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RESEARCH METHODS(2nd semester, 2011-2012)
MMPBalolongSunday, January 1, 2012
LECTURESTYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
METHODOLOGIES - GANTT CHART
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
ACTIVITIES
Formulating Titles, Research Questions and Objectives
Writing an RRL
Constructing Dummy Tables and Graphs
Developing the Literature Citations
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
LECTURESTYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
METHODOLOGIES - GANTT CHART
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
The usual definition of RESEARCH...
“going to the library”
“google-ing some key words”
What’s your definition???
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
RESEARCH
the process of constant exploration and discovery
the process of discovering new information and gain new knowledge
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHsystematic, controlled, empirical, critical investigation of hypothetical prepositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973)
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHa process through which we attempt to achieve SYSTEMATICALLY and with the support of data:
the answer to a question
the resolution of a problem
the greater understanding of a phenomenon
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
8 DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS
OF A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
MMPBalolongSunday, January 1, 2012
1. Originates with a question or problem
What are he environmental factors that increase shrimp productivity?
What active compound in atis leaves extract is cytotoxic to cancer cells?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
2. Requires a clear articulation of a goalWhat precisely do you intend to do?
Example: to determine the difference in body weight loss after administration of various plant extracts
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
3. Follows a specific plan of procedure
carefully planned
methods in a purposeful way: to yield data relevant to their particular research problem
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
4. Usually divides the principal problem into more manageable subproblems
principal problem: How do we get from UP Manila to Trinoma?
subproblems:
What is the most direct route?
How far do I travel by train?
How much will I spend to reach my destination?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
5. Guided by specific research problem, question or hypothesis
hypothesizing: attempting to account for the cause (*guesses)
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions
it is necessary to assume
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7. Research requires the collection and interpretation of data in attempting to resolve the problem that initiated the research
Sunday, January 1, 2012
8. It follows logical, developmental stages
From questions to answer
“research begets research”
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
ULTIMATE AIM OF RESEARCHTo fill in the gaps along the stream of knowledge
To provide solution to contradictory results from previous studies
To satisfy one’s curiosity and quest for knowledge
To find truths for the satisfaction of answering questions and using this new information to help others
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
EXPERIMENTALPurpose: the only method of research which can truly test ! ! ! ! hypothesis concerning cause-effect relationship.
the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and the difference determined
Independent Variable : also referred to as the experimental variable, the cause, or the treatment, is that activity or characteristic believed to make a difference.
Dependent Variable : also known as the criterion variable, effect, or posttest is the outcome of the study, the change or difference in groups which occurs as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.
Example: 1.! Effect of varying concentrations of Pb on the brain of golden apple snail
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
The Process of Research: Logical Steps
The Research problem
ProblEm Identification (Looking for a Topic)
Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
Researchability of the Problem
Formulation of Research Objectives
Definition of Research Objectives
Characteristics of Research Objectives
Sunday, January 1, 2012
THE RESEARCH PROBLEMthe heart of the research project
requirement: to state the problem with unwavering clarity, precision
what if i simply cannot find a good problem?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
IDENTIFYING YOUR PROBLEMwhere to find interesting problems...
journals, books, abstracts (library/trusted links)
recommendation sections of theses and dissertations/journal articles
ideas from your mentor or professor
ideas from seminars, research colloquia and conferences
personal/family experiences
rare/interesting occurrences which needs to be explained
top ten causes of mortality/morbidity in your localityMMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
CHARACTERISTIC OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM
should be of great interest to you
useful for the concerned people in a particular field
possess novelty
lays foundation for further research in the field
can be completed in the allotted time desired
must use appropriate and up-to-date technology
does not carry ethical or moral impediments
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM SHOULD BE
S-M-A-R-T!
SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE, ACHIEVABLE, REALISTIC, TIME-BOUND
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?
EXternal factors
novelty and avoidance of unnecessary repetition
practical value of the problem
availability of data on the problemMMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
personal factors
training and personal qualifications
time requirements
availability of subjects and equipments
specialized working conditions
hazards to be encountered
research funds (cost)
IS MY PROBLEM WORTHY OF RESEARCH?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
STATING YOUR RESEARCH
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM MUST BE STATED IN A CLEAR AND COMPLETE GRAMMATICAL SENTENCE IN AS FEW WORDS AS POSSIBLE!
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
WHAT’S WRONG WITH THESE RESEARCH PROBLEMS?
