Qualitative DataQualitative Data

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Qualitative Research for Qualitative Research for EducationEducation

Jamie CampbellJamie Campbell

Data is…Data is…

• The rough materials researchers collect The rough materials researchers collect from the world they are studyingfrom the world they are studying

• The particulars that form the basis of The particulars that form the basis of analysisanalysis

• Materials the people doing the study Materials the people doing the study actively record (ex. interview transcripts actively record (ex. interview transcripts and participant observation field notes)and participant observation field notes)

• What others have created and the What others have created and the researcher finds (ex. Diaries, researcher finds (ex. Diaries, photographs, official documents, photographs, official documents, newspaper articles)newspaper articles)

Data is (cont’d)…Data is (cont’d)…

• Both evidence and cluesBoth evidence and clues• Stubborn factsStubborn facts

Friendly AdviceFriendly Advice

• Pledge to keep your data physically Pledge to keep your data physically well-organizedwell-organized

• Develop a plan about how you are Develop a plan about how you are going to do itgoing to do it

• Live up to your vowLive up to your vow• Do what good teachers do:Do what good teachers do:

– Make backup filesMake backup files– Keep a hard copyKeep a hard copy– Set up a good filing systemSet up a good filing system

Fieldnotes - DefinitionFieldnotes - Definition

• A written account of what the A written account of what the researcher hears, sees, experiences, researcher hears, sees, experiences, and thinks in the course of collecting and thinks in the course of collecting and reflecting on the data in a and reflecting on the data in a qualitative studyqualitative study

Fieldnotes in PracticeFieldnotes in Practice

• In participant observation all data is In participant observation all data is considered to be fieldnotesconsidered to be fieldnotes

• Example of fieldnotes is in Appendix B Example of fieldnotes is in Appendix B (pgs. 260-270)(pgs. 260-270)

• Benefit of doing fieldnotes – Improves Benefit of doing fieldnotes – Improves quality and speed of writingquality and speed of writing

• Field notes are made up of Field notes are made up of descriptivedescriptive and and reflectivereflective materials materials

Content of Content of Descriptive Descriptive FieldnotesFieldnotes

• Descriptive Fieldnotes:Descriptive Fieldnotes:– Objectively record the details for what Objectively record the details for what

has occurred in the fieldhas occurred in the field– Capture a “slice of life”Capture a “slice of life”

• Example – “Child looks like a mess.”Example – “Child looks like a mess.”• Is that statement descriptive?Is that statement descriptive?

Non-Descriptive Non-Descriptive WordsWords

• Do not use abstract words unless it Do not use abstract words unless it is a direct quoteis a direct quote

• Examples of abstract words:Examples of abstract words:

DiscipliningDisciplining PlayingPlaying

TutoringTutoring PracticingPracticing

Nice PersonNice Person Good StudentGood Student

What Do What Do Descriptive Descriptive Fieldnotes Encompass?Fieldnotes Encompass?

• Portraits of subjectsPortraits of subjects – appearance, dress – appearance, dress mannerisms, style of talking and actingmannerisms, style of talking and acting

• Reconstruction of dialogueReconstruction of dialogue – conversations – conversations that go on between people are recorded as that go on between people are recorded as well as what subjects say to you in privatewell as what subjects say to you in private

• Description of physical settingDescription of physical setting – things – things that are on the walls, furniture, sense of that are on the walls, furniture, sense of building, what is the image of school when building, what is the image of school when you approach ityou approach it

• Accounts of particular eventsAccounts of particular events – Who? – Who? What? Nature of the action?What? Nature of the action?

What do What do Descriptive Descriptive Fieldnotes Encompass Fieldnotes Encompass

(cont’d)(cont’d)• Depiction of activitiesDepiction of activities – Descriptions of – Descriptions of

behavior, reproduce sequence of behavior, reproduce sequence of behaviors and actsbehaviors and acts

• The observer’s behaviorThe observer’s behavior – Scrutinize – Scrutinize yourself (behaviors, assumptions or yourself (behaviors, assumptions or anything else that could affect the anything else that could affect the data)data)

• Make sure you have “rich data”Make sure you have “rich data”

ReflectiveReflective Fieldnotes Fieldnotes• Reflect a more personal accountReflect a more personal account• More subjective More subjective • Emphasis on:Emphasis on:

– SpeculationSpeculation– FeelingsFeelings– ProblemsProblems– IdeasIdeas– HunchesHunches– ImpressionsImpressions– PrejudicesPrejudices

Reflective Reflective Fieldnotes Fieldnotes (cont’d)(cont’d)

• ““Let it all hang out.”Let it all hang out.”• Lay out plansLay out plans• Clarify and correct mistakes or Clarify and correct mistakes or

misunderstandingsmisunderstandings• Confess mistakes, inadequacies, or Confess mistakes, inadequacies, or

prejudicesprejudices• Likes or dislikesLikes or dislikes• SpeculateSpeculate

Reflective Reflective Fieldnotes Fieldnotes (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Be self-reflectiveBe self-reflective• Be aware of relationship to your Be aware of relationship to your

settingsetting• Think about evolution of design and Think about evolution of design and

analysisanalysis• Keep accurate recordsKeep accurate records• ““It is difficult to get the right balance It is difficult to get the right balance

between reflective and descriptive between reflective and descriptive material.”material.”

