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1. STUDY OF CAD SOFTWARES
a. STUDY OF IRONCAD
AIM
To study about IRONCAD.
About IRONCAD
IRONCAD is a cost effective, full-featured, detail design production tool for
engineering design users. It utilizes a new Innovative Design approach, which allows
greater design flexibility and capability, resulting in better products in a shorter time.
IRONCAD provides an alternative to the current history based parametric systems by
utilizing a radical drag-and-drop 3D environment with Direct Face Modeling, allowing
unmatched ease-of-use and the ability to generate fully associative manufacturing
drawings.
System Requirements
• Microsoft Windows 95, 98, and Windows NT 4.0 (Windows 2000 is not currently
supported)
• Pentium class or greater processor
• CD-ROM drive
• 64 MB or more preferred
• VGA (256 color) or better, supported by Windows NT, 95, 98 or greater
• Support of OpenGL accelerated graphic hardware
• Typical install 95 MB of hard disk space
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Creative Design Approach
The power of Creative Design is in the freedom it gives the user to choose when
and where to apply a traditional parametric approach. This freedom of choice allows the
user to apply the best design approach for the job at hand. In the early stages of a design
it is hard to know exactly what constraint scheme would work the best. With IronCAD
the user does not have to concern themselves about which constraint scheme to adopt
instead they can focus on the conceptual design issues leaving the parameterization until
later in the design process.
Creative Design Benefits
The Creative Design approach delivers the following key benefits to the user.
Improved Design Productivity:
Drag and Drop – Drag and Drop of basic geometry features from pre
built catalogs allows models to be built faster than with the current CAD
approach of first building a profile, and then performing some operation
on it.
In context design - Traditional CAD systems create what is called a
feature tree that captures the order in which the features were combined to
create themodel.When you want to edit a feature in this tree all the
features that occur after that point in the history are blanked out.
Software that utilizes this approach creates a non-productive situation for
the user because many times the feature they would like to reference has
been removed. IronCAD does not have this restriction. A user can
reference any visible feature on a part while making any required changes.
This makes it both easier and faster for the user.
Single design environment – IronCAD is very unique in that it does not
require the support of a separate assembly and part file, instead it only
requires a single file which has the ability to support both parts and
assemblies seamlessly.
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Catalogs - Catalogs provide a fast method to quickly apply design
components such as Intellishape features, parts, assemblies, textures,
animations, etc, to the model by simply using the Windows drag and drop
standard interface
Design Flexibility
Import/Export - IronCAD has a complete set of data translators that
allow both facet and solid geometry to interchange with all leading
systems. IronCAD allows engineers to confidently exchange and make use
of CAD data throughout the design process, as well as enabling power
users and novices to share parts or assemblies.
Dual Kernel – IronCAD supports both the ACIS and Parasolid kernels
simultaneously allowing the user to seamlessly switch between the two.
Through kernel collaboration if one kernel fails to perform a certain
operation the other kernel is automatically called to see if it has better
success.
DFM – Direct Face Modeling (DFM) allows model modifications to be
made irrespective of the previous feature history or in cases where it does
not even exist. DFM is very effective when working with imported b-rep
geometry that does not have feature history.
Ease of Use
Handles – IronCAD was a pioneer in the use of dynamic handles for
mainstream mechanical design. From its earliest beginnings this patented
approach has consistently been enhanced until today it is the most
productive way to design available anywhere.
Smart Snap – Smart Snap, a dynamic 3D constraint solver, which
provides precise positioning and alignment while graphically dragging
Intellishape features. It allows the user to see which face, edge, and vertex
or center point they are about to select for the active command.
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TriBall – The patented TriBall, a remarkably intuitive multi-purpose tool
provides precise positioning or copying of any objects by translation,
rotation, mirroring, patterning or any complex 3D transformation.
Improved Design Visualization and Communication
Rendering - The integration of powerful, high-end visualization
technologies into the core of the software makes the entire design process
faster, more productive, and more understandable. Fully integrated, real-
time, texture, bump, and decal mapping to represent design details are
available to save time and valuable data space.
Animation – Through the use of Smart Motions IronCAD parts and
assemblies can be given realistic motion paths allowing the visualization
of dynamic designs.
Production Drawing Automation
Fully associative – IronCAD supports bi-directional associativity between
the 3D model and its 2D drawing. Changes made in the scene can be
automatically updated in the drawing and changes made in the drawing
can be updated back in the 3D model
Detail drawing generation – Associative 2D multi-sheet layout drawings
can be created automatically from parts and assemblies.
Bi-directional BOM – BOM creation is made simple through the
automated extraction of designated part properties into a fully editable
table on the drawing.
RESULT
Thus the various components and features of IRONCAD are studied.
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b. STUDY OF NISA
AIM
To study about NISA family of softwares.
About NISA
NISA is one of the most comprehensive engineering analysis suites available
globally to address the Automotive, Aerospace, Energy & Power, Civil, Electronics and
Sporting Goods industries. Cranes softwares provides global customers with solutions in
the areas of Stress Analysis, Seismic Analysis, Vibration Analysis, Composite Material
Analysis, Motion & Linkage Analysis, Fatigue Analysis, Thermal Analysis, PCB Analysis,
Computational Fluid Dynamics, Electromagnetic Analysis and Civil Structure Analysis.
The NISA family includes the following softwares.
NISA/DISPLAY
DISPLAY, a powerful interactive graphics pre and post-processor, makes
complex finite element modeling, analysis and results interpretation a cinch.Since its
introduction in 1974, DISPLAY has been continuously developed to reflect the latest
advances in computer graphics. DISPLAY is required when using any analysis module in
the NISA family of programs.
With DISPLAY, 3D graphics have been elevated to a higher level using Open GL
capability, which enhances dynamic viewing, shading, lighting and animation capabilities.
These have been incorporated for all graphical entities.
NISA Static/Dynamic
NISA is the parent program of the NISA family. It offers an impressive list of
linear/non-linear static/dynamic analysis features complemented with an extensive finite
element library. NISA has efficient solvers like direct (frontal and sparse) and iterative
solvers.
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NISA/ROTOR
NISA/ROTOR offers CAE based solutions to a wide variety of problems
encountered in the Dynamic Analysis of Rotor-Bearing systems. NISA/ROTOR presents
an elegant platform for analyzing different rotor bearing systems frequently encountered in
practice. Bearings influence the dynamic behavior of the rotor in a significant way.
Users have been given the facility to input bearing dynamic coefficients using
three different options. First one is defining the bearing coefficients directly. Second option
is to provide a table of non-dimensional bearing dynamic coefficients vs. Sommerfeld
number. From this table, the bearing coefficients at a particular speed are obtained by linear
interpolation. Finally, there is a third option to compute bearing coefficients for a specified
bearing geometry.
An independent program is incorporated into NISA/ROTOR module to compute
the bearing dynamic coefficients. The program utilizes linearized Reynold's equation about
a steady state position.
NISA/ COMPOSITE
NISA /COMPOSITES is the most powerful and economical general purpose
finite element program to solve a wide range of static, dynamic, buckling, heat transfer,
optimization and nonlinear (both geometric and material) analysis problems encountered in
Aerospace, Mechanical and Civil Engineering environments.
NISA/3D CAD
To facilitate the integration of analysis with CAD, NISA/3D CAD offers a slew of
data exchange capabilities. They take one of the two forms: (1) Direct CAD system
interfaces, implemented by a menu command within a CAD program, and (2) Indirect data
exchange interfaces, provided by various data translators or built-in commands of
DISPLAY Data conversion takes place in a manner transparent to the user.
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NISA/HEAT
NISA-Heat is a general purpose finite element program to analyze a wide
spectrum of problems encountered in heat transfer.
