Psychology AS – Unit 1

(AQA Specification A)

Cognitive Psychology – Models of memory

What you need to know :

Understand what is meant by the term ‘model’. Describe the multi-store model of memory and understand the

functions and limitations of its components (sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory).

Describe and evaluate the evidence upon which this model is based. Understand the concepts of capacity, duration and encoding. Understand how these aspects of memory have been measured. Explain the strengths and weaknesses of the multi-store model. Understand what is meant by the concept of working memory. Describe the working memory model and understand the functions

and limitations of its components. Describe and evaluate the evidence on which the working memory

model is based. Understand the strengths and weaknesses of the model. Understand what is meant by eyewitness testimony (EWT). Be aware of some of the factors that affect the accuracy of EWT. Understand the impact of misleading information on EWT. Describe the cognitive interview technique and understand its

rationale. Describe and evaluate evidence that underpins our understanding

of EWT. Describe various strategies for improving memory. Understand how such strategies are related to memory research.

Cognitive Psychology – Specification

The multi-store model including concepts of encoding, capacity and duration. Strengths and weaknesses of the model.

The working memory model, including its strengths and weaknesses.

Eyewitness testimony and factors affecting the accuracy of EWT, including anxiety, age of witness.

Misleading information and the use of the cognitive interview. Strategies for memory improvement.

Models of Memory

What is memory?

Memory is a process of _____________________________ information after the original thing is no longer present. In order for this happen, there are three stages : _____________________________ (putting information in), _____________________________ (maintaining and holding the information) and _____________________________ (remembering and extracting).

Capacity

A measure of the amount of information that can be held in memory. It is measured in terms of bits of information such as number of digits or number of chunks.

Short term memory (STM) has a _____________________________ capacity store of 7 plus or minus 2 pieces of information, while long term memory (LTM) has a potentially _____________________________ capacity.

Duration

A measure of how _____________________________ a memory lasts before it is no longer available.

Information in STM lasts for only a limited amount of time ie: up to _____________________________ seconds, while in LTM it could last forever.

Encoding

The way information is changed so that it can be stored in the memory. Information enters the brain via the senses (eg through the eyes and ears) and then it is stored in various forms.

Such as: _____________________________ (through sounds) for the STM and_____________________________ (through meaning) for the LTM.

In the STM we hold memory for events in the_____________________________. These will disappear unless they are_____________________________. The STM has a limited duration and capacity and information is encoded_____________________________. Whereas, in the LTM we hold memory for events that have happened in the past, anywhere from 2 minutes to 100 years ago. It has an unlimited duration and capacity and information is encoded_____________________________. STM and LTM also differ in the way that we forget information….In STM we tend to forget through _____________________________ and in LTM we tend to forget mainly through_____________________________.

_____________________________ tasks are used to investigate STM and LTM. From these investigations researchers have found that people are able to remember the last few words in a list (_____________________________) as these were the last words that they had heard and are still present in the STM. They also found that people can remember the first few words (_____________________________) as these words were at the beginning of the list and have been rehearsed and therefore transferred into the LTM. However, the words in the middle tend to be forgotten (_____________________________) as they have not been rehearsed and therefore get displaced by the words that follow them.

Research evidence: Glanzer and Cunitz(1966)/Peterson and Peterson(1959)

Aims

Procedures Gave participants lists of words presented 1 at a time then tested free recall. Used 2 conditions in their experiment.Condition 1 were asked to recall words immediately after they had been presented with the words.Condition 2 were given a distractor task of counting backwards in multiples of 3 for 30 seconds before they were asked to recall the words.

Findings They found the expected serial position curve in condition 1.In condition 2 they found that the distractor task had interfered with the recency effect and therefore the last few words were not well remembered.

Conclusions By counting backwards in multiples of 3, this displaced the last few words (recency effect) in the list.However, it did not affect the recall of the earlier words (primacy effect) because these had already been rehearsed and transferred over to the LTM.

