Restoring Human HabitatA presentation by Kyle Chamberlain

SELF RESPECT

THE SHORTCOMMINGS OF OUR CIVILIZATION

• Human needs unknown or disregarded

• Human needs not met

• Human needs met ineffectively or at great cost

• Human needs met unsustainably

UNKNOWN NEEDS

• Vitamins, omega-3 fatty acids, sunlight

• Heavy metals, asbestos, PCBs

• Contact and interaction in human development

• Modern stresses and human health

LEARNING WHAT WE NEED

TRUSTING OUR SENSES• Humans have complex

physiological, mental, and social needs

• Our senses correspond to our needs, and help us choose favorable environments

• Cave fish have no eyes and no craving for chocolate

• Everything we need has been consistently available over the coarse of our evolution

• Our EEA, the Pleistocene

HOME

• Stone tool using ancestors date back 2.5 million years

• Hunting/gathering eclipses farming (10,000 years running), and industry (a mere 200 years old)

• A few hunter/gatherer groups survive to this day

• Our diet, environment, and social structure were all very different

LEARNING WHAT WE NEED

WHEN OUR INSTINCTS LEAD US TO RUIN

• Creatures struggle to perform basic life processes outside of their EEA

• “Don’t feed the bears!” not a respect we presently show ourselves

• Obesity, diabetes, heart disease

• Psychosis

LEARNING WHAT WE NEED

UNDERSTANDING THE DEEP PAST- ‘The Great Remembering’

- Knowing about our EEA can help us distinguish our real needs from contrived needs

-What are the ROOT causes of modern problems?

-By recognizing deviations, we can avoid potential harms

- The Stone Age Baseline- are we taking one step forward and two steps back?

- A solid foundation for Human Rights

A Biological Bill of Rights:We the Species

• Free and direct access to food, water, fuel and shelter

• Total freedom from manmade toxins and pollutants

• Communal control of the immediate environment

• Complete personal and family sovereignty, including the right to use force

NEEDS NOT MET

Poverty and deprivation in the developing world is easy to see

FORCED TO PRIORITIZE

• Deprivation in the ‘developed’ world is harder to see

• We cheat our higher needs to satisfy more basic needs, this indicates scarcity

• Purchased substitutes for everything

• Most of us rely solely on the economy for our survival

• The supply and demand paradigm favors scarcity

• Government and corporations parasitize our financial lives

HOW TO MEET OUR NEEDS

ECOLOGY

• The economy is a recent contrivance

• Ecology is the original life support system

• By life for life

• 3 billion years of resilience and efficiency

• Just add sunlight!

• A LIVING environment

HOW TO MEET OUR NEEDS

RELATIONSHIPS

• Resources or relatives?• The living environment is

a community of organisms, with needs, like ourselves

• We survive by our relationships

• Ecological relationships mirror human relationships

• The living community is like a tribe or a small town

A CULTURE OF ABUSE

Abusive Relationships

• Objectification

• Annihilation

• Dependence

• Unfulfilled needs

Healthy Relationships

• Respect

• Allow others to exist!!!

• Interdependence

• Fulfilled needs

• Communication

• Trust

• Reciprocity

Do we trust nature?

(recommended reading: Derrick Jensen’s ‘Culture of Make Believe’)

NEEDS NOT ME EFFECTIVELYNEEDS NOT MET SUSTAINABLY

• Disintegration causes high transport costs

• ‘Ghost Slaves’

• Degradation inflates cost of basic provisions

• EEA and the workday

• ‘External costs’

“EXTERNAL” COSTS?

HOW TO BEST MEET OUR NEEDS

ECOLOGICAL DESIGN

• PERMACULTURE!