NISA/ENDURE
NISA-ENDURE is a general purpose software for analyzing the fatigue
performance and fracture characteristics of engineering structures and components. The
program is completely menu-driven and extremely user friendly. It employs the latest
theories to determine crack initiation and crack propagation lives for fatigue analysis and to
evaluate fracture parameters. ENDURE provides various analysis models and allows
different types of load and material data descriptions such as those encountered in
aerospace, offshore, and automobile structures. ENDURE is directly interfaced with NISA
II and other commercially available finite element.
NISA/3D FLUID
NISA/3D-FLUID is a general purpose finite element-based, computational fluid
dynamics computer code for analyzing fluid flow and heat transfer problems.
NISA/FEAP
FEAP is the largest and most sophisticated finite element program for the stress,
random vibration, fatigue life, 3D convective fluid flow and thermal analysis of printed
circuit boards (PCBs) and electronic systems.
NISA/OPT
NISAOPT is the most sophisticated family of computer programs available in the
world for optimum structural design. The three programs in the NISAOPT family:
STROPT, SHAPE, and SECOPT, are fully integrated with NISA II and DISPLAY. State-
of-the-art methods are utilized at initial design, intermediate design, and optimum (final)
design. Design sensitivity coefficients are also available.
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NISA/EMAG
EMAG is the electromagnetic module of the family of general purpose finite
element based program NISA. It can determine electric and magnetic field distributions in
a wide class of electromagnetic devices. EMAG performs electromagnetic analyses by
solving the appropriate Maxwell's formulations. It is coupled with NISA/HEAT to enable a
coupled analysis of electromagnetic and thermal fields.
NISA/DYMES
A general purpose program for static, kinematic, and dynamic analyses of
constrained multibody mechanical systems undergoing large, nonlinear, three-dimensional
displacements. DYMES/Control has been integrated with DYMES for controlled
mechanical system simulations.
NISA/CIVIL
NISA/CIVIL offers CAD based solutions to a wide variety of problems
encountered in the Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete and Steel Structures.
Backed by powerful NISA II Analysis and DISPLAY the graphical Pre and Post processor
of NISA family of programs, NISA/CIVIL provides excellent tools for modeling,
associating design information and carry out design process in Limit state and working
stress methodologies of design. Design results are processed to produce structural
engineering drawings in AutoCAD environment.
RESULT
Thus the various softwares in NISA family are studied.
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c. STUDY OF UNI-GRAPHICS
AIM
To study about Uni-Graphics and its various features.
INTRODUCTION
With a comprehensive range of computer aided design (CAD) applications, NX is
unmatched in power and flexibility when it comes to mechanical design and engineering.
NX offers a broad set of CAD solutions for the design of complex mechanical products –
including dedicated solutions for processes like routed system design, sheet metal design,
and plastic part design – that deliver higher efficiency and shorter design cycles at lower
costs. NX enables design professionals of any skill level to consider more alternatives,
evaluate them more thoroughly, and get to market with innovative designs of superior
quality.
NX design applications include tools for:
Human Modeling
Modeling
Assembly Design
System-based Modeling
User-defined Features
Routed Systems Design
Drafting
Sheet Metal Design
Flexible Printed Circuit Design
With NX, efficiency and cost savings extend far beyond the design process to all
phases of product development. NX dynamically integrates CAD design with planning,
simulation, manufacturing and other development processes to help ensure that design
decisions can be made more quickly, with detailed knowledge of product performance
and any potential manufacturability issues.
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Productive
Complex products and processes demand user interactions and workflows that
reduce complexity. NX streamlines decision-making by providing critical information
where it is needed. Intelligent user interfaces provide dynamic feedback that accelerates
design workflows, whether you are interactively creating product models or weighing
performance and manufacturing cost trade-offs.
NX design is intelligent – the productive environment organizes tools, commands
and information in straightforward workflows that direct the designer’s input to
accomplish tasks very efficiently. On-screen displays provide instant feedback and
convenient user input control without diverting attention from the task at hand. Part and
assembly navigation aids enable designers to quickly comprehend the structure and
techniques used to create product models. To reduce of error, NX provides previews for
design commands, helping designers to proceed with confidence.
Structured
NX goes far beyond traditional CAD. Using process automation and knowledge
capture tools; NX enables reusable and disciplined processes when required. This directly
supports processes like lean design, design for six sigma, component and process reuse,
and adherence to organizational and industry standards. NX enables companies to
balance structured, repeatable best practices with the flexibility they need to move
innovation forward.
NX captures design intent through intelligent user input methods, enabling
intelligent design modifications and model updates. It leads the designer through an
intuitive process of querying ambiguous design decisions that need to be made when
changes occur.
Managed
The seamless integration of NX design with data and process management
capabilities ensures a continuously up-to-date and synchronized digital product model for
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the entire team to use. The NX Engineering Process Management manages and protects
your product data with access and security controls. It also helps manage product
complexity with automated bill of materials management and synchronization, product
configurations, options and variants.
Intuitive workflows in NX present tools to the designer when they are most
needed, with real-time feedback.
More UGS CAD/CAM Solutions
NX CAM Bypasses CAD Step to Streamline Design and Manufacture CAD
Visualization Tools Improve Assembly Accuracy (Design Product News CAD
Data Isn't Just For Engineering France’s Second Largest CAD/CAM/ERP
Supplier Declares UGS’ Parasolid World’s Best 3D Geometric Modeling
Software after Exhaustive Benchmark
Overview
Industrial Design & Styling (CAID)
o Freeform Shape Modeling
o Visualization
o Automotive Styling
o Reverse Engineering
o Engineering Integration
Design (CAD)
o Modeling
o Human Modeling
o Assembly Design
o System-based Modeling
o User-defined Features
o Routed Systems Design
o Sheet Metal Design
o Drafting
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Simulation (CAE)
o NX Nastran
o I-deas NX Simulation
o NX Optimization Wizard
o NX Strength Wizard
o NX Design Validation
NX Quick Check
Tooling
o NX Mold Design
o NX Progressive Die Design
o NX Automotive Stamping Die Design
o NX Electrode Design
o NX Jig and Fixture Design Tools
o NX Advanced Tooling Solution
CAM
o Overview
o Turning
o 3 Axis Machining
o High Speed Machining
o 5 Axis Machining
o Multi-function Machining
o Wire EDM
o Machining Simulation
o Programming Automation
o Post Processing & Post Library
o NC Data Management
o Part Planning
o Shop Documentation
o Resource Management
o Data Exchange
o CAD for NC Programming
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Engineering Process Management
Programming & Customization
o Knowledge-based Programming
o Journaling
o APIs
o Customization
I-deas NX Series
NX Press Releases
NX Case Studies & Videos
NX Collateral Library
Already own NX?
NX Beta Testing Program
Contact UGS about NX Software
Find a UGS Channel Partner
CAM
NX CAM delivers a complete and proven solution for machine tool programming
that enables companies to maximize the throughput of their most advanced machine
tools. With NX CAM, companies can transform their NC programming and machining
processes to dramatically reduce waste and significantly boost productivity.
Optimizing I-deas NX
To smoothen the value of transition from the latest machine tool equipment
NX CAM offers you advanced programming technology developed over many years of
experience enabling youold SDRC I-DEAS to get the most from your advanced machine.
For High speed machining, 5-axis machining, Multi-Function Machiningnew NX CAM
offers the range of flexible and advanced processors needed for effective programming.
All in one system
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In NX CAM you have all the pieces you need for, UGS sell a complete NC
programming system. It provides a full set of toolpath processors (drilling, turning, 2-5
axis milling, Wire EDM, feature based machining), post processor build and edit tool,
full 3D machine tool simulation and a market leading CAD technology for part, tool and
machine modeling & assembly.