Criticisms It was done in a laboratory and was therefore artificial. It cannot be generalised to everyday life. (lacks ecological validity)It is easily replicated and has been as it is highly controlled.

Glanzer found that there were a number of other factors that affected the _____________________________ only ie: the slower the lists were presented the better performance was, older people tended to remember less than younger people and the more familiar words were the easier it was for people to remember them. This suggests that STM and LTM are _____________________________ stores.

The multi-store model of memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin – 1968)

This model proposes that memory is a flow of information from one storage system to another. They suggested that there were 3 stages that information passes through in a fixed sequence.

_____________________________ – Information enters the sensory memory through the 5 senses where it stays for a short time (_____________________________), only fractions of a second. If it is not paid attention to it will _____________________________ and if it is paid attention to it will be passed on to the STM store. Atkinson and Shiffrin focus on 3 separate sensory stores: _____________________________ store – what we see, _____________________________ store – what we hear and _____________________________ store – what we touch and feel.

Research evidence: Sperling (1960) used a chart with 3 rows of letters which he briefly flashed to his participants. Participants were asked to immediately recall as many letters as possible. Most of them could only recall 4/5 but remembered that there were other letters just couldn’t recall them. He then decided to retest this using 3 tones (high tone, medium tone and low tone) which were played after each row was shown. He found that participants were able to remember 3 items from each row. This suggests that on average they were able to remember 9 to 10 items from a possible 12 on the chart.

_____________________________ – Memory traces are encoded usually through sound but can be encoded through other kinds of encoding. However, this memory store is very limited in terms of_____________________________. Information will only stay in this store for a few seconds (_____________________________) before it is _____________________________ if it is not _____________________________ and transferred to the LTM. Increasing rehearsal leads to transfer from STM to LTM.It can then remain in the LTM forever unless brain damage occurs or be inaccessible due to_____________________________. Atkinson and Shiffrin saw STM as a unitary store which means it has no separate compartments.

Research evidence: see Glanzer and Cunitz above for evidence of _____________________________ (distinction between STM and LTM). Other compelling evidence to support this distinction is Shallice and Warrington(1970) presented the case of KF who had been in a motorcycle crash where he had sustained_____________________________. His LTM seemed to be unaffected but he was only able to recall the last bit of information he had heard in his STM.

Alzheimer’s disease involves_____________________________. People suffering from Alzheimer’s have been found to have low levels of the _____________________________ acetylcholine. This suggests that acetylcholine is important for memory. Drachman and Sahakian tested this by blocking one groups action of acetylcholine in the brain and found that they performed poorly on LTM tasks.

To test capacity of STM Jacobs(1887) used the_____________________________. Baddeley(1999) found that if participants read the numbers aloud, they would be stored briefly in the echoic store which strengthens the memory trace. Later Miller(1956) tested capacity and found ‘_____________________________’. Cowan criticised Miller as he believed that performance on tasks could be affected by rehearsal and LTM and might not necessarily demonstrate capacity of STM. It is believed that memory span could be increased through _____________________________ (when we group letters/items into recognisable forms they are easier to remember as one thing and we can therefore remember 7 chunks plus or minus 2 according to Miller).

To test _____________________________ of STM Peterson and Peterson(1959) attempted an investigation where they presented participants with trigrams (3 letters that do not form a pronounceable word) one at a time and in between each trigram the participants were asked to count backwards in threes from a specified number. This was done to _____________________________ rehearsal. Each time this was done, the amount of seconds increased from 3, 6, 9…18 seconds after which participants were asked to stop counting and repeat the trigram back to investigator. This method was repeated a number of times and each time different trigrams were used. Their findings were that participants were able to recall 80% after 3 seconds without rehearsal which got worse and worse as the time increased. Finally after 18 seconds fewer than 10% could recall correctly. They therefore claimed that information disappears through trace decay quite quickly if rehearsal is prevented. They used repeated measures to avoid the criticism of individual differences. The loss of information could have been due to _____________________________ and it being _____________________________ rather than due to lack of rehearsal.

