucleotide
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
41
RNA vs. DNA structure
42
The Genetic Code
Properties of the genetic code: Universal
With few exceptions, all organisms use the code the same way
Encode the same 20 amino acids with the same 64 triplets Degenerate (redundant)
There are 64 codons available for 20 amino acids Most amino acids encoded by two or more codons
Unambiguous (codons are exclusive) None of the codons code for two or more amino acids Each codon specifies only one of the 20 amino acids
Contains start and stop signals Punctuation codons Like the capital letter we use to signify the beginning of a
sentence, and the period to signify the end
43
The Genetic Code
The unit of a code consists of codons, each of which is a unique arrangement of symbols
Each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins is uniquely specified by one or more codons The symbols used by the genetic code are the mRNA bases
Function as “letters” of the genetic alphabet Genetic alphabet has only four “letters” (U, A, C, G)
Codons in the genetic code are all three bases (symbols) long
Function as “words” of genetic information Permutations:
There are 64 possible arrangements of four symbols taken three at a time
Often referred to as triplets Genetic language only has 64 “words”
44
Messenger RNA Codons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Second Base ThirdBase
FirstBase U C GA
U
C
A
G
UUUphenylalanine
UCUserine
UAUtyrosine
UGUcysteine
UUCphenylalanine
UCCserine
UACtyrosine
UGUcysteine
UCAserine
UUAleucine
UCGserine
UUGleucine
UGGtryptophan
UGAstop
UAAstop
UAGstop
U
C
A
G
CUUleucine
CUCleucine
CUAleucine
CUGleucine
CCUproline
CCCproline
CCAproline
CCGproline
CAChistidine
CAAglutamine
CAGglutamine
CAUhistidine
CGAarginine
CGGarginine
CGUarginine
CGCarginine
U
C
A
G
AUG (start)methionine
AUUisoleucine
AUCisoleucine
AUAisoleucine
ACUthreonine
ACCthreonine
ACAthreonine
ACGthreonine
AAUasparagine
AACasparagine
AAAlysine
AAGlysine
AGUserine
AGCserine
AGAarginine
AGGarginine
U
C
A
G
GUUvaline
GUCvaline
GUAvaline
GUGvaline
GCUalanine
GCCalanine
GCAalanine
GCGalanine
GAUaspartate
GACaspartate
GAAglutamate
GAGglutamate
GGUglycine
GGCglycine
GGAglycine
GGGglycine
U
C
A
G
45
Steps in Gene Expression: Transcription
TranscriptionGene unzips and exposes unpaired basesServes as template for mRNA formationLoose RNA nucleotides bind to exposed DNA
bases using the C=G & A=U ruleWhen entire gene is transcribed into mRNA,
result is a pre-mRNA transcript of the geneThe base sequence in the pre-mRNA is
complementary to the base sequence in DNA
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47
Transcription of mRNA
A single chromosomes consists of one very long molecule encoding hundreds or thousands of genes
The genetic information in a gene describes the amino acid sequence of a protein The information is in the base sequence of one side (the “sense” strand)
of the DNA molecule The gene is the functional equivalent of a “sentence”
The segment of DNA corresponding to a gene is unzipped to expose the bases of the sense strand The genetic information in the gene is transcribed (rewritten) into an
mRNA molecule The exposed bases in the DNA determine the sequence in which the
RNA bases will be connected together RNA polymerase connects the loose RNA nucleotides together
The completed transcript contains the information from the gene, but in a mirror image, or complementary form
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49
Transcription
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
nontemplatestrand
templatestrand
5'
C
C G
T A
A T
G
C
A
A
C
G
T
C
T
C
U
G
G
A
C
C
A
C
A
T
G
G
C
RNApolymerase
DNAtemplatestrand
mRNAtranscript
C
G
C
A T
C G
T A
to RNA processing
3'
3'
5'
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Animation
51
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52
RNA Polymerase
© Oscar L. Miller/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
a. 200m
b.
spliceosome
DNA
RNApolymerase
RNAtranscripts
53
Processing Messenger RNA
Pre-mRNA, is modified before leaving the eukaryotic nucleus. Modifications to ends of primary transcript:
Cap of modified guanine on 5′ end The cap is a modified guanine (G) nucleotide Helps a ribosome where to attach when translation begins
Poly-A tail of 150+ adenines on 3′ endFacilitates the transport of mRNA out of the nucleus Inhibits degradation of mRNA by hydrolytic
enzymes.
54
Processing Messenger RNA
Pre-mRNA, is composed of exons and introns. The exons will be expressed, The introns, occur in between the exons.