Programming Automation
UGS sees the value of automation as a means of achieving a competitive business
advantage in NC programming. NX CAM offers out of the box capabilities ranging from
Process Wizards and templates to automated feature based machining capabilities.
Scalable from stand alone CAM to a PLM solution
NX CAM can be purchased as a stand alone NC programming system, as a
CAD/CAM solution, or with CAM data management and tool library solutions. It can be
implemented along side NX tool design applications to provide a unified solution. NX
CAM can be a key component of an entire part manufacturing solution including part
planning, shop floor connectivity and more.
Top 10 reasons to use NX CAM
1. Advanced capability in key machining areas including High Speed Machining,
5-Axis machining and the support of multi-function machine tools such as mill-
turns, maximizes the value of your advanced equipment.
2. In depth functionality that gets the programming job done, even on the toughest
parts.
3. Complete programming package with everything from a wide range of NC
programming functions in the same system: turning, basic milling and drilling,
fixed axis milling, variable axis milling, feature based automated programming,
support for multi-function machining and wire EDM. You only need one CAM
system.
4. Ease of use. With a windows based user interface, NX CAM has a familiar look
& feel. Menus with graphical content make the system easy to learn and use.
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5. Integrated supporting functions. NX comes with translators, integrated
machining simulation, a graphical post processor editor and a shop documentation
generator. - No need for expensive add-on solutions from different vendors.
6. Available with full CAD functions, everything you need from drafting, feature
based modeling, surface modeling to assemblies. Allows the programmer to
handle all geometry issues.
7. Effective automation tools makes the task faster, easier to repeat, easier to learn
and to use and ensures the use of your preferred manufacturing methods and
resources.
8. Proven with thousands of customers, from many of the world’s largest
companies to thousands of typical machine shops of all sizes and in all areas of
manufacturing from aerospace to medical devices. UGS understands your needs.
9. World class technical support through UGS Global Technical Access Center
(GTAC).
10. CAM data management, extensions for tool libraries, resource management,
part process planning.
RESULT
Thus the various features and applications of Uni-Graphics are studied.
d. STUDY ABOUT ANSYS
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AIM
To study about ANSYS and its various features.
INTRODUCTION
ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software
package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a
complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements.
The software implements equations that govern the behaviour of these elements
and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts
as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated or graphical forms.
This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system
far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are
too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing equations.
ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical
Engineering Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and
Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics and Chemistry departments
ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or
processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed
virtual prototyping.
With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to
optimize the product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a
reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The
multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users are able
to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.
Generic Steps to Solving any Problem in ANSYS
Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your
solution domain, (2) the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the
physical properties. You then solve the problem and present the results. In
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numerical methods, the main difference is an extra step called mesh generation.
This is the step that divides the complex model into small elements that become
solvable in an otherwise too complex situation. Below describes the processes in
terminology slightly more attune to the software.
Build Geometry
Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be
modeled and tested using the work plane coordinate system within
ANSYS.
Define Material Properties
Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that
compose the object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and
mechanical properties.
Generate Mesh
At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define
how the modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.
Apply Loads
Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system
with constraints, such as physical loadings or boundary conditions.
Obtain Solution
This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what
state (steady state, transient? etc.) the problem must be solved.
Present the Results
After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present
ANSYS. Results choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and
contour plots.
Specific capabilities of ANSYS
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Structural
Structural analysis is probably the most common application of the finite
element method as it implies bridges and buildings, naval, aeronautical, and
mechanical structures such as ship hulls, aircraft bodies, and machine housings, as
well as mechanical components such as pistons, machine parts, and tools.
Static Analysis - Used to determine displacements, stresses, etc.
under static loading conditions. ANSYS can compute both linear and nonlinear
static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity, stress stiffening, large
deflection, large strain, hyper elasticity, contact surfaces, and creep.
Transient Dynamic Analysis - Used to determine the response of
a structure to arbitrarily time-varying loads. All nonlinearities mentioned under
Static Analysis above are allowed.
Buckling Analysis - Used to calculate the buckling loads and
determine the buckling mode shape. Both linear (eigen value) buckling and
nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.
In addition to the above analysis types, several special-purpose features are
available such as Fracture mechanics, Composite material analysis, Fatigue,
and both p-Method and Beam analyses.
Thermal
ANSYS is capable of both steady state and transient analysis of any solid
with thermal boundary conditions.
Steady-state thermal analyses calculate the effects of steady thermal loads
on a system or component. Users often perform a steady-state analysis before
doing a transient thermal analysis, to help establish initial conditions. A steady-
state analysis also can be the last step of a transient thermal analysis; performed
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after all transient effects have diminished. ANSYS can be used to determine
temperatures, thermal gradients, heat flow rates, and heat fluxes in an object that
are caused by thermal loads that do not vary over time. Such loads include the
following:
Convection
Radiation
Heat flow rates
Heat fluxes (heat flow per unit area)
Heat generation rates (heat flow per unit volume)
Constant temperature boundaries
A steady-state thermal analysis may be either linear, with constant
material properties; or nonlinear, with material properties that depend on
temperature. The thermal properties of most material vary with temperature. This
temperature dependency being appreciable, the analysis becomes nonlinear.
Radiation boundary conditions also make the analysis nonlinear. Transient
calculations are time dependent and ANSYS can both solve distributions as well
as create video for time incremental displays of models.
Fluid Flow
The ANSYS/FLOTRAN CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) offers
comprehensive tools for analyzing two-dimensional and three-dimensional fluid
flow fields. ANSYS is capable of modeling a vast range of analysis types such
as: airfoils for pressure analysis of airplane wings (lift and drag), flow in
supersonic nozzles, and complex, three-dimensional flow patterns in a pipe bend.
In addition, ANSYS/FLOTRAN could be used to perform tasks including:
calculating the gas pressure and temperature distributions in an
engine exhaust manifold
studying the thermal stratification and breakup in piping systems
using flow mixing studies to evaluate potential for thermal shock
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doing natural convection analyses to evaluate the thermal
performance of chips in electronic enclosures
conducting heat exchanger studies involving different fluids
separated by solid regions
FLOTRAN analysis provides an accurate way to calculate the effects of
fluid flows in complex solids without having to use the typical heat transfer
analogy of heat flux as fluid flow. Types of FLOTRAN analysis that ANSYS is
able to perform include:
Laminar or Turbulent Flows
Thermal Fluid Analysis
Adiabatic Conditions
Free surface Flow
Compressible or incompressible Flows
Newtonian or Non-Newtonian Fluids
Multiple species transport
Acoustics is the study of the generation, propagation, absorption, and
reflection of pressure waves in a fluid medium. Applications for acoustics include
the following:
Sonar - the acoustic counterpart of radar
Design of concert halls, where an even distribution of sound
pressure is desired
Noise minimization in machine shops
Noise cancellation in automobiles
Underwater acoustics
Design of speakers, speaker housings, acoustic filters, mufflers,
and many other similar devices.
Geophysical exploration
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Within ANSYS, an acoustic analysis usually involves modeling a fluid
medium and the surrounding structure. Characteristics in question include
pressure distribution in the fluid at different frequencies, pressure gradient,
particle velocity, the sound pressure level, as well as, scattering, diffraction,
transmission, radiation, attenuation, and dispersion of acoustic waves. A
coupled acoustic analysis takes the fluid-structure interaction into account. An
uncoupled acoustic analysis models only the fluid and ignores any fluid-structure
interaction.
The ANSYS program assumes that the fluid is compressible, but allows only
relatively small pressure changes with respect to the mean pressure. Also, the
fluid is assumed to be non-flowing and inviscid (that is, viscosity causes no
dissipative effects). Uniform mean density and mean pressure are assumed, with
the pressure solution being the deviation from the mean pressure, not the absolute
pressure.