Conrad(1964) tested encoding by showing his participants a random sequence of 6 consonants rapidly on a screen. He used 2 conditions: Acoustically similar (B,G,C etc.) and Acoustically dissimilar (F,J,X etc.). Participants were asked to write down the letters in correct serial order immediately after the presentation. He found that people made errors by _____________________________ similar sounding letters when they sounded the same but found it easier when they sounded different. His ideas were supported by Posner and Keele(1967).

_____________________________ – memory is usually encoded _____________________________ (encoded through the meaning of the item). It has a potentially _____________________________ capacity, _____________________________ is thought to be limited to our lifespan, however Bahrick et al.(1975) did a study to test duration in LTM but his results were inconclusive as he could not determine whether their loss of memory was due the passage of time or the ageing effects of older participants. This is a lasting memory created

by_____________________________. Storage of information for any longer than 30 seconds counts as long term memory.

People are able to remember various things in their past if they are given _____________________________ rather than being asked to recall them. Some types of material are remembered better than others, that is if the individual acquires a _____________________________ rather than just learning facts. (Conway et al. 1991)

Baddeley(1966) believed that STM encodes acoustically from his study where he used 4 categories of familiar words, like Conrad (acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar and semantically dissimilar). He extended the length of the word lists from 5 words to 10 and prevented rehearsal. Each list was presented 4 times and recall was tested after a 20 minute interval. He found words that were similar in meaning were poorly recalled but acoustic similarity had no effect on recall. Therefore he believed that LTM encodes semantically. However, LTM does use other types of encoding such as familiar people (_____________________________), songs (_____________________________) etc.

Strengths and weaknesses of the multi-store model

The multi-store model has been an influential model that is still

This model is reductionist (very over-simplified). It does not

used today. reflect the complexity of memory.

Serial position effect examined by Murdock(1962) demonstrating the primacy and recency effect provides support for the existence of 2 separate memory stores.

Multi-store model of memory emphasises the role of rehearsal in transferring information between STM and LTM, however Craik and Lockhart found that items are better remembered when they are processed semantically (eg: flashbulb memories are imprinted immediately to LTM without rehearsal)

The case study of K.F. by Shallice and Warrington(1970) also provides support for the multi-store model of memory as it shows that he had a poor STM but his LTM was still normal.

Atkinson and Shiffrin explained this as a linear model with information having to pass through the STM to reach the LTM. However, sometimes information has to be retrieved from LTM before STM can process it.Most of the research was performed in a laboratory and is therefore artificial, it does not reflect memory in everyday life.

The Working Memory Model – Baddeley and Hitch(1974)

This model is a ______________________________into the short term memory. It states that there are a number of ______________________________which handle different processes (sound and visual data) rather than only one store like the multi-store model. This is an ______________________________process when working on information.

Research evidence: They devised the dual task technique to test this. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Our memory according to this model consists of a central executive, which has a limited capacity and is free of sound and visual data, as well as two slave systems. The central executive controls, allocates attention and directs the two slave systems. It sets task goals, monitoring and correcting errors, starting the rehearsal process, switching attention between tasks, inhibiting irrelevant information, retrieving information from the LTM and coordinating the activity needed to carry out more than one processing task at a time.

Research evidence: Baddeley(1996) asked participants to put together random strings of numbers on a keyboard. Whilst doing this they were asked in 3 conditions, to recite the alphabet or count from 1 or alternating between numbers and letters. They were not allowed to let a pattern emerge with their string of numbers. He found that both of these tasks were using the central executive simultaneously.

The ______________________________/Articulatory loop is an ______________________________system that is responsible for encoding data acoustically. It acts like an inner voice and______________________________. It is therefore primarily concerned with our ______________________________and production of speech. It holds verbal information in a speech-based form. It consists of a passive storage system called the ______________________________and an articulatory loop.

