Chapter 7:

Memory

What is Memory?What is Memory?The outcome of The outcome of learninglearning

• Active system that receives, Active system that receives, stores, organizes, alters, and stores, organizes, alters, and recovers (retrieves) recovers (retrieves) informationinformation

• 2 basic categories 2 basic categories of learning:of learning:1. Non-associative1. Non-associativeResults from an experience with a single type of event2. Associative2. AssociativeCaused by the conjunction of 2 or more events

Stages of Memory• Memory systems

act like a computer with:– Encoding

• Converting information into a useable form

• Typing data into a computer

– Storage• Holding this information

in memory for later use

– Retrieval: Taking memories out of storage

Stages of MemoryStages of Memory• Sensory Memory

– The first stage of memory

– Stores an exact copy of incoming information

• Iconic memories– Fleeting visual or

mental images– Lasts about ½ second

• Echoic memories– Brief continuation of

the sound in the auditory system

– Lasts about 2 seconds

Stages of MemoryStages of Memory• Short-Term Memory Short-Term Memory

(STM)(STM) – Receives portion of Receives portion of

information from sensory information from sensory memory through the memory through the selective attention filterselective attention filter

• Holds small amounts of Holds small amounts of information brieflyinformation briefly

• Information:Information: – Can be coded as images or Can be coded as images or

phonetically (based on phonetically (based on sound)sound)

– Is lost unless it is rehearsed Is lost unless it is rehearsed

– Is very sensitive to Is very sensitive to interruption or interferenceinterruption or interference

Stages of MemoryStages of Memory• Short-Term Short-Term

Memory (STM)Memory (STM) – Working MemoryWorking Memory

• Another name for Another name for STMSTM

• like a mental like a mental “scratchpad”“scratchpad”

• especially used for especially used for thinking and problem thinking and problem solvingsolving

Short-Term MemoryShort-Term Memory• Digit SpanDigit Span

– Test of attention and short-term memory

– String of numbers is recalled forward or backward

– Typically part of intelligence tests

• Magic Number 7+/-2:Magic Number 7+/-2: – STM is limited to

holding seven (plus or minus two) information bits at once

Short-Term Memory• Chunking

– Process of grouping bits of information into larger units

– Based on meaningfulness of the bits

– Short-Term Memory capacity is then 7 ± 2 chunks

Short-Term Memory• Rehearsal Styles:

– Maintenance Rehearsal

• Repeating information silently to prolong its presence in STM

• a.k.a. rote learning; not effective for long-term learning

– Elaborative Rehearsal

• Links new information with existing memories and knowledge in LTM

• Good way to transfer STM information into LTM

Stages of Memory• Long-Term Memory

(LTM) – Storing information

relatively permanently

– Stored on basis of meaning and importance

– Considered limitless– The more you know,

the easier it is to add new information

Long-Term Memory• Permanence

– Some studies suggest memories are permanent

• Wilder Penfield stimulated brain areas with an electrode during brain surgery

• Patients reported vivid memories of long-forgotten events when stimulated

LTM: Constructing Memories

• As new LTM memories are formed, old memories are updated, changed, lost, or revised.– Constructive Processing

• Process of reorganizing or updating long-term memories

• Gaps “filled in” using logic, reasoning, or adding new information

Memory and the Memory and the BrainBrain• Long-Term Long-Term

MemoryMemory– Learning alters the Learning alters the

activity, structure, and activity, structure, and chemistry of the brainchemistry of the brain

– Many parts of brain Many parts of brain become active when we become active when we form long-term form long-term memories memories

– Specific regions may Specific regions may encode specific LT encode specific LT memoriesmemories

– Procedural (skill) Procedural (skill) memories stored in memories stored in cerebellumcerebellum

LTM: Organizing MemoriesLTM: Organizing Memories

• Network Model: Network Model: – Memory model that views it as Memory model that views it as

an organizational system of an organizational system of linked informationlinked information

– If ideas are “farther” apart, it If ideas are “farther” apart, it takes longer chains of takes longer chains of associations to connect them associations to connect them

• Redintegrative Redintegrative Memory:Memory: – Memories that are Memories that are

reconstructed or expanded by reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory and starting with one memory and then following chains of then following chains of association to related memoriesassociation to related memories

– One memory triggers anotherOne memory triggers another

Types of Long-Term MemoryTypes of Long-Term Memory

Long-TermMemory

Explicit(Declarative)

Memory

Implicit(Non-Declarative)

Memory

EpisodicMemory

SemanticMemory

MotorSkills

Habits

SimpleClassically

ConditionedResponses

ProceduralMemory

Summary of ForgetfulnessSummary of Forgetfulness Concept Description ExampleDecay Theory Gradual fading of memory as a Facts you learned in school gradually

function of time fade out of memory over time.