Coupled Field
A coupled-field analysis is an analysis that takes into account the
interaction (coupling) between two or more disciplines (fields) of engineering. A
piezoelectric analysis, for example, handles the interaction between the structural
and electric fields: it solves for the voltage distribution due to applied
displacements, or vice versa. Other examples of coupled-field analysis are
thermal-stress analysis, thermal-electric analysis, and fluid-structure analysis.
Some of the applications in which coupled-field analysis may be required
are pressure vessels (thermal-stress analysis), fluid flow constrictions (fluid-
structure analysis), induction heating (magnetic-thermal analysis), ultrasonic
transducers (piezoelectric analysis), magnetic forming (magneto-structural
analysis), and micro-electro mechanical systems (MEMS).
RESULT
Thus the study of ANSYS and its various features are studied.
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e. STUDY OF AMPS
AIM
To study about AMPS and its various features.
INTRODUCTION
AMPS Technologies Company develops the Advanced Multi-Physics Simulation
(AMPS) software with the mission of delivering an advanced simulation system with the
most up-to-date FE technology and the best computer software engineering. In the past
decade, we have developed AMPS from scratch based on the strictest software-
engineering principles and the advanced modular component software design.
Started in 1994 with development funds from Ingersoll-Rand and Owens-Corning
R&D Centers, we focused on developing an innovative finite element analysis tool for
rotor dynamics and glass fiber forming simulations. Since 2003, they have formed AMPS
Technologies Company with main goal to deliver office-tool style finite element software
based on modern software engineering design and the newest finite element theory.
AMPS Technologies is a dynamic, growing company with a commitment to
continual improvement and quality customer support. We pride in delivering the most
convenient desktop FEA tools based on creative software engineering, and constantly
push the most advanced computational theories to new limits for our customers.
AMPSolid
AMPSolid, the solid modeling front-end, is built on the industrial standard ACIS
solid modeling kernel including full model creation / modification / featuring / de-
featuring abilities designed specifically for FE simulation. Full model creation history
recording/retrieval and forward/backward rolling to ease model creation. Automatic
meshing ability is at the press of a button, with advanced options to control 2D/Shell
triangle, quad, mixed meshing, or in 3D tetra or hexa meshing. Proprietary FlexMesh hex
meshing technology provides another option for a structured hexa/brick meshing directly
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from a solid model. The post-processing part includes animation, contouring, vector flow
field, user generated arithmetic results combination, volume/area/side result integral
inquiry, and all standard reporting features
PROGRAMS
AMPS offers 3 different programs and 2 add-ons, one that is sure to serve your
needs and meet your software budget!
AMPSolid: Full Solid Modeling geometry creation and automatic 2d/3d/shell
tri/quad/mixed, tetra, hexahedron mesh generator.
AMPView: Pre-and Post-Processor for finite element analysis, material and boundary
condition controls. User supplied DLL for special material and boundary conditions.
AMPSol: General-purpose linear AMPS including stress static and transient dynamics,
modal, buckling/instability, h-/p-adaptive refinement. Thermal heat transfer analysis with
full stress coupling, and basic nonlinear feature.
AMPS Advanced: Expand the AMPS ability with full functions of large strain/rotation
deformation, material nonlinearity and full runtime property dependency, advanced
contact and arc-length automatic loading stepping and advanced features not included in
the linear AMPS module.
AMPS Explicit: Explicit add-on transient stress/thermal module for transient
impact/crash/
fracture analysis with h-adaptive refinement.
AMPSol
AMPSol is a multi-physics finite element analysis program developed for
simulations in stress, thermal, flow, and electro-magneto analyses, including steady-state,
transient/dynamic, instability buckling, and modal analysis abilities with fully coupled
formulation. It follows the latest and rigorous FE formulations including large
deformation/rotation Lagrangian formulation (TL or UL), weighted Optimal Least-
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Squares fluid formulation with arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian extension, automatic load
stepping/increment with arc-length post-buckling/instability options, and advanced
automatic load-balanced multi-thread controls designed for multi-core/multi-processor
workstation. AMPS solver options include iterative element-by-element solver, fast direct
sparse and the large capacity iterative PCGLSS solver capable of solving millions of
equations in minutes.
AMPView
AMPView is a graphical environment for the user to define all necessary finite
element modeling parameters such as material data, boundary conditions, and analysis
controls. It links the solid modeling geometry to the discrete FE based modeling
specifically designed for FE analysis data graphical association. It controls the AMPSol
FE analysis, and then retrieves the results in real-time for user inquiries and
examinations. The advanced animation method allowing fast interactive examination of
the model behavior, with result inquiry functions such as area/line integral inquiry, user
created results type, and advanced cutting
Fluid Structure Interaction with ALE Method
AMPS Products are true general-purpose multiphysics packages with these main
features:
The latest FE technology uses the best computer science software engineering
implementation. Fully coupled fluid solid interaction with Conservative Weighted
Optimal Least-Squares fluid formulation with proven theoretical convergence
without any numerical treatment or relaxation. Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian
(ALE) for large motion FSI analysis. Stress, thermal, and flow variables are fully
coupled with the electro-magneto fields especially suitable for multi-physics
electronic, MEM, VLSI design analysis.
Robust large deformation/finite rotation formulation matching field results and
experiments. Rigorous continuum mechanics theory with the optimized numerical
implementation for practical applications.
24
Flexible and open access Model DataBase (MDB) with toolkit for user extensible
development. Advanced and flexible Dynamic Link Library (DLL) user supplied
constitutive model for special user material model research and development.
Special user interface loading for special user programmed load/flux data.
Clear, intuitive, easy to follow industrial standardized Windows menu and GUI
convention. Online and context sensitive documentation are available at the click
of a button. This allows the user to learn the use of AMPS through browsing the
menus instead of reading voluminous documentation.
Full featured solid model creation/modification/feature/de-feature capabilities
specialized for FE simulation applications. Standard ACIS solid model geometry
data exchange with most CAD products. Automatic tetra/hexa/quad/tri/mixed
meshing with full detailed control. Proprietary FlexMesh structured hexahedron
meshing for high quality hex meshing.
Automatic time/step loading control with special arc-length post-buckling
controls. It takes the burden of nonlinear analysis off the analyst's shoulders. Fully
h-/p-adaptive ability with based on the energy error control and refinement.
Extensive real-time result animations, contours, vector plots, movie
creation designed by the engineers who have used them to examine, understand,
and explore intuitive design variations.
Extensive on-line reference and Getting Started documentation with tutorials, and
the full version of AMPS package can be downloaded for free trial for registered
users.
Designed specifically for Windows platform, AMPS delivers the best FE features
with the fully coupled stress, thermal, fluid flow, electro and magneto abilities with the
PC platform pricing. Wide application profiles with customers from corporate R&D,
university research, and industrial design engineers in electronics, civil, mechanical,
AMPSol
AMPSol is a multi-physics finite element analysis program developed for
simulations in stress, thermal, flow, and electro-magneto analyses, including steady-state,
25
transient/dynamic, instability buckling, and modal analysis abilities with fully coupled
formulation. It follows the latest and rigorous FE formulations including large
deformation/rotation Lagrangian formulation (TL or UL), weighted Optimal Least-
Squares fluid formulation with arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian extension, automatic load
stepping/increment with arc-length post-buckling/instability options, and advanced
automatic load-balanced multi-thread controls designed for multi-core/multi-processor
workstation. AMPS solver options include iterative element-by-element solver, fast direct
sparse and the large capacity iterative PCGLSS solver capable of solving millions of
equations in minutes. The rich material library includes incompressible Mooney-Rivlin
incompressible material, anisotropic thermal/elastic, visco-elastic-plastic model with
ORNL extension. The element library contains advanced
beam/rod/shell/.brick/tetra/pyramid elements with user extendable material model and
programmable user load/flux function with access to all solution variables.