Research evidence: Baddeley et al.(1975) used 2 conditions where they presented participants with word lists for short bursts of time and asked them to write them down in order. In condition 1 the 5 one syllable words were familiar words eg: harm, wit etc. whereas in condition 2 they were polysyllable words eg: organisation, university etc. They found that the short words were remembered more than the polysyllabic words on average. They named this the ‘word length effect’ and claimed that the capacity of the loop was determined by the length of time it took to say a word rather than amount of items on a list. It was 1.5 seconds. They

produced more evidence for the articulatory loop when they looked at the word length effect under conditions of articulatory suppression (when a participant is given an exercise where they would use the articulatory loop but simultaneously asked to chant something meaningless avoiding rehearsal). This suggests that short and long words must be being processed somewhere else like in the central executive.

The ______________________________acts almost like an ______________________________eye and is responsible for visual spatial coding, like a sketch pad for visual data such as where your fridge is in your kitchen. It consists of a ______________________________visual store called the ______________________________which is connected to an ______________________________acting as a ______________________________mechanism. They can both be used as ______________________________systems but work ______________________________of each other.

Research evidence: Shallice and Warrington(1970) These findings suggest that different parts of the brain are involved in short term and long term memory. It also demonstrates that there are different stores in short term memory as the subjects short term forgetting of auditory letters and digits was much greater than that of visual images and he was unable to process verbal materials however he could process meaningful sounds. Shepard and Feng(1972) used shapes that could be folded into blocks and participants were asked to imagine folding these into blocks with the grey area being the base. They were asked if the arrows would meet head on in the finished cube. They found that the more folds there were the longer it took the participants to make a decision. This works in the same way as real life perception which implies that people will find it difficult to do 2 tasks involving the visuo-spatial sketchpad simultaneously.See Klauer and Zhao(2004) page 22 for supporting evidence for visual cache.

Evaluation+The central executive______________________________.+This model has ______________________________in helping children to read by suggesting that difficulties may reside in deficits with the phonological loop.+It explains the STM as both a ______________________________system as well as______________________________.+Unlike the multi-store model it uses ______________________________as one of the ways that information can be transferred not the only way.+Repeated measures design was used for these investigations to avoid______________________________.

-The central executive is not very well known and understood. Cowan(1998) has claimed that to understand abilities such as comprehension the working memory model should include an explanation of LTM activation.

-The visuo-spatial store has not been explored as well as other slave systems.

-The investigations used were highly controlled and therefore______________________________.

Memory in everyday life

Eyewitness testimony (EWT)

The effects of misleading information on the accuracy of EWTMemories are quite _______________________________and are easily _______________________________by information after the event has occurred. Loftus(1992) introduced ‘_______________________________’ which is when people are given _______________________________information after the event has occurred. This information is _______________________________into their memory of the actual event. Loftus demonstrated in an investigation how _______________________________could influence a participant’s memory of the original event.

Research evidence: Loftus(1975)Participants were shown a film of the events leading up to a car accident. Once the clip had been shown they were divided into a control group and an experimental group. The control group was asked questions in line with what they had just seen whereas the experimental group were asked questions with misleading information. 17% of the participants in the experimental group claimed that they had seen a barn in the original film however only 3% of the control group made this same error. However, this situation was artificial as in real life we are not told in advance to pay attention. Loftus was criticised that her participants were subject to demand characteristics. She countered this criticism by testing to see if offering participants a reward for correctly recalling the details of the film would change the results. She found that over 70% of the participants made an error on the most important question which directly related to misinformation that they had been told. This suggests that their actual memory was altered by the misleading information and incorporated as part of the original memory.

Leading Questions

These are questions that are asked in such a way that the participant gives the answer that the interviewer ________________________________them give using language that may ________________________________them or provide them with new insight and make them doubt their own memory. This might result in a witness saying that he/she saw something when in fact they didn’t. This could be due to ________________________________event information which is information that is given after the event confuses the witness as to what they actually saw. Alternatively memory ________________________________can occur when others around start talking about their experience of the event and the participant mixes their own experience as well as that of others into one story which becomes their witnessing of the event. Loftus and Palmer (1974), Yuille and Cutshall (1986). It was found that errors in eyewitness testimony were mainly in aspects such as colour, age, height and weight estimations.

