Anthropological Anthropological Theory and Theory and ResearchResearch

Analyzing Sociocultural Analyzing Sociocultural SystemsSystems

Two Competing Two Competing ApproachesApproaches

Scientific: Search for hidden but Scientific: Search for hidden but universal and unchanging principlesuniversal and unchanging principles

Experiential or Humanities: Experiential or Humanities: Experiencing another culture from a Experiencing another culture from a personal viewpersonal view

Can the two complement each Can the two complement each other? other?

Overview of This LectureOverview of This Lecture

Basic methods and techniques in Basic methods and techniques in anthropologyanthropology

Basic terms in research and theoryBasic terms in research and theory Basic principles of scienceBasic principles of science A sixfold test for assessing A sixfold test for assessing

propositionspropositions Reconciliation between the scientific Reconciliation between the scientific

and the experientialand the experiential

Anthropological Method Anthropological Method I: Fundamental I: Fundamental

PrinciplesPrinciples Holism:Holism: All aspects of a culture must All aspects of a culture must

be considered, especially their be considered, especially their interconnectionsinterconnections

Cross-Cultural ComparisonCross-Cultural Comparison: : Comparison of similar cultural traitsComparison of similar cultural traits

Cultural Relativism: Two Cultural Relativism: Two InterpretationsInterpretations

Scientific detachment: observe what Scientific detachment: observe what is out there—even cannibalism.is out there—even cannibalism.

Anthropological Method Anthropological Method II: Cultural RelativismII: Cultural Relativism

Cultural Relativism: Cultural Relativism: Acceptance of culture Acceptance of culture according to own according to own standardsstandards

Ethnocentrism:Ethnocentrism: Belief in Belief in superiority of one’s own superiority of one’s own culture (reflected in this culture (reflected in this neo-Nazi rally)neo-Nazi rally)

Ethical Relativism:Ethical Relativism: Do Do we accept all cultural we accept all cultural practices (like this practices (like this Chinese prison camp in Chinese prison camp in the name of “right to the name of “right to development”)development”)

Anthropological Method III: Anthropological Method III: Interpretations of Cultural Interpretations of Cultural

RelativismRelativism Cultural Relativism as Cultural Relativism as

Scientific Detachment: Scientific Detachment: To To understand people’s behaviorunderstand people’s behavior

Such as Dani warfareSuch as Dani warfare Cultural Boundedness: Cultural Boundedness: How How

our mental structure is our mental structure is culturally derivedculturally derived, often , often unconsciouslyunconsciously

Muslims interpret Burger Muslims interpret Burger King’s lid image of a spinning King’s lid image of a spinning ice cream cone in Britain (left)ice cream cone in Britain (left)

As an Arabic inscription for As an Arabic inscription for Allah (rightAllah (right) (Source: ) (Source: The The ScotsmanScotsman 9/17/05) 9/17/05)

Plaintiff Quote: Plaintiff Quote: “How can you say “How can you say it is a spinning swirl? If you spin it it is a spinning swirl? If you spin it one way to the right you are one way to the right you are offending Muslimsoffending Muslims."."

Anthropological Method IV: Anthropological Method IV: UniversalismUniversalism

Definition: Definition: Practices Practices that occur worldwidethat occur worldwide

Incest tabu Incest tabu (Egyptian (Egyptian brother-sister brother-sister marriage)marriage)

EtiquetteEtiquette ReciprocityReciprocity (gift (gift

exchange) red exchange) red necklace (suspended) necklace (suspended) and white armshells and white armshells (on floor) in kula ring(on floor) in kula ring, , Trobriand IslandsTrobriand Islands

Anthropological Anthropological TechniquesTechniques

ObservationObservation Participant Observation Participant Observation

(horn blowing in an (horn blowing in an African Obo royal court)African Obo royal court)

Interviews Interviews (with a (with a market woman in Ghana)market woman in Ghana)

Other techniques Other techniques according toaccording to::

The topic of researchThe topic of research Audiovisual technologyAudiovisual technology Informant participation or Informant participation or

lack thereoflack thereof

Some Basic Terms of Some Basic Terms of ScienceScience

HypothesisHypothesis: An educated guess : An educated guess explaining some thing or eventexplaining some thing or event

Observed in the lab or fieldObserved in the lab or field Theory:Theory: A confirmed hypothesis A confirmed hypothesis Induction: Induction: Building a hypothesis from Building a hypothesis from

observations or lab experimentsobservations or lab experiments Deduction: Deduction: Predicting what should Predicting what should

occur based on confirmed body of facts, occur based on confirmed body of facts, principles, or beliefsprinciples, or beliefs

Some Basic Terms of Some Basic Terms of Research IResearch I

SampleSample: Part of a population selected : Part of a population selected for researchfor research

Random sample:Random sample: One in which One in which everyone has a chance of being everyone has a chance of being includedincluded

Representative sampleRepresentative sample: One in : One in which all groups are included.which all groups are included.

Universe:Universe: Total population from Total population from which sample is drawnwhich sample is drawn

Some Basic Terms of Some Basic Terms of Research IIResearch II

Bias:Bias: Use of any technique that fails to Use of any technique that fails to elicit a random/representative sampleelicit a random/representative sample

Techniques: Techniques: Instruments used to Instruments used to gather information (observations, gather information (observations, interviews, video, tape recording, etc.)interviews, video, tape recording, etc.)