Technology
With the emphasis on realistically coupled multi-physics simulations, many
legacy simulation codes patch up segregated components with batch iterative methods to
obtain weakly-coupled solutions. No mathematical proof of the solution exists for such
an ad hoc method, and the solution convergence is no problem, AMPS formulated these
physics in a single element and directly coupled them by using a strain rate based
continuum formulation and a consistent least-square based method for all governing
differential equations. All variables such as temperature, deformation, flow, electrical
potential, stress, time, etc. are directly coupled and can be applied to the same analysis
domain by simply clicking a mouse button to activate the desired physics. The consistent
formulation correctly simulates strongly coupled problems such as nonlinear large
deformation fluid-solid interaction, Joule heating, conjugate heat transfer,
electromagnetic-stress contact, and complex material nonlinear dependency such as
MEMS applications. AMPS developers have extensive experience in finite element
theoretical development, implementations, and applications experiences in civil,
mechanical, automotive, nuclear, aerospace, defense, and general FE applications. The
most advanced field-tested FE technologies are implemented on the new object-oriented
26
C++ language with data structures designed specifically for simulations. The main AMPS
FE technologies include: automatic h-/p-adaptive error controls, Lagrangian finite strain
and large rotation support, complete elastic-visco-plastic material library, Aribtrary
Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) fluid-structure method, Weighted Optimal Least-Squares
fluid formulation, automatic load/stepping controls with arc- length post-buckling
method, load-balanced multi-thread implementation for fast parallel processing, and the
fastest industrial direct sparse and iterative solver (PCGLSS) with minutes of run time for
millions of equations.
RESULT
The study of AMPS and its various features is done.
27
f. EXPERT SYSTEM OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
AIM
To study about expert system of machine elements.
INTRODUCTION
An expert system is a computer program designed to simulate the problem-
solving behavior of a human who is an expert in a narrow domain or discipline. An
expert system is normally composed of a knowledge base (information, heuristics, etc.),
inference engine (analyzes the knowledge base), and the end user interface (accepting
inputs, generating outputs). The path that leads to the development of expert systems is
different from that of conventional programming techniques. The concepts for expert
system development come from the subject domain of artificial intelligence (AI), and
require a departure from conventional computing practices and programming techniques.
A conventional program consists of an algorithmic process to reach a specific result. An
AI program is made up of a knowledge base and a procedure to infer an answer. Expert
systems are capable of delivering quantitative information, much of which has been
developed through basic and applied research (e.g. economic thresholds, crop
development models, pest population models) as well as heuristics to interpret
qualitatively derived values, or for use in lieu of quantitative information. Another feature
is that these systems can address imprecise and incomplete data through the assignment
of confidence values to inputs and conclusions.
One of the most powerful attributes of expert systems is the ability to explain
reasoning. Since the system remembers its logical chain of reasoning, a user may ask for
an explanation of a recommendation and the system will display the factors it considered
in providing a particular recommendation. This attribute enhances user confidence in the
recommendation and acceptance of the expert system.
28
Components of an Expert System
All expert systems are composed of several basic components: a user interface, a
database, a knowledge base, and an inference mechanism. Moreover, expert system
development usually proceeds through several phases including problem selection,
knowledge acquisition, knowledge representation, programming, testing and evaluation.
Knowledge in the Expert System
The knowledge the expert uses to solve a problem must be represented in a
fashion that can be used to code into the computer and then be available for decision
making by the expert system. There are various formal methods for representing
knowledge and usually the characteristics of a particular problem will determine the
appropriate representation techniques employed.
Knowledge bases can be represented by production rules. These rules consist of a
condition or premise followed by an action or conclusion (IF condition...THEN action).
Production rules permit the relationships that makeup the knowledge base to be broken
down into manageable units. Having a knowledge base that consists of hundreds or
thousands of rules can cause a problem with management and organization of the rules.
Organizing rules and visualizing their interconnectedness can be accomplished through
dependency networks. This method of knowledge representation is discussed later in this
discussion under knowledge acquisition and representation.
During the consultation, the rule base is searched for conditions that can be
satisfied by facts supplied by the user. This operation is performed by the inference
engine. Once all of the conditions (i.e. IF parts of rules) of a rule are matched, the rule is
executed and the appropriate conclusion is drawn. Based upon the conclusions drawn and
the facts obtained during consultation, the inference mechanism determines which
questions will be asked and in what order. There are various inferencing methods
available to perform the tasks of searching, matching, and execution.
29
A distinctive characteristic of expert systems that distinguishes them from
conventional programs is their ability to utilize incomplete or incorrect data. Given only a
partial data set, an expert is likely to have less than absolute certainty in his conclusion.
The degree of certainty can be quantified in relative terms and included in the knowledge
base. The certainty values are assigned by the expert during the knowledge acquisition
phase of developing the system. By incorporating rules in the knowledge base with
different certainty values, the system will be able to offer solutions to problems without a
complete set of data. The capacity to deal with uncertainty is available in development
software.
Explanation of the Decision Making Process
One of the attractive features of expert systems is the program's ability to review a
consultation and provide the user with an explanation for how its conclusion was derived.
The explanation function is essentially a record of the reasoning process used by the
expert to resolve the problem. It provides for a better understanding of how the
conclusion was reached and instills in the user a greater confidence in the conclusion and
the expert system. The accumulation of facts to be presented when an explanation is
asked for is usually part of the development shell or software.
Making the Expert System Easy to Use
Whether or not an expert system achieves success may be determined by the
nature of its user interface. This is the part of the expert system that interacts with the
user. Even the most powerful expert system will not be applied if it requires too much
effort on the part of the user. For this reason, it is important to make the computer as easy
for the user to operate as possible. Almost all modern development programs offer the
capacity to interact with the system through both text and graphics.
Developing an Expert System
The power of an expert system is derived from the knowledge of the expert. The
lack of computer skills should not inhibit anyone from using this tool in implementing
their disease management program. There are published procedures that one can follow
to develop expert systems, although rigid adherence to these procedures is not necessarily
30
a prerequisite for a successful development effort. Match your development technique
with your own style of thinking and your resources and problem area. Listed below are
several examples of where the developers of the Penn State Apple Orchard Consultant
(PSAOC) strayed from accepted developmental procedures and still produced a
successful expert system which is advising Pennsylvania apple growers.
Selecting the Problem
In this section we will discuss the development of expert systems in three parts:
Selecting a problem
Knowledge acquisition and representation
Evaluation and adoption. We will concentrate our discussion on the plant
pathology related aspects of developing expert systems and will give very little
time to discussing expert system software tools. In addition, the Penn State Apple
Orchard Consultant will be used as an example to further illustrate each of the
developmental phases.
The most critical step in developing an expert system is identifying a suitable
problem. Criteria to determine the feasibility of developing expert systems and selecting
the problem have been discussed previously. Expert systems are best suited to problems
that require experience, knowledge, judgment, and complex interactions to arrive at a
solution.
One of the first tests to determine if a subject area is suitable for an expert system
is whether the solution of the problem requires the knowledge and expertise of a human
expert. For many agricultural situations a reasonably knowledgeable person with the
correct information such as a production guide or a data base management system
available can determine the solution without the help of an expert or an expert system.
The abilities inherent in the expert system software may not be necessary to solve the
problem.