Reflective Reflective Fieldnotes Fieldnotes (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Notational Convention:Notational Convention:– O.C. stands for Observers Comments O.C. stands for Observers Comments

scattered throughout the notesscattered throughout the notes– Memos Memos are longer pieces added to or are longer pieces added to or

placed at the end of a set of notesplaced at the end of a set of notes

What do O.C.’s, Memos, and What do O.C.’s, Memos, and other Materials Contain?other Materials Contain?

• Reflections on analysisReflections on analysis – – speculate about speculate about what you are learning, themes, patterns, what you are learning, themes, patterns, connections, additional ideas, thoughts that connections, additional ideas, thoughts that pop uppop up

• Reflections on methodReflections on method – comments about – comments about rapport, joys, problems, dilemmas, what’s rapport, joys, problems, dilemmas, what’s left to doleft to do

• Reflections on ethical dilemmas and conflictsReflections on ethical dilemmas and conflicts – relational concerns dealing with your own – relational concerns dealing with your own values and responsibilities to your subjectsvalues and responsibilities to your subjects

What do O.C.’s, Memos, and What do O.C.’s, Memos, and other Materials Contain? other Materials Contain?

(cont’d)(cont’d)• Reflections on the observer’s frame of Reflections on the observer’s frame of

mindmind – researchers have opinions, – researchers have opinions, beliefs, attitudes, and prejudices which beliefs, attitudes, and prejudices which they reveal in their notes (“What you they reveal in their notes (“What you thought doesn’t hold up to the thought doesn’t hold up to the empirical world you are studying.”)empirical world you are studying.”)

• Points of clarificationPoints of clarification – side notes that – side notes that clarify something that might have been clarify something that might have been confusingconfusing

The Form of FieldnotesThe Form of Fieldnotes

• The first pageThe first page – contains heading, – contains heading, date and time, who did it, where it date and time, who did it, where it took place, number of the set of notes took place, number of the set of notes in studyin study

• Paragraphs and marginsParagraphs and margins – New – New paragraph when a new person enters paragraph when a new person enters the setting, leave margins on either the setting, leave margins on either side of pageside of page

• Example: pgs. 125-126Example: pgs. 125-126

Hints for Writing Hints for Writing FieldnotesFieldnotes

• Get right to the taskGet right to the task• Do not talk about your observation before you record Do not talk about your observation before you record

itit• Find a quiet place to record your workFind a quiet place to record your work• Set aside an adequate amount of time to complete Set aside an adequate amount of time to complete

notesnotes• Start by jotting down some notesStart by jotting down some notes• Try to go through the observation chronologicallyTry to go through the observation chronologically• Let the conversations and events flow from mind to Let the conversations and events flow from mind to

paperpaper• If you forget something, add itIf you forget something, add it• Understand that note-taking is laborious and Understand that note-taking is laborious and

burdensomeburdensome

Transcripts from Taped Transcripts from Taped Interviews and Recording Interviews and Recording

EquipmentEquipment

• TranscriptsTranscripts – Typed interviews – Typed interviews transcribed from recordingstranscribed from recordings

• Form of transcripts on pgs. 129-130Form of transcripts on pgs. 129-130• Use good recording equipmentUse good recording equipment

DocumentsDocuments

• Personal DocumentsPersonal Documents – – any first-person any first-person narrative that describes and individual’s narrative that describes and individual’s actions, experiences, and beliefsactions, experiences, and beliefs

• Intimate DiariesIntimate Diaries – a regular, running – a regular, running description and reflective commentary description and reflective commentary of the events in his or her lifeof the events in his or her life

• Personal LettersPersonal Letters – letters written – letters written between family membersbetween family members

• AutobiographiesAutobiographies – your own personal – your own personal storystory

Official DocumentsOfficial Documents• Documents from schools, Documents from schools,

organizations, companies, governmentsorganizations, companies, governments• Some examples:Some examples:

MemosMemos Minutes Minutes from from

MeetingsMeetings

NewsletterNewsletterss

Policy Policy DocumentDocument

ss

ProposalsProposals Codes of Codes of EthicsEthics

DossiersDossiers Students’ Students’ RecordsRecords

StatementStatements of s of

PhilosophyPhilosophy

News News ReleasesReleases

BrochuresBrochures PamphletsPamphlets

Other DocumentsOther Documents

• Internal documentsInternal documents – documents – documents circulated inside an organizationcirculated inside an organization

• External communicationExternal communication – materials – materials produced by organizations for public produced by organizations for public consumptionconsumption

• Student records and personnel filesStudent records and personnel files – files on employees or student– files on employees or student

Popular Culture Popular Culture DocumentsDocuments

• VideosVideos• Educational Educational

and feature and feature filmsfilms

• Rock and rollRock and roll

• MagazinesMagazines• TelevisionTelevision• Romance Romance

novelsnovels• AdvertisementAdvertisement

ss

Guidelines for Using Guidelines for Using Popular Culture DocumentsPopular Culture Documents• How interest groups read popular culture How interest groups read popular culture

documentsdocuments – Why does an individual or – Why does an individual or group watch a TV program?group watch a TV program?