BUSING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN
RETIREMENT PLANS OF ADULTS
EFFECT OF PHARMACEUTICALS ON EMBRYO
E. COLI AND WATER QUALITY
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
REFLECT THE QUESTIONS WHOSE ANSWERS THE INVESTIGATOR WANTS TO STUDY YIELD TO
CAN BE EXPRESSED EITHER IN THE FORM OF A STATEMENT OR A QUESTION
SERVES AS THE STEERING WHEEL IN THE CONDUCT OF A RESEARCH PROJECT
SERVES A S AGUIDE IN SPECIFYING VARIABLES TILL INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
SAMPLE OBJECTIVESTO DEVELOP AN OPTIMIZED PROTOCOL TO DETECT FLAVIVIRUSES IN SERUM SAMPLES USING PCR
TO DETERMINE THE EFFICACY OF ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
GENERAL
summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
should be closely related to the research question.
EXAMPLE:
Problem: low utilization of child protection units (CPUs)
General Objective: to identify the reasons for this low utilization
HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR OBJECTIVES?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
SPECIFIC
smaller, logically connected parts of a general objective
should systematically address the various aspects (dimensions) of the general objective
should specify what you will do in your study, where and for what purpose.!
HOW DO YOU FORMULATE YOUR OBJECTIVES?
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Clearly phrased in operational terms
Use action verbs
Examples: explain, apply, predict, identify, employ, evaluate, describe, illustrate, defend, integrate, use, assess, contrast, interpret, distinguish, sort, categorize, diagram, solve, formulate, report, relate, organize, restate, recall, prepare, review, list, arrange, classify, name, construct, translate, recognize, create, determine
PICKING THE RIGHT WORDS
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
• To know
• To understand
• To really understand
• To fully appreciate
• To internalize
• To grasp the significance of!
• To have an awareness of! !
WORDS TO AVOID...
MMPBalolong
Sunday, January 1, 2012
GENERAL: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable care of good quality to people with HIV/AIDS, and to identify ways in which these services can be improved
SPECIFIC
To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial, health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their families affected by AIDS.
To determine the extent to which formal and informal support systems address these needs from the viewpoint of service providers as well as patients.
To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient and family as well as to the formal CHBC programmes themselves.
To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided to the patient by the family and to the family/patient by the CHBC programme.
SAMPLE OBJECTIVES
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
ACTIVITY FOR TODAY
1. Formulate Title from Desired Topics2. Formulate the Research Question/Research
problem3. Formulate Objectives
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Sunday, January 1, 2012
LECTURESTYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
METHODOLOGIES - GANTT CHART
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Researcher must be shrewd in narrowing the scope of his study without becoming concerned with a trivial problemAssumptions, restrictions and limitation must be explicit with respect to the coverage of the studyHelps focus attention on valid objectives, & helps minimize the dangers of over generalization
SCOPE & LIMITATIONS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
the scope of the problemtime allotted for the conduct of the studycost and fundingcooperation/coordination needed from other institutions or researchersavailability of research subjectsavailability of equipment neededethical considerations
FACTORS TO CONSIDER
Sunday, January 1, 2012
THE LITERATURE REVIEW
Evaluating Others’ and Developing Your Own
Sunday, January 1, 2012
THE LITERATURE REVIEW
Evaluating Others’ and Developing Your Own
Sunday, January 1, 2012
After the research problem has been identified and the objectives formulated, a review of related literature needs to be done.
Two Important Uses:
• To get acquainted with the existing studies related to the research to be conducted relative to:
- who have done the work on the problem area- what has been found- research design utilized- statistical analysis applied- problem met and how were they resolved
• To establish a rationale or a theoretical or conceptual framework based on previous research studies done.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
RELATED LITERATURE: Composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the present study is related
RELATED STUDIES: studies, inquiries or investigations conducted to which the present proposed study is related or has some bearing or similarity
usually unpublished materials
manuscripts; theses; dissertations
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
It identifies the start for the research problem by presenting the gaps, weak points, and inconsistencies in the previous researches. This provides the study with a conceptual framework justifying the need for investigations.
It puts together all the constructs or concepts that are related with the researcher’s topic. The theory then leads you into the specific questions to ask in your own investigation
It presents the relationships among variables that have been investigated. This process enables you to view your topic on hand against the findings earlier bared.
FUNCTIONS OF YOUR RRL
Sunday, January 1, 2012
The surveyed materials must be as recent as possibleMaterials reviewed must be objective and unbiasedMaterials surveyed must be relevant to the study
Surveyed materials must have been based upon genuinely original and true facts or data to make them valid and reliable
Reviewed materials must not be too few or too many
CHARACTERISTICS OF YOUR RRL
Sunday, January 1, 2012
HOW TO CONDUCT THE REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE“WHERE DO I GO FROM HERE?”