Problems such as determining days-to-harvest limitations for a pesticide, or
calculating infection periods may be better accomplished by using a production manual,
31
or a conventional computer program such as a spreadsheet or database manager. In
addition, in crop areas where little is known about certain diseases the power of an expert
system is really not necessary
Cost of Development
Expert systems are expensive to develop. They require resources, expertise and
time to build. It should be determined if the proposed expert system can be justified in
terms of savings or other benefits it produces. Costs include software, hardware and
personnel to do the work. A developer should ask if the problem to be solved justifies the
investment of time and money. If current loss due to disease, whether it be due to reduced
yield or quality, is great enough, then the successful implementation of an expert
system may offset cost of development.
Sometimes there are other benefits in using expert systems which more than
justify cost such as: reduced pesticide inputs, enhanced IPM training, effective delivery
of IPM strategies not possible by any other delivery method and identification of gaps in
knowledge to direct research programs. Expert systems also have value in that they can
make expertise available to decision makers in agriculture when expert opinions are not
available. An expert system can be available for the grower to use at any time of the day
and it could be available to every grower in the state at the same time.
Knowledge Acquisition and Representation
After the problem has been selected, the knowledge acquisition phase of expert
system development is begun. The task now is to have the knowledge which the expert
uses to solve the problem displayed in a logical fashion so that it can be coded into the
computer.
There are many discussions in the literature on the extraction of knowledge from
domain experts. Most expert system developers suggest that a knowledge engineer
(someone who is trained in the extraction of information from experts) extract the
knowledge and design the expert system. In some cases, a knowledge engineer is needed
to 'tease apart' highly compiled expert knowledge because the expert is too familiar with
32
the area to break it into its logical components. There is also software available to help in
self knowledge engineering.
In the development of the PSAOC a different method of knowledge acquisition
was undertaken. The domain experts were trained in knowledge acquisition and
representation. After the domain experts had represented their knowledge in dependency
networks (diagrams of the rules), the networks were given to programmers who coded it
into the computer. The domain experts in this case were both the source of knowledge
and the designers of the expert system. The most obvious advantage of this development
method is that it is much less expensive to build expert systems if it is not necessary to
support a knowledge engineer for the extraction and representation of knowledge.
However, there is a more important advantage in using the domain experts as the
knowledge engineers. Only the domain expert knows the extent of his knowledge, how
he thinks about problems and what variables are important in the decision process. Rather
than the knowledge engineer painfully extracting the information from the expert, the
knowledge flows from the expert as he articulates from internal examination how he
makes decisions. The domain expert becomes an active participant in the knowledge
acquisition and representation process rather than a passive participant who is acted upon.
The domain expert becomes more involved in the development of the expert system as he
is challenged to represent on paper and then program into the computer, the methods and
processes by which he solves problems. In addition, domain experts can better
communicate their logic to other domain experts; an important consideration where
different domains overlap and there must be agreement among domains. Also, extension
specialists who serve as the domain experts are more familiar with how the end users
prefer to think about and solve problems. Their experience with the user clientele will
help them to format the expert system in a manner that county agents or growers will best
understand and utilize
RESULT
The study about expert system of machine elements is done.
33
2. STUDY OF INTERNET TOOLS
AIM
To study and familiarize different features in internet.
In this session each candidate has to acquire knowledge about the followingI. Familiarization of Electronic Mail
1. How to create an e-mail id.2. To familiarize free e-mail providing websites.3. Send and receive e-mail.4. Features in e-mail service such as
a. Deleting, forwarding, replying etc.b. Bulk mail optionc. Folder creationd. Briefcasee. Settingsf. Attaching large files
II. Familiarization of worldwide webs1. Education sites2. News sites3. Sites related to placements4. LAN & WAN facility5. Awareness of Bulletin Board Service (BBS)6. Awareness of Forte Free Agent7. Awareness of Netscape Communicator
III. Familiarization of different search engines such as1. yahoo2. google
- Acquire knowledge about different groups available in different websites
- Acquire membership in any of the groups related to education- Using message boards
IV. FTP- Basic idea on FTP- Setting of FTP- Different types of FTP
V. Familiarization of Chatting - Acquire membership in chat rooms - Familiarization of Engineering related chat sites
34
VI. Study on cyber laws
VII. Basic idea on creation of web pages- Use of HTML, Use of database program etc.
RESULT
The study about various internet tools is done.
35
3. STUDY OF MATLAB
AIM
To study about MATLAB and its various components.
MATLAB
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses
include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition Modeling,
simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific and
engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user interface
building.
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does
not require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would
take to write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C or Fortran.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes.
Very important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply
specialized technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions
(M-files) that extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems.
Areas in which toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural
networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets, simulation, and many others.
The MATLAB System
The MATLAB system consists of five main parts:
(1)Desktop Tools and Development Environment.
36
This is the set of tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and
files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB desktop
and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for
viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.
(2)The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library.
This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary
functions, like sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions
like matrix inverse, matrix eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.
(3)The MATLAB Language.
This is a high-level matrix/array language with control flow statements,
functions, data structures, input/output, and object-oriented programming features. It
allows both "programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw-away
programs, and "programming in the large" to create large and complex application
programs.
(4)Graphics.
MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs,
as well as annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high-level functions for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and
presentation graphics. It also includes low-level functions that allow you to fully
customize the appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user
interfaces on your MATLAB applications.
(5)The MATLAB External Interfaces/API.
This is a library that allows you to write C and Fortran programs that interact
with MATLAB. It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic
linking) calling MATLAB as a computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT-
files.
Programming
37
MATLAB is a high-level language that includes matrix-based data structures, its
own internal data types, an extensive catalog of functions, an environment in which to
develop your own functions and scripts, the ability to import and export to many types of
data files, object-oriented programming capabilities, and interfaces to external
technologies such as COM, Java, programs written in C and Fortran, and serial port
devices. The MATLAB programming features and techniques in the following chapters:
Data Structures
Data Types
Basic program components
M-File programming
Data Import and export
Error handling
Programming Tips
Graphics
The important features of MATLAB in graphics are the following:
(1)MATLAB Plotting Tools: -It helps in creating plots and setting graphic object
properties
(2)Data Exploration Tools: - These tools are used to extract information from
graphs interactively
(3)Annotating Graphs: - Here we are able to add annotations, axis labels, titles, and
legends to graphs.
(4)Basic Plotting Commands: - This command helps in plotting vector and matrix
data in 2-D representations
(5)Creating Specialized Plots: - This enables in creating bar graphs, histograms,
contour plots, and other specialized plots
38
(6)Displaying Bit-Mapped Images: - It is used for displaying and modifying bit-
mapped images with MATLAB
(7)Printing and Exporting: - This method is used for printing graphs on paper and
exporting graphs to standard graphic file formats
(8)Handle Graphics Objects: -MATLAB graphics objects and properties
(9)Figure Properties: - How to use figure properties
(10)Axes Properties: - How to use axes properties
3-D Visualization
MATLAB also have 3D visualization techniques and the application of these
techniques to specific types of data.
Creating 3-D Graphs
Defining the View
Lighting as a Visualization Tool
Transparency
Creating 3-D Models with Patches
Volume Visualization Techniques
RESULT
Thus the various features and components of MATLAB are studied.
39
4. STUDY AND EXPERIMENT ON MICRO STRUCTURE
OF SPECIMEN
AIM
To identify the given specimen by conducting suitable metallurgical examination
of the given specimen
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Metallurgical microscope (1:100), polishing machine, emery paper (220, 440,
600, etc), etching material
THEORY
Metallography is the science and art of preparing a metal surface for analysis by
grinding, polishing, and etching to reveal microstructual constituents.
Grinding is a most important operation in specimen preparation. During grinding
the operator has the opportunity of minimizing mechanical surface damage that must be
removed by subsequent polishing operations. Even if sectioning is done in a careless
manner, resulting is severe surface damage; the damage can be eliminated by prolonged
grinding.