Allows a cell to pick and choose which exons will go into a particular mRNA
RNA splicing: Primary transcript consists of:
Some segments that will not be expressed (introns) Segments that will be expressed (exons)
Performed by spliceosome complexes in nucleoplasm Introns are excised Remaining exons are spliced back together
Result is mature mRNA transcript
55
RNA Splicing
In prokaryotes, introns are removed by “self-splicing”—that is, the intron itself has the capability of enzymatically splicing itself out of a pre-mRNA
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57
Messenger RNA Processing
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
exon
intron intron
exon exonDNA
transcription
exon
intron intron
exon exon
5' 3'pre-mRNA
exon exon exon
intron introncap poly-A tail5' 3'
exon exon exon
spliceosome
cap poly-A tail
pre-mRNAsplicing
intron RNA
5' 3'
cap poly-A tail
mRNA
nuclear porein nuclear envelope
nucleus
cytoplasm
5' 3'
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59
Functions of Introns
As organismal complexity increases; Number of protein-coding genes does not keep pace But the proportion of the genome that is introns
increases Humans:
Genome has only about 25,000 coding genes Up to 95% of this DNA genes is introns
Possible functions of introns: More bang for buck
Exons might combine in various combinations Would allow different mRNAs to result from one segment of
DNA Introns might regulate gene expression
Exciting new picture of the genome is emerging
60
Steps in Gene Expression: Translation
tRNA molecules have two binding sites One associates with the mRNA transcript The other associates with a specific amino acid Each of the 20 amino acids in proteins associates with one or
more of 64 species of tRNA
Translation An mRNA transcript migrates to rough endoplasmic reticulum Associates with the rRNA of a ribosome The ribosome “reads” the information in the transcript Ribosome directs various species of tRNA to bring in their
specific amino acid “fares” tRNA specified is determined by the code being translated in
the mRNA transcript
61
tRNA
tRNA molecules come in 64 different kindsAll very similar except that
One end bears a specific triplet (of the 64 possible) called the anticodon
Other end binds with a specific amino acid type tRNA synthetases attach correct amino acid to the
correct tRNA molecule
All tRNA molecules with a specific anticodon will always bind with the same amino acid
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63
Structure of tRNA
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
aminoacid
leucine
3
5
Hydrogenbonding
anticodon
mRNA
5'
codon
3'
b.
anticodon end
amino acid end
64
Ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Produced from a DNA template in the nucleolus
Combined with proteins into large and small ribosomal subunits
A completed ribosome has three binding sites to facilitate pairing between tRNA and mRNA The E (for exit) site
The P (for peptide) site, and
The A (for amino acid) site
65
Ribosomal Structure and Function
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Courtesy Alexander Rich
large subunit
small subunit
a. Structure of a ribosome
tRNA bindingsites
outgoingtRNA
35
mRNA
b. Binding sites of ribosome
polypeptideincomingtRNA
incomingtRNA
c. Function of ribosomes d. Polyribosome
66
Steps in Translation: Initiation
Components necessary for initiation are: Small ribosomal subunit mRNA transcript Initiator tRNA, and Large ribosomal subunit Initiation factors (special proteins that bring the above
together) Initiator tRNA:
Always has the UAC anticodon Always carries the amino acid methionine Capable of binding to the P site
67
Steps in Translation: Initiation
Small ribosomal subunit attaches to mRNA transcript
Beginning of transcript always has the START codon (AUG)
Initiator tRNA (UAC) attaches to P site
Large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit
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69
Steps in Translation: Initiation
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A small ribosomal subunitbinds to mRNA; an initiatortRNA pairs with the mRNAstart codon AUG. The large ribosomal subunit
completes the ribosome.Initiator tRNA occupies theP site. The A site is readyfor the next tRNA.
Initiation
Met
amino acid methionine
initiator tRNA
U A CA U G
mRNA
small ribosomal subunit
3'
5'
P site A siteE site
Met
large ribosomal subunitU A CA U G
start codon5' 3'
70
Steps in Translation: Elongation
“Elongation” refers to the growth in length of the polypeptide
RNA molecules bring their amino acid fares to the ribosomeRibosome reads a codon in the mRNA
Allows only one type of tRNA to bring its amino acidMust have the anticodon complementary to the
mRNA codon being readJoins the ribosome at it’s A site
Methionine of initiator is connected to amino acid of 2nd tRNA by peptide bond
71
Steps in Translation: Elongation
Second tRNA moves to P site (translocation) Spent initiator moves to E site and exits Ribosome reads the next codon in the mRNA
Allows only one type of tRNA to bring its amino acid Must have the anticodon complementary to the mRNA codon
being read Joins the ribosome at it’s A site
Dipeptide on 2nd amino acid is connected to amino acid of 3nd tRNA by peptide bond
Animation
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73
Steps in Translation: Elongation
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A tRNA–amino acidapproaches theribosome and bindsat the A site.