Method:Method: Justification for selection of a Justification for selection of a techniquetechnique

Methodology: Methodology: Overall plan that forms Overall plan that forms a coherent relation among the methodsa coherent relation among the methods

How to Develop a How to Develop a Hypothesis: Induction and Hypothesis: Induction and

DeductionDeduction

How to Test a HypothesisHow to Test a Hypothesis

The Phases of Scientific The Phases of Scientific MethodMethod

Phase 1: Observe Things/Events in FieldPhase 1: Observe Things/Events in Field Phase 2: Develop an explanation Phase 2: Develop an explanation

(hypothesis)(hypothesis) Phase 3: Gather relevant dataPhase 3: Gather relevant data Phase 4: Evaluate hypothesis with data.Phase 4: Evaluate hypothesis with data. Phase 5: Repeat procedurePhase 5: Repeat procedure

Accept confirmed hypothesesAccept confirmed hypotheses Reject or modify disconfirmed hypothesesReject or modify disconfirmed hypotheses

Scientific Method as Scientific Method as ProbabilisticProbabilistic

Any theory can be tossed as new Any theory can be tossed as new information come ininformation come in

Therefore, all theories are Therefore, all theories are probabilistic and none can be stated probabilistic and none can be stated with finalitywith finality

A Six-Way Test A Six-Way Test

Background: James Lett, CSICOP Background: James Lett, CSICOP (Committee for the Scientific (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal) and anthropologist.Paranormal) and anthropologist.

The six-way test goes by the The six-way test goes by the acronym FiLCHeRS, oracronym FiLCHeRS, or

Falsifiability; Logic, Falsifiability; Logic, Comprehensiveness, Honesty, Comprehensiveness, Honesty, Replication, and SufficiencyReplication, and Sufficiency

FalsifiabilityFalsifiability

Does not mean to cook or fudge the Does not mean to cook or fudge the datadata

The hypothesis must be so stated that if The hypothesis must be so stated that if unsupported it is rejected (or falsified)unsupported it is rejected (or falsified)

Thus, it must specify the conditions Thus, it must specify the conditions under which it is rejected.under which it is rejected.

Opposite 1: Broadly stated propositionsOpposite 1: Broadly stated propositions Opposite 2: Use of the multiple out, or Opposite 2: Use of the multiple out, or

what do you say to the Instant Creator?what do you say to the Instant Creator?

LogicLogic

There are two basic kinds of logic: There are two basic kinds of logic: inductive and deductiveinductive and deductive

Inductive: gathering enough facts to Inductive: gathering enough facts to lead to a conclusion. lead to a conclusion.

Deductive: Starting at a major Deductive: Starting at a major premise and reasoning down to a premise and reasoning down to a minor premise then a conclusion. minor premise then a conclusion.

Lett argues from the deductive.Lett argues from the deductive.

Logic (Continued)Logic (Continued)

Basic statement: Any argument Basic statement: Any argument offered as evidence in support of any offered as evidence in support of any claim must be both:claim must be both:

Valid:Valid: follow from accepted follow from accepted propositionproposition

Of real lifeOf real life Of math: e.g. straight line postulateOf math: e.g. straight line postulate Sound:Sound: that is, be true that is, be true

ComprehensivenessComprehensiveness

Evidence offered in support of any Evidence offered in support of any claim must be exhaustiveclaim must be exhaustive

All relevant evidence must be All relevant evidence must be consideredconsidered

Opposite: Selective presentation of Opposite: Selective presentation of evidence that supports the claimevidence that supports the claim

Example: politicians, courtroom Example: politicians, courtroom tacticstactics

HonestyHonesty

Evidence must be evaluated without either Evidence must be evaluated without either self-deception or intent to deceiveself-deception or intent to deceive

Examples of temptations toward Examples of temptations toward dishonestydishonesty

Strong incentives such as funding to Strong incentives such as funding to support pet theoriessupport pet theories

Basic fault of advocacy groups, politicians, Basic fault of advocacy groups, politicians, and lawyersand lawyers

Honesty could only lead to better Honesty could only lead to better hypotheses--i.e. to better explain factshypotheses--i.e. to better explain facts

ReplicabilityReplicability

To verify positive resultsTo verify positive results the experiment or field research must the experiment or field research must be repeated be repeated under identical conditions. under identical conditions. Controlled experiments can be replicatedControlled experiments can be replicated Anthropology: Restudies are less controlledAnthropology: Restudies are less controlled Restudies haven’t done wellRestudies haven’t done well Lewis v. Redfiield in TepoztlLewis v. Redfiield in Tepoztláán, Mexicon, Mexico Freeman v. Mead in SamoaFreeman v. Mead in Samoa

SufficiencySufficiency

Evidence must be adequate to Evidence must be adequate to support any claimsupport any claim

Burden of proof is on claimantBurden of proof is on claimant Expert testimony is never adequate Expert testimony is never adequate

(Would you buy Nike because (Would you buy Nike because Michael Jordan says to? Or Hanes?)Michael Jordan says to? Or Hanes?)

Extraordinary claims require Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.extraordinary evidence.

Welcome Back to the Welcome Back to the Real WorldReal World

The tests demand a perfect worldThe tests demand a perfect world Real world: the field is not a labReal world: the field is not a lab Homo sapiens have the same Homo sapiens have the same

hardwarehardware But individuals and cultures varyBut individuals and cultures vary The compromiseThe compromise Careful preparationCareful preparation Flexibility in the fieldFlexibility in the field

ConclusionConclusion

First aim: to develop generalizations First aim: to develop generalizations that apply to all societiesthat apply to all societies

Second aim: to explain the diversity Second aim: to explain the diversity of culturesof cultures

Research must therefore meet Research must therefore meet rigorous standards, such as Lett’s rigorous standards, such as Lett’s Six-Way TestSix-Way Test