Polishing is the final step in production a surface that is flat, scratch free, and
mirror like in appearance. Such a surface is necessary for subsequent accurate
metallographic interpretation, both qualitative and quantitative. The polishing technique
used should not introduce extraneous structure such as disturbed metal, pitting, dragging
out of inclusions, comet tails and staining.
Although certain information may be obtained from as-polished specimens, the
microstructure is usually visible only after etching. Only features which exhibit a
significant difference in reflectivity (10% or greater) can be viewed without etching. This
is true of micro structural features with strong color differences or with large differences
40
in hardness causing relief formation. Cracks, pores, pits, and nonmetallic inclusions may
be observed in the as-polished condition. In most cases, a polished specimen will not
exhibit its microstructure because incident light is uniformly reflected. Since small
differences in reflectivity cannot be recognized by the human eye, some means of
producing image contrast must be employed. Although this has become known as
"etching" in metallography, it does not always refer to selective chemical dissolution of
various structural features. There are numerous ways of achieving contrast. These
methods may classified as optical, electrochemical (chemical), or physical, depending on
whether the process alters the surface or leaves if intact.
After preparation, the sample can easily be analyzed using optical or electron
microscopy. Prepared samples are most often inspected using an inverted metallographic
microscope. This type of microscope is sufficient for magnifications less than 1000x. If
sample must be observed at higher magnification, it will be examined in a scanning
electron microscope (SEM).
PROCEDURE
The given specimen, the end surface was made flat by filing to get a clean
boundary when viewed .Then the specimen is polished by water emery paper of different
grades of no.s 220,300,440,600 etc. The no.600 emery is attached on the rotating disc.
During finest polishing process, the Alumina (Al203) powder was applied between
the specimen and rotating cloth covered wheel. Water may be used as lubricant and to
remove /flesh out the particles cut from the surface.
In the etching process, the specimen was cleaned with etchent to make the grain
boundaries visible. For etching the polished surface is immersed in a weak acidic or
alcoholic solution. Suitable solution (etchents) for specimen of various metals is listed.
The etched specimen is now ready to be viewed in a metallurgical microscope. Adjust the
focus for clear image. Then the structure was compared to photo micrograph and the
metal was identified.
41
Metal
Specimen
Name of
Etchent
Decomposition Percent of
Concentrate
Etching
time(in
seconds)
Iron, Steel,
Cast iron
Nital HnO3,Methale alcohol 2 , 98 20
Stainless
Steel
Nitricacid,Hydrochloric
acid
88 , 12 300
Aluminum
and alloys
Kollers
reagent
Hydrochloric acid, HCl
HNO3,Distilled water
1, 1.5
2.5 , 95
15
Copper and
Alloys
Ferric chloride, HCl
Met hale alcohol
5 , 2
93
100
Zinc and
alloys
Nital HnO3,Methale alcohol 2 , 98 10-300
RESULT
The metallurgical test was conducted and the specimen was identified as
-----------
42
5. STUDY AND EXPERIMENT ON PROFILE PROJECTOR
AIM
1. To make a study of profile projector
2. To determine the nomenclature of the given screw thread, gear tooth, tool
3. Surface examination for minute cracks and surface irregularities
APPARATUS
The profile projector available in the lab is Metzer optical projector manufactured
by Metzer India optical instrument company.
THEORY
The optical projector displays the magnified images of the objects located by
some holding device or slaging fixture or an approximate screw.
An optical projector consist of-
1. A projector drawing a light source, condenser or collimating lens system to direct
the light part by part into an elliptical system
2. Suitable work holding table
3. Projection optics including mirror and lenses
4. Screen where the image of work piece is projected and where the measurements
are made.
5. Measuring device
The image of the tool is produced on the screen by a beam of light. The light
source being a tungsten lamb, filament lamb or high pressure mercury lamb. A strong
beam of light consisting of bundle of light rays which are parallel is produced by optical
means. Beam should be of large enough diameter to provide convergence of tool and
accurate illumination on the screen. The common arrangements of light screen used in
optical projector are- (i) shadow (ii) surface.43
The shadow image of the object may be produced either on horizontal or vertical
screen surface illumination produces a reflected image of the face of the object.
The light beam after passing on to the projector system comprising of lenses and
mirrors which must be held in accurate alignment on rigid support. The lenses are used to
get the desired magnification and mirrors to direct the beam of light on screen. An
optically flat glass is set on to the top of the table and glass surface in addition to allow
the passage of light beam also serves a good surface positioning of a variety of flat paths.
PROCEDURE
Place the object on the micrometer stage. Switch on the transmitted light source.
An image will be obtained on the screen. Do the focusing of image by adjusting the
handle provided. Adjust the image within the screen by selecting the magnification factor
of the objective scale.
Trace out the image on the tracing paper. Calculate the required dimension from
the observed values.
a) For examining the crack
For the examination of the surface irregularities and minute cracks, switch off the
transmitted light source and switch on the incident light source. Place the object on the
stage for the examination. Adjust the focus and observe cracks. The length and breadth of
the cracks can be measured by adjusting the micrometer of the stage.
b) For screw thread and gear tooth
The linear measurements in X and Y directions are done with the help of the
micrometer provided. To measure the angle, the image obtained on the screen is made
clear by sliding the tube up or down, which is done by rotating the hand wheel. Now the
tracing paper is placed on the screen and the image is sketched on to it. The procedure is
repeated by altering the position of the tool on the glass surface, so that various angles are
obtained.
44
c) For cutting tool
The cutting tool is placed on the glass surface of the profile projector. The lights
on the projector are switched on. The image obtained on the screen is made clear by
sliding the tube up or down, which is done by rotating the hand wheel. Now the tracing
paper is placed on the screen and the image is sketched on to it. The procedure is repeated
by altering the position of the tool on the glass surface, so that various angles are
obtained.
RESULTS AND INFERENCES
The study of profile projector is completed.
Tool angles
Front cutting edge angle =
Side cutting edge angle =
Front clearance angle =
Back clearance angle =
Screw thread
Pitch = ------------------
Lead = -----------------
Angle = -----------------
45
Gear tooth
Sl no Dimension part Initial reading Final reading Actual
dimension
46
6. STUDY AND EXPERIMENT ON JOURNAL BEARING APPARATUS
INTRODUCTION
Journal bearing apparatus is designed on the basis of hydrodynamic bearing used
in practice.
To formulate the bearing action accurately in mathematical terms is a more
complex job. However, one can visualize the pattern of bearing pressure distribution due
to the hydrodynamic action with the help of experimental rig. This helps to understand
the subject properly.
The experimental rig consists of a small journal bearing as shown in fig. This
apparatus helps to demonstrate and study the effect of important variables such as speed,
velocity and load on the pressure distribution in a journal bearing. This pressure
distribution can be verified with Sommerfield equations.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
The apparatus is illustrated in Fig. No. 1. It consists of a M.S. bearing mounted
freely on a steel journal shaft (A). This journal shaft is fixed directly on to a motor shaft
(S). The speed of the PMDC motor is finely controlled by a D.C dimmerstat. The journal
bearing (E) has twelve (No.1 to 12) equi-spaced pressure tapping around its
circumference and four No. A, B, C, D additional pressure tapping are positioned on the
topside of the bearing. The two sides of bearing are closed with two M.S. plates and
sealed with gasket packing to avoid leakage. Small balancing weights (J) are provided to
maintain the bearing in its normal position during the test run and while taking the
readings. Both the weights can be adjusted freely along the rod.