Interference Theory Disruption of memory caused by After sifting through your psychology

interference of previously learned lecture, you forget what you learned in

material or newly learned material chemistry class the hour before.

Retrieval Theory Failure to access material stored in You have difficulty remembering

memory because of encoding failure something you know is stored in

or lack of retrieval cues memory.

Motivated Forgetting Repression of anxiety-provoking You cannot remember a traumatic

material childhood experience.

Retrograde Amnesia Loss of memory of past events After suffering a blow to the head in a

car accident, you are unable to remem-

ber details of the accident itself.

Anterograde Amnesia Loss of impairment of the ability to Due to a brain disorder, you find it

form or store new memories difficult to retain new information

ForgettingForgettingAmnesiaAmnesiaRetrograde AmnesiaRetrograde AmnesiaLoss of memory for events preceding an accident, injury, or disease without loss of earlier memories.

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde AmnesiaLoss of memory for events after an accident, injury, or disease but not necessarily for subsequent memories.

Diseases of MemoryDiseases of MemoryAlzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease

Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease

Korsakoff’s SyndromeKorsakoff’s Syndrome

The Interference Theory of ForgettingThe Interference Theory of Forgetting

Retroactive Retroactive InterferenceInterferenceNew memories block the retrieval of old memories; new learning interferes or inhibits your ability to remember something you had learned.

Proactive Proactive InterferenceInterferenceOld memories block the retrieval of newer memories: old learning interferes or inhibits your ability to learn something now.

The Fallibility of The Fallibility of MemoryMemory

Improper storage cuesImproper storage cuesThe memories weren’t given the appropriate cues to encode them properly

Memory changes over Memory changes over timetimeNeuronal and biochemical changes reconstruct & deconstruct memories

Memory’s Fallacies

1. Transience: The forgetting that occurs with the passing of time.

2. Absent-mindedness: Often attributed to 4 things, 1) divided attention, 2) insufficient attention at the time of encoding, 3) “operating on automatic,” and 4) encoding at an extremely shallow level.

3. Blocking: Retrieval cues are unavailable even though a word or name has been encoded and stored.

4. Misattribution: Recalling events that never happened or recalling them incorrectly or at the wrong time or place. This occurs in the absence of suggestion.

5. Suggestibility: The tendency to use misleading information from external cues into personal recollections.

6. Bias: Memories of the past are rescripted to fit your present views and needs (past events are filtered by current knowledge, memories are shaped to your present interpretation of the world, the past is constructed as similar or different than the present).

7. Persistence: Remembering things you wish to forget (failures, traumas, sadness, disappointments, etc.).

Situational Factors in Situational Factors in MemoryMemory

State Dependent State Dependent MemoryMemoryRecall is best when you are in the same state of mind that you learned something in.

Context Dependent Context Dependent MemoryMemoryIt’s easier to remember something when you’re in the same context in which you learned it.

Why Do We Forget?Why Do We Forget?The lower brain checks The lower brain checks out emotional out emotional possibilities & alerts the possibilities & alerts the cortexcortex

Translation from STM to Translation from STM to LTM involves processing LTM involves processing the meaning of the the meaning of the stimulus & categorizes stimulus & categorizes it.it.

SIS is clear but each SIS is clear but each new impression new impression destroys the one before.destroys the one before.

The primacy & recency The primacy & recency effectseffects

Retrieving InformationRetrieving Information

Styles of Styles of RetrievalRetrieval1. Sequential Search1. Sequential SearchGoing through each piece of information until the appropriate information is found.

2. Using Retrieval Cues2. Using Retrieval CuesRetrieval is through a semantic network of associations.

Improving Improving MemoryMemory

1.1. AttentionAttention2.2. Rehearsal & RepetitionRehearsal & Repetition3.3. OrganizationOrganization

ImageryMethod of LociMnemonics

4.4. OverlearningOverlearning5.5. MeaningfulnessMeaningfulness