AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESAOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESLesson 1: Introducing the Nature and Lesson 1: Introducing the Nature and Methodology of the Natural SciencesMethodology of the Natural Sciences

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives Understand what the term ‘Understand what the term ‘Natural Natural

SciencesSciences’ includes and excludes’ includes and excludes Understand what is meant Understand what is meant

by the ‘by the ‘scientific methodscientific method’ ’ and what are the implications and what are the implications for knowledge claims in the for knowledge claims in the natural sciencesnatural sciences

What are the Natural Sciences?What are the Natural Sciences?

Natural sciences is defined as “knowledge Natural sciences is defined as “knowledge of objects or processes observable in of objects or processes observable in nature, as biology or physics, as nature, as biology or physics, as distinguished from the abstract or distinguished from the abstract or theoretical sciences, as mathematics or theoretical sciences, as mathematics or philosophy” philosophy” (Dictionary Reference, 2012)

Try to list some examples of knowledge claims in this area of knowledge

The achievements of The achievements of the natural sciencesthe natural sciences

The natural sciences are considered The natural sciences are considered

to be one of the greatest human to be one of the greatest human achievementsachievements

This is because of their unparalleled capacity to both This is because of their unparalleled capacity to both explainexplain and make precise and make precise predictions;predictions;

For the For the technological advancementstechnological advancements that result from that result from its applications;its applications;

For the way in which their For the way in which their overall influenceoverall influence has come has come to increasingly permeate modern life.to increasingly permeate modern life.

Any discussion about ‘truth’ or ‘reliable knowledge’ Any discussion about ‘truth’ or ‘reliable knowledge’ will probably lead to science as providing this kind of will probably lead to science as providing this kind of knowledge.knowledge.

So what So what dodo we think of most when we think of most when considering ‘the sciences’?considering ‘the sciences’?

For For Task 1Task 1, complete the following activities, , complete the following activities, allowing 20 seconds for each:allowing 20 seconds for each:

Draw a hand

Draw a house

Draw one thing that you think represents mathematics

Draw one thing that you think represents the sciences

List as many words as you can that you think describe a scientist

Bonus challenge: draw a scientist

Task 1 – follow upTask 1 – follow up

Compare your drawings of a hand and a house Compare your drawings of a hand and a house with others in the class. Are they similar? If so, with others in the class. Are they similar? If so, why do you think this is so?why do you think this is so?

Compare your drawings for mathematics and the Compare your drawings for mathematics and the sciences. Do some images or symbols recur? sciences. Do some images or symbols recur? What characteristic features of these subjects are What characteristic features of these subjects are reflected?reflected?

Share your words and final drawing. What Share your words and final drawing. What impressions of the scientist emerge? How would impressions of the scientist emerge? How would you find out whether your images of the scientist you find out whether your images of the scientist are accurate or not?are accurate or not?

Is this what you think of when considering Is this what you think of when considering the sciences?the sciences?

In ToK we examine the In ToK we examine the naturenature of science and of science and notnot just the subject just the subject knowledgeknowledge that dominates the that dominates the

school curriculumschool curriculum

However, the focus clearly remains on the However, the focus clearly remains on the three core three core sciences; sciences;

BiologyBiology The study of living organisms and life processes.The study of living organisms and life processes.

ChemistryChemistryThe study of the composition, structure and The study of the composition, structure and properties of matter and its reactions.properties of matter and its reactions.

PhysicsPhysicsThe study of matter and its motion, of space and The study of matter and its motion, of space and time, forces and energy.time, forces and energy.

What is the scientific method?What is the scientific method?““The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it The most incomprehensible thing about the world is that it

is comprehensible.” is comprehensible.” Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZaCy5Z87FA

Scientists search the physical world for regular and recurring relationships to describe and explain.

The search for these patterns ranges from the subatomic world of neutrinos to the entire cosmos and from the study of inanimate crystals to the study of living cells.

The scientific method is a highly structured process that is based around observations, reasoning and experiments that can be repeated and checked independently by others

Task 2 – The Scientific Card GameTask 2 – The Scientific Card GameAim: to figure out the rule!Aim: to figure out the rule!