Two tRNAs can be at aribosome at one time;the anticodons arepaired to the codons.
Peptide bond formationattaches the peptidechain to the newlyarrived amino acid.
The ribosome moves forward; the“empty” tRNA exits from the E site;the next amino acid–tRNA complexis approaching the ribosome.
1 2 3 4
Elongation
peptidebond
Met
Ala
Trp
Ser
Val
UA
C AUG G A C
33
C G
anticodon
tRNA
asp
U
Met
Ala
Trp
Ser
Val
UA
C AUG G A C
C U G
Asp
6
UA
C A
UG G A C
C U G
Met
Val
Asp
Ala
Trp
Ser
peptidebond
6 3
UC
A
G A C
C U G
AUG
U G G
A C C
Met
Val
Asp
Ala
Trp
Ser Thr
6 3
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Steps in Translation: Termination
Previous tRNA moves to P site Spent tRNA moves to E site and exits Ribosome reads the STOP codon at the end of
the mRNA UAA, UAG, or UGA Does not code for an amino acid
Polypeptide is released from last tRNA by release factor
Ribosome releases mRNA and dissociates into subunits
mRNA read by another ribosome
Animation
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Steps in Translation: TerminationCopyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Termination
The release factor hydrolyzes the bondbetween the last tRNA at the P site andthe polypeptide, releasing them. Theribosomal subunits dissociate.
3
5
AG A
U G A
The ribosome comes to a stopcodon on the mRNA. A releasefactor binds to the site.
UA
UA U G A
stop codon5' 3'
Asp
Ala
TrpVal
Glu
release factor
Ala
Trp
Val
Asp
Glu
UC U
Animation
77
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78
Summary of Gene Expression (Eukaryotes)
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TRANSCRIPTION1. DNA in nucleus serves as a template for mRNA.
2. mRNA is processed before leaving the nucleus.
mRNA
pre-mRNA
DNA
introns
3. mRNA moves into cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes.
TRANSLATION
mRNAlarge and smallribosomal subunits
5
3'
nuclear pore
4. tRNAs with anticodons carry amino acids to mRNA.
5
peptide
codon
ribosome
3UA
AU
CG
5 C CGG
GCG
CG
C
CCC
GUA
UA
UA
UUA A
6. During elongation, polypeptide synthesis takes place one amino acid at a time.
7. Ribosome attaches to rough ER. Polypeptide enters lumen, where it folds and is modified.
8. During termination, a ribosome reaches a stop codon; mRNA and ribosomal subunits disband.
5. During initiation, anticodon-codon complementary base pairing begins as the ribosomal subunits come together at a start codon.
aminoacids
anticodon
tRNA
CU A
3'
Animation
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80
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome
Contains a single linear DNA molecule, but is composed of more than 50% protein.
Some of these proteins are concerned with DNA and RNA synthesis,
Histones, play primarily a structural role Five primary types of histone molecules Responsible for packaging the DNA
DNA double helix is wound at intervals around a core of eight histone molecules (called nucleosome)
Nucleosomes are joined by “linker” DNA.
81
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome
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a. Nucleosomes (“beads on a string”)
b. 30-nm fiber
c. Radial loop domains
d. Heterochromatin
e. Metaphase chromosome
1. Wrapping of DNA around histone proteins.
4. Tight compaction of radial loops to form heterochromatin.
3. Loose coiling into radial loops.
2. Formation of a three-dimensional zigzag structure via histone H1 and other DNA-binding proteins.
5. Metaphase chromosome forms with the help of a protein scaffold.
2 nm
1 nm
300 nm
1,400 nm
700 nm
30 nm
DNAdouble helix
histones
histone H1
nucleosome
euchromatin
Animation
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Review
Genetic Material
Transformation
DNA Structure
Watson and Crick
DNA Replication
Prokaryotic versus Eukaryotic
Replication Errors
Transcription
Translation
Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosome
Sylvia S
. Mad
er
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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor
BIOLOGY10th Edition
Molecular Biology of the Gene
Chapter 12: pp. 211 - 232
84
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
b.
3.4 nm
2 nm
0.34 nm
GC
A
T
TA
P
P
P
P
CG
G
CComplementary
base pairing
Sugar hydrogen bonds
sugar-phosphatebackbone