The film pressure is indicated by using a pressure transducer/indicator. For this,
tappings are taken from the bearing to common header pipe using valves for each
tapping. Thus pressure at each point spaced around the bearing is known by selecting the
valve every time. The oil reservoir can be adjusted at required height and connected to
the bearing through plastic tube.
47
EXPERIMENT ON JOURNAL BEARING APPARATUS
AIM
To observe the pressure profile of a journal bearing at various conditions and after
noting the pressure profile for any chosen condition, the following analysis are to be
conducted.
a) Plotting the Cartesian and polar pressure curves
b) Plotting the theoretical and polar curves.
SPECIFICATIONS
Journal diameter:
Bearing diameter:
Bearing width:
Weights: sets of adjustable weights
Recommended oil: Any lubricating oil
Motor: DC, 3000RPM
Control unit: special design to give variable speed
Manometer panel; 16 tubes, 300cm (approx)
THEORY
The Sommerfield pressure function is given by
P-po = -6μR22ω ε sin(2+ ε cos)
c2(2+ ε 2) (1+ ε cos)2
Where ‘p’ is the pressure of the oil film at the point measured clockwise from the line
common centers and (00’) and
P=P0 at = 0 and = π (ref figure)
48
ω=speed of rotation of journal
R2=radius of journal
R1=radius of bearing
C=radial clearance
ε=eccentricity
μ=viscosity of oil
h=(c+ ε cos)2
Some books on lubrication give the Sommerfield function with a negative sign for ε. this
is true if is measured from the point of minimum thickness of oil film.
h=c(1- ε cos)
Also, cosm=-3 ε /(2+ ε 2)
Hence the maximum pressure occurs at the point = -m
The total load P on the journal is given by
P= 12μR22L ωπ ε
C2(2+ ε 2) (1+ ε 2)1/2
which is acting perpendicular to OO’
L= width of the bearing
Total force along OO’ is zero.
PROCEDURE
Fill the oil tank by using proper lubricating oil under test and position the tank at
the desired height. Drain out the air from all the tubes of the manometer. Check that some
oil leakage is there for cooling purpose. Start the motor slowly and reach the desired
speed. Select the direction of rotation and switch on the motor. Gradually increase the
speed. Let the journal run for about an hour until the oil in the bearing is warmed up.
Reduce the speed and allow the bearing to settle down for about 10 minutes. Add the
49
required loads and return the bearing to vertical position. When the manometer levels
have settled down, take the pressure readings on 16 manometers. Repeat the experiment
for other speeds. Polar plot of pressure variation may be obtained from the readings on
the manometer. After the test is over, bring down the position of the oil tank so that there
will be no leakage in the idle period. Change the oil seals when they rupture and leakage
starts.
RESULT
50
Supply head, P0 = --------- cm
Weight of bearing = -------- kg
Speed(rpm)
Tube no. P (cm) P-P0
w1
w2
w3
51
7. STUDY AND EXPERIMENT ON AUTOCOLLIMATOR
AIM
1. To study the instrument in detail
2. To measure the straightness error of the given surface using autocollimator
STUDY OF INSTRUMENT
The autocollimator is a precision optical instrument for measuring very small
angular measurement over a significant distance. They can be used for evaluating
alignment of machine surfaces, surface plate flatness, and squareness of one surface to
another, straightness of shafts and a variety of other orientation measurement.
Interferometers and optical flats are used for some of these evaluations.
The measuring range of autocollimators varies with the design, but they are
typically used for angles of under 30 arc minutes. Resolutions of moderately priced
instruments are in the 1 arc second angle.
A bright light source is condensed through a lens. The light then goes through a
graticule with an etched imaged. This is then projected through a beam splitter, which
projects the image on the graticule through the collimating lenses of the autocollimator.
The collimated image goes to a precision mirror at the surface to be evaluated. The mirror
reflects the image back through the collimating lenses of the interferometer.
If the mirror is precisely perpendicular to the collimated light path, the image will
be perfectly aligned with the viewing optic graticule. Otherwise, it will appear as an
offset image. The distance (or angle) of deviation can be determined by graduations on
the graticule or by adjusting the cross hairs of the graticule to coincide with the image. In
the latter type, the amount of movement is tracked by graduations on the adjusting screws
that move the cross hairs
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The autocollimator is basically a telescope permanently focused at infinity, and
incorporating an illuminated target graticule in the focal plane of the lens. Every point on
the graticule produces a parallel beam of light from the lens and parallel beams of light
entering the lens are brought to focus in the focal plane
The instrument uses one of the basic principles of reflection – that a parallel beam
of light projected on to a plane reflector square to the beam, is reflected along the same
path. When the reflector is tilted with respect to to the incident beam ,the return angle of
the reflected beam is twice the angular displacement of the reflector the amount of this
displacement can be read off directly through the instrument eye piece, or by micrometer
or by digital display depending upon the type of autocollimator being used .
PROCEDURE
Find the pitch length of the vertical reflector unit and understand the optical read
out system
Move the vertical reflector along the surface to be tested in steps equal to the
pitch length of the vertical mirror.
Measure angular variation at each position
Convert these readings into height differences
Determine the height above and below the starting point
Convert these heights differences with regard to the datum line that is the line
joining the first and the last point, coordinates of the to points being zero.
Determine the straightness error.
53
OBSERVATIONS
Position of
the
reflector
Autocollimat
or reading
Rise or fall from
first readings
(sec)
Rise or
fall
(microme
ter)
Cumulative
of readings
in column 4
Adjustme
nts to be
done to
make two
end
points
zero
final
rise
or fallof each
point datum
linew.r.t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
\
RESULT:
INFERENCE:
54
8. STUDY AND EXPERIMENT ON CAM PROFILE
AIM
To determine the profile measurement of the given cams, also find the
maximum lift.
APPARATUS
V- block, Graduated protractor, Dial test indicator with stand.
THEORY
A cam is a mechanical member for transmitting motion to a follower by direct
contact. The cam profile is the actual working contour of the cam. It is along surface of
contact of cam and follower. The base circle is the smallest circle drawn to the cam
profile from the centre of rotation of the radial cam. Cam angle is the angle of rotation of
the cam for the definite displacement of the follower. Dwell period of the cam is the
angle of movement of the cam for which the follower has no displacement from the base
circle of the cam. Rise of the cam is the angle through which the follower starts to rise
and attains maximum displacement or lift. Fall of the cam is the angle through which the
follower starts to fall and attains zero displacement. Overlap of two cams is the angle
through which both the cam operate the follower simultaneously
PROCEDURE
Place cam shaft on V- block and fix the graduated protractor at the end of the
camshaft. Set the dial gauge plunger at dwell position and set dial to zero. Mark the
reference point as zero degree. Rotate the shaft gently and note down the deflection at
each 10 degree. Repeat the experiment till one complete rotations of camshaft. At the
same settings of the dial gauge also note down the deflections of next cam by the same
procedure. Draw the base circle of the cam with scale factor and mark the readings.
Connect the tabulated points and we will get the profile of the given cams, and also find
the lift over lapping period and dwell period.
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RESULT
The profile measurement of cam is conducted
1. Maximum valve lift (inlet valve) = ……………
2. Maximum valve lift (exhaust valve) = ……………
3. Dwell period = ……………
4. Overlapping period =…………….
INFERENCE
56
OBSERVATIONS
Angle
of
rotatio
n
Inlet
valve
deflection
(mm)
Exhaust
valve
deflection
(mm)
Angle
of
rotation
Inlet
valve
deflection
(mm)
Exhaust
valve
deflection
(mm)
Angle
of
rotation
Inlet
valve
deflection
(mm)
Exhaust
valve
deflection
(mm)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Maximum lift of inlet valve cam =……………
Maximum lift of exhaust valve cam =……………
Dwell period of cam =……………
Overlapping period =…………….
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