First, divide the class into groups of 4 or 5, with each group receiving a pile of 7 or 8 playing cards.

Each group is, in turn, to offer a card which is either accepted or rejected according to the rule.

A group can guess what the rule is if everyone agrees!

.

Task 2 – continuedTask 2 – continuedAfter the game, analyse the following:After the game, analyse the following:the way you first spotted a patternthe way you first spotted a patternthe way you guessed a possible rulethe way you guessed a possible rulethe way you tested the rulethe way you tested the rule

A specific process is operating here:A specific process is operating here:Pattern spotting: this links to empirical Pattern spotting: this links to empirical observation.observation.Guessing the rule: this links to the formation Guessing the rule: this links to the formation of an inductive hypothesisof an inductive hypothesisTesting the rule: this links to confirming or Testing the rule: this links to confirming or falsifying the hypothesisfalsifying the hypothesis

1.Experimental

data orObservation

2. Inductive hypothesis

3. Prediction and

experimental test

4. Theory confirmed and

tentatively accepted

5. Theory is falsified

(proven false)

and discarded

Task 3 – The Scientific MethodTask 3 – The Scientific MethodConstruct a flow diagram in your TOK journal that Construct a flow diagram in your TOK journal that illustrates this process using key words such as: illustrates this process using key words such as: theorytheory, , experimental dataexperimental data, , predictionprediction, , inductive inductive

hypothesishypothesis, etc, etc

Task 3 - continuedTask 3 - continuedWhat are the similarities and differences between the What are the similarities and differences between the

following two flow charts. Compare these charts to yours.following two flow charts. Compare these charts to yours.

Imagination and creativity in scienceImagination and creativity in science

American physicist American physicist Richard FeynmanRichard Feynman wrote: wrote:

““But what is the But what is the source of knowledgesource of knowledge? Where do the ? Where do the lawslaws that are to be tested come from? that are to be tested come from? ExperimentExperiment

itself helps to produce these laws, in the sense that itself helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But also needed is it gives us hints. But also needed is imaginationimagination to to createcreate from these hints the great generalisations – from these hints the great generalisations – to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange to guess at the wonderful, simple, but very strange patterns beneath them all, and then to experiment patterns beneath them all, and then to experiment

to check again whether we have made the right to check again whether we have made the right guess.” (guess.” (Alchin 2006:17)Alchin 2006:17)

Task 4Task 4Read about the following two claims in Alchin, N Read about the following two claims in Alchin, N

(2006), Theory of Knowledge, (2006), Theory of Knowledge, Hodder MurrayHodder Murray, , p.17-18p.17-18

1) The Earth is flat1) The Earth is flat

2) The Earth is round2) The Earth is round

Make notes in your ToK journal in response to the following:Make notes in your ToK journal in response to the following:

1 Why did ‘claim 1’ become a reasonable scientific belief?1 Why did ‘claim 1’ become a reasonable scientific belief?

2 What does this indicate about science and truth?2 What does this indicate about science and truth?

3 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?3 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?

4 Why is imagination a necessary component of ‘claim 2’?4 Why is imagination a necessary component of ‘claim 2’?

5 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?5 How was this claim tested, and what were the implications?

6 What aspects of this claim could have been falsified (proven false)?6 What aspects of this claim could have been falsified (proven false)?

PlenaryPlenary

What are the natural sciences and what examples What are the natural sciences and what examples of scientific knowledge claims can you think of?of scientific knowledge claims can you think of?

What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of the ways of knowing are being used?

What does it mean to ‘test’ or ‘falsify’ scientific knowledge claims? What does this suggest about the nature of scientific truth?

HomeworkHomeworkScience and PseudoscienceScience and Pseudoscience

What is What is ‘pseudoscience’ ‘pseudoscience’ and how is it different from and how is it different from ‘science’‘science’? How could it be recognised?? How could it be recognised?