Other factors affecting the accuracy of EWT

Reconstructive MemoryThis is when something is remembered based on a person’s ________________________________that they have learned through their culture and experience. Bartlett (1932) The War of the Ghosts. Bartlett found that there were certain factors that influenced peoples recall:

________________________________– when we listen to a story and then we retell it leaving out the parts that we thought were irrelevant.________________________________– when retelling a story we sometimes muddle up the order or simply put it in the order that we think it ought to be in based on what we believe the focus of the story is or it’s most important aspects.________________________________– When retelling a story we repeat it in our own words based on our understanding of it and we try to explain it in a way that makes sense to us even if sometimes this means telling the story incorrectly.________________________________– This is when we alter the style and content of a story in order to make it more appropriate to our own culture.

Schemas and StereotypesA schema is a ________________________________organised piece of information about the world, events or people that is stored in the long term memory. List(1986) wrote up a list of things that might happen during a shoplifting scenario. She asked participants to rate these based on how likely they were to occur in a real life scenario. After which she made a film showing 8 different shoplifting incidents where she included elements that people had rated as highly likely and some had rated as low probability. She showed this film to a new set of participants and a week later she asked them to recall what had happened. She found that people

had reported seeing the ________________________________elements and that sometimes these were recalled even when they weren’t in the video at all. A stereotype is when our schema puts certain people into certain groups based on particular ________________________________or traits that they possess. Eg: All drug addicts have torn clothes and greasy hair, loads of tattoos and piercing etc.

AnxietyInvestigations that have been performed to test recall of people who have witnessed an unpleasant or stressful event have tended to be________________________________. Loftus and Burns(1982) showed some of their participants a violent version of a crime where a boy was shot in the face. Participants found it difficult to recall events ________________________________up to the incident. Loftus(1979) ‘Weapon effect’ also affected recall as if an individual had a weapon pointed at them during the event they would have been focussing more on the weapon to avoid injury rather than on the ________________________________of the perpetrator. (see page 30 for laboratory example – knife and pen)Christianson and Hubinette(1993)Found that in real life when people were in highly stressful incidents, memory can be________________________________, detailed and________________________________. They carried out a survey where they questioned 110 people who between them had witnessed 22 bank robberies and some of them had been directly threatened. The victims seem to show more detailed and accurate recall than those who were just watching or witnessing the incident.

Age of the witnessBoth adults and children can be used as witnesses. Dekle et al.(1996) has found that children are more ________________________________to identify criminals in an identity parade than adults but often their identification is________________________________.

Research by Poole and Lindsay(2001) have found that children are more likely to ________________________________post event information into their original memories. They took children between the ages of 3-8 and asked them to take part in a science demonstration. After this the parents read them a story which included some elements from the science demonstration and novel information. The children were then questioned about the science demonstration and they had ________________________________both the story and the demonstration into their original memory. Then children were asked to

‘________________________________’ which means to think carefully about what information came from the story and what information came from the science demonstration. Some of the older children were able to identify what information was after the event and were able to remove it from their recall. The younger children were unable to ________________________________between the original event and the information received after the event.Gordon et al.(2001)Found that young children can give accurate statements but that they are susceptible to________________________________.Davies(1994)Believes that there isn’t much difference in adult and child witnesses and that children can sometimes be very valuable witnesses provided they are interviewed cautiously.Yarmey(1984)Showed elderly participants a staged event and found that when they were questioned 80% compared to 20% of younger adults failed to mention the ________________________________in the attackers hand.

