(mm) (µm) (nm)

2mm 2 2000 (2 x 103) 2000000 (2 x 106)

130µm 0.13 130 130000 (1.3 x 105)

0.032m 32 32000 (3.2 x 104)

32000000 (3.2 x 107)

7.25µm 0.00725 7.25 7250 (7.25 x 103)

X 1000 X 1000

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000

Learning Objectives

- [PA] use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells and be familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies;

-[PA] calculate linear magnification of drawings and photographs;

-(h)  [PA] calculate actual sizes of specimens from drawings and photographs;

Measuring cells

To accurately measure the size of cellular structures we need a suitable scale:

The graticule a more suitable ‘ruler’ for measuring cells

• The slide graticule:

• The eyepiece graticule:

The stage graticule shows true lengths

stage graticule

The eyepiece graticule has regular divisions. These need to be calibrated for each magnification

stage graticule

eyepiece graticule

e.g. x100

stage graticule

eyepiece graticule

e.g. x400

The eyepiece graticule has regular divisions. These need to be calibrated for each magnification

The eyepiece graticule remains constant no matter what magnification the cells are viewed at.

The eyepiece graticule remains constant no matter what magnification the cells are viewed at.

The eyepiece graticule remains constant no matter what magnification the cells are viewed at.

Eyepiece & stage graticules

Low magnification High magnification

Figure 4.3Stage micrometer viewed at x100 magnification. The total length of the micrometer is 1mm

total length = 1mmwhich is 1000μm

on this scale, 94divisions = 1000μm

Therefore, 1 division on the eyepiece graticule represents1000 ÷ 94 = 10.6 μm at this magnification.

Figure 4.1Cells of onion epidermis as viewed at x100 magnification with a graticule in the eyepiece of the microscope

We know that at this magnification, 1 division on the eyepiece graticule represents 10.6 μm

Therefore the total length of the eyepiece graticule represents 10.6 x 100 = 1060μm at this magnification

In the two columns covered by the graticule there is an average of five cells in the length of the graticule

Therefore the average length of one cell is 1060 ÷ 5 = 212μm

1060μm

remember that each division here is 10μm

Figure 4.4Part of the stage micrometer viewed at x400 magnification

so the length shown by the bracket is

240μm

on this scale, 90divisions = 240μm

Therefore, 1 division on the eyepiece graticule represents240 ÷ 90 = 2.67 μm at this magnification.

Figure 4.2Cells of onion epidermis as viewed at x400 magnification with the same graticule in the eyepiece

The length of the cell covered by the graticule is 98 divisions, therefore the length of this cell is 2.67 x 98 = 262μm

We know that at this magnification, each division of the eyepiece graticulerepresents 2.67μm

We now have two measurements for the length of an onion cell; 212μm and 262 μm. Which of these is the more accurate estimate of the length of onion epidermal cells?

• The answer from Q. 2 [212 The answer from Q. 2 [212 μμm]m]• because this is a mean of several cells.because this is a mean of several cells.• Only one cell was measured in Q.3, and Only one cell was measured in Q.3, and

this one may not be representative.this one may not be representative.

Estimating cell width. Figure 4.5. Cells of the onion epidermis as viewed at x100 magnification with a graticule in the eyepiece of the microscope

Remember the total length of the eyepiece graticule represents 1060μm at this magnification

There are approximately thirteen cells in the length of the graticule

Therefore the average width of one cell is 1060 ÷ 13 = 81.5μm

Figure 4.6. Cells of the onion epidermis as viewed at x400 magnification with the same graticule in the eyepiece of the microscope

Remember, we know that at this magnification, each division of the eyepiece graticulerepresents 2.67μm

Here, two cells span 62 divisions on the eyepiece graticule. Thisrepresents 2.67 x 62 = 165.5 μm

62 divisions

Therefore the average width of one cell is 165.5 ÷ 2 = 82.8μm