Outline the thinking that underlines ONE of the following and evaluate its essential nature as science or pseudoscience:AcupunctureAstrologyCrystologyFeng ShuiGraphologyHomeopathyPhrenology

AOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESAOK 1 – NATURAL SCIENCESLesson 2: Understanding and Lesson 2: Understanding and

Evaluating the Scientific MethodEvaluating the Scientific Method

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives Understand further the way in which Understand further the way in which

hypotheses are hypotheses are ‘confirmed’ ‘confirmed’ or or ‘falsified’‘falsified’, , in the context of examplesin the context of examples

Understand reasons for and evaluate Understand reasons for and evaluate the regulation of the the regulation of the ‘scientific method’‘scientific method’

1.Experimental

data orObservation

2. Inductive hypothesis

3. Prediction and

experimental test

4. Theory confirmed and

tentatively accepted

5. Theory is falsified

(proven false)

and discarded

What is the What is the Scientific Method?Scientific Method?Which Which Way of Knowledge Way of Knowledge is being used?is being used?

Task 1 – Science and PseudoscienceTask 1 – Science and Pseudoscience

What is What is ‘pseudocscience’ ‘pseudocscience’ and how is it different and how is it different from from ‘science’‘science’? How could it be recognised?? How could it be recognised?

Present an outline of the thinking that underlines ONE of the following and evaluate its essential nature as science or pseudoscience:AcupunctureAstrologyCrystologyFeng ShuiGraphologyHomeopathyPhrenology

Task 1 – follow upTask 1 – follow up

The question here is whether these practices use The question here is whether these practices use the ‘scientific method’ to accumulate knowledgethe ‘scientific method’ to accumulate knowledge

To what extent do these practices rely on experiments, observations, data, hypotheses,

predictions, falsification?

To what extent do these practices appear less scientific because their subject matter is more

complex? What difference is there between studying atoms or plant and the subject matter of

each of these disciplines?

Scientific TruthScientific Truth

What did Physicist David Bohm mean by the following:What did Physicist David Bohm mean by the following:

““The notion of absolute truth is shown to be in poor The notion of absolute truth is shown to be in poor correspondence with the actual development of correspondence with the actual development of science. Scientific truths are better regarded as science. Scientific truths are better regarded as relationships holding in some limited domain” relationships holding in some limited domain”

It is crucial to appreciate that a scientific claim can never be proven experimentally to be correct, although it can

be proven to be wrong. It is commonly assumed (mistakenly) that scientific laws have been proven and

therefore are absolute truth. It is always possible, however, that it will be shown to be incomplete or even

totally wrong using the inductive method.

Albert EinsteinAlbert Einstein

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOnodvgLpf0&feature=relatedhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KOnodvgLpf0&feature=related

What did Einstein mean when he said ‘Truth is what stands the test of time’?

The longer a theory has resisted falsification, the more confident we are that it is right. In this sense, it is perhaps more meaningful to consider claims as being ‘scientifically valid’ as opposed to being ‘true’.Watch the following clip and consider the implications for the validity of scientific knowledge claims:

Scientific ProgressScientific ProgressIf nature of science is to discover new theories and If nature of science is to discover new theories and knowledge, to what extent should this be free from knowledge, to what extent should this be free from

values and regulation?values and regulation?

Task 2: The Modern PrometheusIn Greek mythology, Prometheus, whose name means “foresight” was a Titan known for his wily intelligence, who stole fire from Zeus and gave it to mortals for their use. As punishment, Prometheus was chained to a rock where his regenerating liver was eaten daily by a vulture. His myth has been treated by a number of ancient sources, crediting or blaming him for playing a pivotal role in the early history of humankind.As ‘a modern Prometheus’, explore and assess the regulation of one of these controversial scientific endeavours:Designer babiesStem cell researchTransgenic organismsCloning

Prometheus released by Heracles

Plenary

What is the ‘scientific method’ and which of the ways of knowing are being used?

What is the difference between science and pseudoscience?

What is scientific ‘truth’ and how is this different to other areas of knowledge such as mathematics?

What modern controversial scientific endeavours are there and to what extent should these be regulated?

HomeworkHomework

Review the notes you have made about the natural sciences as an area of knowledge. Read the chapter 2 from Alchin’s book ‘Theory of Knowledge’, supplementing your notes where relevant.