ConsequentialityBecause most of the studies on EWT are done in a laboratory setting the participants are aware that it is ________________________________and that their responses will not have any serious consequences.Foster et al.(1994) wanted to see if participants thought that their testimony would influence a conviction, how accurate their recall was. There were 2 conditions: In condition 1 the participants were led to believe that they were watching a real bank robbery and were asked to identify the robbers afterwards in an ________________________________parade. Condition 2 they watched the same video but were led to believe that it was a________________________________. Afterwards they were also asked to identify the robbers in an identity parade. They found that in condition 1 where the participants believed there were real consequences they were more________________________________.

Individual differencesSome people are more susceptible to misinformation than others. Tomes and Katz(1997) People who are more likely to be influenced are those with:

________________________________for the event, A high score on measures of ________________________________and High scores on measures of________________________________.

People will resist misleading information if they can see that it is wrong.

How to improve the accuracy of EWT

The Cognitive Interview TechniqueFisher et al.(1987) studied real police officers in Florida over a 4 month period to understand how they interviewed witnesses. It was found that witnesses were asked ________________________________questions, which

were brief and direct. This did not allow the witnesses to tell their account ________________________________and encouraged them to leave out details.

Geiselman et al. (1985) developed the ________________________________interview for police to use when questioning witnesses in order to help gain accurate recall.

The cognitive interview Instructions to witnessContext ________________________________ Place the witness back in the

mental context of the event in question. Ask them to recall the feelings they experienced, weather, mood, thoughts, what was happening prior to the event etc.

________________________________everything Talk through every detail of what happened and mention every thing you can remember even if you think it is unimportant.

Recall from ________________________________perspective

Describe the event in chronological order then describe the event backwards etc.

Recall in ________________________________order

Describe the event from somebody else who was presents point of view. What they saw, thought, felt etc.

All of this information could help to ________________________________to the witnesses memory which could provide important information. This led to further research by Fisher et al.(1987) who then suggested some extra features in the ‘________________________________’. These include:

Minimise ________________________________ ________________________________listen to the witness Ask ________________________________questions ________________________________and give witness a chance to answer ________________________________interruption

________________________________the use of imagery ________________________________to suit the witness ________________________________judgemental comments

Geiselman et al.(1985) found that the cognitive interview provided rich information from the witnesses and was supported by Koehnken et al.(1999) who found that those questioned using the cognitive interview remembered more incorrect information than those using the standard technique. The cognitive interview was not found to be successful with young children. Geiselman(1999) found that children under 6 were inaccurate with their recall when using this technique probably because they did not understand the instructions. Although from 8 upwards it has been found to be useful.

Reconstructing the sceneIf an event has occurred and the witnesses are taken back into the ________________________________of the event like the scene of the crime this could ________________________________recall of various details as the participants will remember details of the event.

HypnosisHypnosis can be used if an event has been ________________________________to try and relax the sub-conscious which is preventing the ________________________________from surfacing. Putnam (1979).

Identity ParadesThis is when the witness has to pick out the perpetrator in a ________________________________but they will be told that he might not be there. They could also have to pick out of a crowd where various look-a-likes have been placed to ensure________________________________. No praise or criticism should be incorporated to try and sway the participant towards the correct criminal.

Interview TechniquesQuestions must be open ended and guessing should not be encouraged as this could lead to________________________________. All information should be volunteered by the participant. The participant should feel comfortable and unintimidated to avoid________________________________.

Strategies for memory improvement

The role of organisation:

Mnemonics based on visual imageryTechniques using organisation to improve memory are known as________________________________. Most of them depend on ________________________________imagery (being able to picture something mentally).

The ‘________________________________’ is when you would learn the basic ________________________________ (a few short sentences), then you take the next list of words and you attach each word to one of the original basic sentences but you would have to develop a strong ________________________________image of each one in order to remember it. Then an hour later you write down the list of ten words with the book closed. (See page 35 for the example)

Another method which is similar to this one is called the ‘method of________________________________’. This is when for example you think about a ________________________________route of a journey and take note of landmarks along the way. Each of these landmarks will be associated with the key word you need to remember. So you picture the route of your journey and go through each landmark to remember the list of words. Paivio(1965) found that recall was better for ________________________________nouns than abstract words. The reason for this is that concrete words are encoded twice- first as a verbal code then as a visual code.De Beni and Moe(2003) supported this but suggested that this kind of imagery is better when presented ________________________________rather than________________________________. They claim this because they say that according to the working memory model if something is presented visually and you try to form a visual image these two actions will be competing for the same storage resources on the visuo-spatial sketchpad, whereas if the image comes in verbally then it can be processed in two different stores the visuo-spatial sketchpad for the image and the ________________________________for the verbal items.