• Your pleasure is significantYour pleasure is significant – choose a – choose a form of pop culture that gives you form of pop culture that gives you pleasurepleasure

• Decisions about emphasisDecisions about emphasis – emphasis on – emphasis on the subjects who view the pop culture the subjects who view the pop culture instead of the pop culture itselfinstead of the pop culture itself

More Guidelines for Pop More Guidelines for Pop CultureCulture

• Individual or group interviews and Individual or group interviews and observationsobservations – may want to look at – may want to look at pop culture with group and then talk pop culture with group and then talk with group about itwith group about it

• Systematic organization of textual Systematic organization of textual datadata – need to be systematic when – need to be systematic when keeping track of details of pop keeping track of details of pop cultureculture

PhotographyPhotography

• Photos provide strikingly descriptive Photos provide strikingly descriptive data, are often used to understand data, are often used to understand the subjective, and are frequently the subjective, and are frequently analyzed inductivelyanalyzed inductively

Types of PhotographsTypes of Photographs

• Found photographsFound photographs – photos that turn up in – photos that turn up in a setting under study can provide a good a setting under study can provide a good sense of individuals no longer there events sense of individuals no longer there events and their settingand their setting

• Researcher-produced photographsResearcher-produced photographs – photos – photos taken to use in research to use in taken to use in research to use in remembering or studying details that might remembering or studying details that might be overlooked; cameras can also be given to be overlooked; cameras can also be given to subjects for them to take photossubjects for them to take photos

• Photos as analysisPhotos as analysis – when a photo stands by – when a photo stands by itself as an abstract statement or objective itself as an abstract statement or objective rendering of setting or issue rendering of setting or issue

Types of Photos (cont’d)Types of Photos (cont’d)• Technique and equipmentTechnique and equipment

– Know what you are looking for to recognize Know what you are looking for to recognize what you are looking for when it appearswhat you are looking for when it appears

– Know what is supposed to be in the picture Know what is supposed to be in the picture and make sure it is in your view finderand make sure it is in your view finder

– Practice taking photos and the skill will Practice taking photos and the skill will come to youcome to you

– Use good equipmentUse good equipment– Get a model releaseGet a model release

Official Statistics and Other Official Statistics and Other Quantitative DataQuantitative Data

• Quantitative data can have conventional Quantitative data can have conventional uses in qualitative research.uses in qualitative research.

• Suggests trends in a setting (ex. numbers Suggests trends in a setting (ex. numbers increasing or decreasing)increasing or decreasing)

• Provides descriptive information (ex. age, Provides descriptive information (ex. age, race, sex, SES)race, sex, SES)

• Opens avenues to explore and questions to Opens avenues to explore and questions to answeranswer

• Often shows up in qualitative writing as Often shows up in qualitative writing as descriptive statisticsdescriptive statistics

4 Ways to Think About4 Ways to Think AboutQuantitative DataQuantitative Data

1.1. The concept of “Real Rates” is a The concept of “Real Rates” is a misnomermisnomer

2.2. Singling out people, objects and Singling out people, objects and events to quantify changes their events to quantify changes their meaning.meaning.

3.3. Quantifying has a temporal dimensionQuantifying has a temporal dimension4.4. Quantification involves many different Quantification involves many different

participants and can only be participants and can only be understood as a multilevel understood as a multilevel phenomenonphenomenon

4 More Ways4 More Ways1.1. Both the person and her/her motivation for Both the person and her/her motivation for

counting affects the meaning, process and counting affects the meaning, process and figures generatedfigures generated

2.2. Counting releases social processes within Counting releases social processes within the setting where the counting takes placethe setting where the counting takes place

3.3. People who produce data in educational People who produce data in educational setting are subject to social processes and setting are subject to social processes and structural forcesstructural forces

4.4. Enumeration and is products have strong Enumeration and is products have strong affective and ritualistic meaning the U.S. affective and ritualistic meaning the U.S. educational systemeducational system

Final ThoughtFinal Thought

• ““There comes a point where you There comes a point where you have enough data to accomplish have enough data to accomplish what you have set out to do, and the what you have set out to do, and the explanation of why you remain is explanation of why you remain is hollow. This is the time to say hollow. This is the time to say goodbye and get on to the data goodbye and get on to the data analysis.”analysis.”