Sunday, January 1, 2012
personal or school library (magazines, journals, books, etc)
attend seminars, scientific meetings (under your topic of course)...take down notes
do a computer-aided search through databases
example: www.scirus.com; pubmed; SCIENCE DIRECT, etc
WHERE TO SEARCH
Sunday, January 1, 2012
You can actually ask for reprints:
via postcards
via request letters
via emails
WHERE ELSE???
Sunday, January 1, 2012
AFTER ALL THESE PHOTOX WHAT’S NEXT?
“ITS TIME TO ORGANIZE YOUR TREASURES!”
Sunday, January 1, 2012
General Information
Methods in Other Studies
Support for Objectives
Results to Compare with My Results
Pros and Cons of Controversy
Others...it may be of use (malay mo!)
ORGANIZING YOUR RRL
Sunday, January 1, 2012
write all bibliographic information, i.e., author(s), complete title, publisher, date and place of publication, and so on
write what others have said on the subject plus your own impressions and comments
ALSO....
Sunday, January 1, 2012
IT’S TIME TO WRITE...AVOIDING PLAGIARISM!
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Use headings arranged in logical order to indicate main points
Avoid too long introduction to your main topic.
Include information that are directly related and relevant to your topic.
A maximum of half-page (double-space) must constitute one paragraph
Do not copy in toto the information from your source. No more than 10% of the entire paper is allowed for direct quotation
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Give due credit to the real source of your data. Cite the authors at the end of the sentence.
Paraphrase using your own words and style the data gathered.
Summarize important points from your sources and relate them to your topic.
Reinforce your data with selected figures or statistics from your course.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
A common problem...
“turning your list of ideas into a BORING review”
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Make subheads (not too many), transitional phrases and unifying ideas to make information flow smoothly
HOW TO AVOID IT
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Spice your writing with a variety. Keep your paper alive!
Vary the way sentence and paragraph begins:
Author A found out
Author B found out
Replace found out with:
demonstrates; presented evidence for; supported; observed; reported; examined; concluded
Early in the 1980’s, author A
According to Author A,
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
READY TO DO YOUR RRL?
Sunday, January 1, 2012
But before that, let us learn to critique or evaluate a research
study
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Why did the Researchers do this particular study?
Who/What was/were studied?
How was the study done?
What did the researchers find?
What were the limitations of the study?
What are the implications of the study?
ACTIVITY FOR TODAY: CRITIQUING A JOURNAL PAPER
Sunday, January 1, 2012
TYPES OF RESEARCH - FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
SIGNIFICANCE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
METHODOLOGIES - GANTT CHART
TODAY!!!
Sunday, January 1, 2012
MATERIALS
laboratory supplies
equipment
travel, communication
METHODS
formulate hypothesis (descriptive)
testing hypothesis (analytical)
MATERIALS & METHODS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
A tentative explanation for certain phenomena, or events which have occurred or will occur (Gay,1976)
States the researcher’s expectations concerning the relationship between two or more variables in the research problem
Testable statement of a potential relationship between two or more variables (McGuigan, 1978)
FORMULATING YOUR HYPOTHESIS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Stated in declarative formStated in definite terms, the relationship between variablesShould reflect the theory or literature that it is based onShould be brief and to the pointShould be testable
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
TWO TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
“RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS AND THE NULL HYPOTHESIS”
Sunday, January 1, 2012
HoNever true or established but can be possibly disproved in the course of the experimentationNo difference relationship between the variables we want to studyMay act as a starting point and as a benchmark against which the researcher will measure the actual outcome of the study once the researcher has collected the data
THE NULL HYPOTHESIS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
HAAlternative hypothesisRelationship is always positive
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS/ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Ho : Vitamin C does not inhibit chromosomal lagging
HA : Vitamin C inhibit chromosomal lagging by 50% compared to placebo
Ho : There is no significant difference between the effectivity of cerebral artery bypass and standard medical therapy)
HA : Cerebral artery bypass is more effective than standard medical therapy
EXAMPLES...
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Non-directional – reflects a difference between groups, but the direction of the difference (unequal) is NOT specified
Directional – reflects a difference between groups and the difference is specified
TWO TYPES OF HA
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Variable – any trait/characteristic that manifest differences irrespective of whether the differences are qualitative or quantitative
Qualitative – eye color, shape of teeth, sexQuantitative – weight, height, length, light intensity, temperature
IDENTIFYING YOUR RESEARCH VARIABLES
Sunday, January 1, 2012
Independent – the treatment variable
variables in the course of an experiment in an effort to understand the effects of this manipulation on some outcome (which you know as the dependent variable)
the variable which is presumed to cause, effect, influence, or stimulate the outcome
Dependent – outcome variables in a research study
refers to the outcome or response variable
Extraneous Variable – by themselves produce changes which may be mistaken to be the effect of the independent variable being considered
Controlled, held constant or randomized – so the effects are neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all conditions
TYPES OF VARIABLE
Sunday, January 1, 2012
PROBLEM: the effect of carbon dioxide loading on plant morphologyIdentify the:
Independent variableDependent variableIntervening/extraneous variable
TRY THIS....