Another method which is used to learn foreign languages is called the ________________________________ method. It was developed by Gruneberg. This is when you learn a foreign word that sounds like an English word you then ________________________________the English word image and associate it with the new foreign word. For example the Hebrew word for who is‘mi’ (pronounced as me) so to learn this word you would imagine yourself as the ‘who’.

Organisation and understandingBransford and Johnson gave this passage to two groups of participants, however only one of the groups was given the title ‘________________________________’. The group given the title performed significantly better than the other group which supports the idea that understanding material helps to recall it.

ChunkingChunking involves ________________________________ information into categories in order to make material more ________________________________and therefore more memorable.Katona asked participants to remember a list of numbers which is way over the capacity of STM. For example 149162536481100121. However if these numbers have commas in between them we can see a pattern that they are all numbers squared from one to eleven. For example 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121.Encoding and retrieval strategiesSometimes encoding occurs with a ________________________________. This cue could be dependent on the ________________________________ or the emotional or ________________________________ state of where it was encoded. Geiselman and Glenny(1977) asked participants to imagine a list of words being said by a familiar female voice and others were asked to imagine them being said by a familiar male voice. After a while, the researchers read out a list of words containing the old list and a few new words. The participants were asked to say which words they had been given before. This recognition task was more successful if the gender of the voice was the same as the voice they had imagined in the first part of the experiment.Ucros(1989) found that recall was better if the mood at the time of learning was the same as at the time of ________________________________. However, the difference was only small and if the material was learned well then context was considered to be less important.

Active processingCraik and Lockhart(1975) introduced the levels of ________________________________model which states that the deeper something is processed and the more ________________________________it is

to us the better the recall. They did this by presenting a list of printed words to 4 different groups of participants and asked each of them to carry out a different task.

1. Had to answer a ________________________________question eg. What does this word look like (capital letters, small letters etc.)

2. Had to answer an ________________________________task eg. Does this word rhyme with…?

3. Had to answer a ________________________________ task eg. A mosquito and a doctor have one thing in common – they both draw blood.

4. Had no specific task just to try and remember the words.

Only group 4 thought they would be tested for recall. They found that people in group 3 performed significantly better than 1 and 2 and at the same level as group 4. This demonstrates that meaningful ________________________________leads to better memory for the material and that the memory for this material is incidental because a meaning has been placed on it, it is therefore unnecessary to make the ________________________________ to learn it.The role of attention and practiceIt has been demonstrated in EWT that if an individual is not paying ________________________________ they are less likely to remember something. However, with regards to practice we know that it is important as this has been demonstrated throughout your school years in revision. We also know that if revision is done over a long period of time and the material is ________________________________ it is more likely to be remembered in LTM whereas ________________________________all of one subject into one night of learning will not transfer into the LTM.

Ericsson and Chase(1981) performed a study on an individual who was able to memorise lists of up to 80 digits. In order to do this he had to practice for an hour a day over a 2 year period. However, he was not able to transfer this to other types of list and his capacity for words and letters was no more than an average person.

Most of these techniques are reductionist as they oversimplify how people transfer material to their LTM. Herrmann(1991) believes that we should use a ________________________________approach where we develop a whole range of strategies to ________________________________memory. Just as an example we need to be healthy in body and mind otherwise we will not be able to pay attention and will lack ________________________________.Matlin(1998) Believes that we need to know and understand how our memory works. That we need to choose the strategies that work for us individually by knowing our own strengths and weaknesses. This is known as ________________________________-memory.