Sunday, January 1, 2012
represents the “plan of attack” of the researcher
in answering the research objectivesin obtaining all the relevant data in relation to objectives and hypothesis
CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH DESIGN
Sunday, January 1, 2012
the specific areas of concern in the choice of a research design are the following
selection and number of subjectscontrol and manipulation of relevant variablesestablishment of criteria to evaluate outcomesinstrumentationmaximization of internal and external validity
CONSTRUCTING YOUR RESEARCH DESIGN
Sunday, January 1, 2012
research objectivesfeasibilityethical considerationseconomy and efficiencyinternal and external validity
FACTORS TO CONSIDER...
Sunday, January 1, 2012
refers to extent to which investigator is able to control the different biases affecting the study and in the end, measures what he really intends to measureDid the experimental treatment really bring about a change in the dependent variable?Did the independent variable make a significant difference?
INTERNAL VALIDITY
Sunday, January 1, 2012
refers to the extent to which the investigator is able to generalize the results of his study Are the results applicable to groups and environment outside of experimental setting?
EXTERNAL VALIDITY
Sunday, January 1, 2012
ExperimentationQuestionnaireInterview schedule and forms
DESIGN TOOLS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
A number of researchers think about data analysis only after all data has been collected
Consequences:
Some very important variables in study are either not measured at all or collected using a measurement scale which is inconsistent with desired mode of data analysis
Objectives are too ambitious or non-measurable, given the nature of the data that were collected
DESIGN THE PLAN FOR DATA ANALYSIS
Sunday, January 1, 2012
A good practice is to construct a dummy table
Dummy Tables – skeleton tables drawn to help the investigator conceptualize how the data is going to be organized and presented after it has been collected
THE SOLUTION...
Sunday, January 1, 2012
RESEARCH DESIGN Table 1 - Research Questions and Designs-------------------------------------------------------------------------- TYPE OF RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGN QUESTION USUALLY USED-------------------------------------------------------------------------- Descriptive 1. Observational w/ one observation (Describe conditions) 2. Observational w/ multiple obs. 3. Ex Post Facto Differences 3. Ex Post Facto * (Is there a difference?) 4. Pre/Post (two obs. of DV) 5. Pre/Post w/Control Group (two obs. of DV) 6. Two-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV) 7. Three-Group (one after treat. obs. of DV) 8. Repeated Measures (two or more obs.) 9. Factorial (two or more IVs) 10. Co-variance (pre-observation as control) 11. ABA Time Series (single subject) 12. AB Time Series (single subject) Relationships (How do the variables 13. Correlation/Regression (one group) relate to each other) 14. Correlation/Reliability (one group and two obs.)------------------------------------------------------------------------- * This design bridges both types
Sunday, January 1, 2012
DATA ANALYSIS TABLE 2 Relating Research Designs to Appropriate Statistical Analyses ------------------------------------------------------------------- DESIGN STATISTICAL TEST-------------------------------------------------------------------DIFFERENCES RESEARCH QUESTION1. Basic two-group design 1. a. t-test - independent means (Interval or ratio data)* b. Mann-Whitney U test (Ordinal data) c. Chi-square (nominal data) 2. Pre-test and post-test 2. a. t-test - dependent design. (non-independent) means (Interval) b. Wilcoxon or Sign test (Ordinal) c. McNemar test (Nominal)
Sunday, January 1, 2012
DATA ANALYSIS3. Time-Series or Single 3. Interrupted time-series analysis Subject (interval) 4. Covariance, or repeated 4. a. Repeated measures analysis measures design. of variance OR Analysis of co-variance (Interval) b. Friedman's AOV by ranks (Ordinal) c. Cochran's Q (Nominal) 5. Three or more groups 5. a. Analysis of variance design (Interval) b. Kruskal-Wallis AOV (Ordinal) c. Chi-square test for K independent groups (Nominal)
Sunday, January 1, 2012
CITING YOUR REFERENCESFormat: American Psychological Association (APA)http://www.apastyle.org
Sunday, January 1, 2012
GANTT CHART
Sunday, January 1, 2012
READY TO MAKE YOUR
PROPOSAL?Sunday, January 1, 2012