• Healing damaged relationships takes direction and work

• We need to re-integrate

• Nature’s incredible diversity and productivity should be our inspiration

THE ORGINAL LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM: HABITAT

A pack rat’s example:

-On site food and water

-On site building materials and insulation

-Use of by-products in building

-Animal wastes benefit plant system

HOW TO BEST MEET OUR NEEDS

THE STONE AGE BASELINE

THE MODERN LIFE SUPPORT SYSTEM

RUNNING DRY

• The Snake River has been known to vanish completely at Milner Dam near Twin Falls, Idaho

• Columbia Basin aquifers are dropping as quickly as 3 ft. per year (Columbia Institute)

• Since 2006, Washington State has been funding the study of NEW dam sites, including Crab Creek, Hawk Creek, Black Rock Canyon, and Shankers Bend

• The Columbia is already the most heavily dammed watershed on earth

PLOWED UNDER• Soil loss from Palouse wheat fields is

measured in TONS per acre, per year• In 1978, cultivated Palouse land was

losing 14 tons/acre/year (USDA)• Regional dust storms are visible from

space• 80% of the original shrub steppe has

been lost (Nature Conservancy)• 99% of Palouse grassland has been lost• (World Wildlife Fund)• Over 300 Washington native plants are

now sensitive, threatened or

endangered

FUEL FOR THOUGHT

• The US food system uses 10 fossil fuel calories to produce one food calorie

• Average American ‘eats’ 500 gallons of oil per year

(Pimentel)

• Land clearing initiated the anthropogenic greenhouse era, and has been influencing world climate for thousands of years

(Ruddiman)

TOXIC FALLOUT

• Between 2000-2006, there were 15 reported pesticide-exposure incidents involving 43 ill people at schools in Washington (Washington DOH)

• The 2005 Journal of the American Medical Association article identified 2,593 pesticide-related illnesses at schools nationwide over a 5-year period

• 14 of 27 of wells tested in Walla Walla contained pesticides (WDE)

• Some contaminants in Washington’s fish: mercury, PCBs, dioxins and furans, chlorinated pesticides, and PBDE flame retardants (Washington Dept. Ecology)

• Midnite Mine, on the Spokane Reservation has made Blue Creek a radioactive watershed

• Leaks at Hanford will threaten the Columbia for thousands of years

FROM FORESTS TO WOODPractice Impact

Productivity response

RoadsArea removed from production

Up to 30% of forest area losta

Fire

Organic matter lossDisease reduction

Long-term effects not measured; observed loss of organic matter leading to growth reduction from water and nutrient stressb

CompactionReduced water availability and increased runoff

Height reduction of 50%c or moreVolume reduction up to 75%d

Tree harvestLoss of organic matter and site disturbance

Up to 50% reduction if site is severely compactede

Chart by William J. Elliot, Deborah Page-Dumroese, and Peter R. Robichaud. From:

a Megahan and Kidd, 1972.b Harvey et al., 1979.c Reisinger et al., 1988.d Froehlich, 1978.e Amaranthus et al., 1996.

DISTURBING DEVELOPMENTS“ Annually…, …more than I million acres are lost from cultivation as urbanization,

transportation networks and industries take over croplands.” Pimentel and Istituto

UNDER STRESS

THE OTHERS

• Our imperiled species• US roads kill an estimated

11.5 vertebrates every second (High Country News)

• Government sanctioned harassments continually exclude big game from the Columbia Basin

HABITAT VS. THE TECHNO-COLONY

-Landscape defoliated, dusty, sun scorched

-Shoes and protective clothing necessary

-Clean water must be piped in

-Food must be purchased from importers

-Hard work necessary to survive and maintain ‘order’

-Costly, temperature controlled, electrically lighted structures offer the only shelter. These require constant cleaning

-Waste becomes pollution

-Complex technologies required for survival

-Hostile atmosphere

HABITAT VS. THE TECHNO-COLONY-Trees provide shade, air conditioning, and shelter

-Forest floor safe for barefoot walking

-No need to walk very far anyway, since all needs are close by

-Little clothing needed

-Clean water available

-Food is everywhere

-Little work necessary

-Wastes return to nature

-Simple technologies meet needs

-Pleasant and stimulating atmosphere

-Provides for active and engaging lifestyle

ECOLOGY AND ECONOMYThe species most in need of a refuge is our own. By

neglecting to restore habitat for ourselves, we perpetuate dependence on the same abusive economic

system which imperils all habitats.

TO RECAP

To understand our needs, and meet them sustainably, we must:• Understand our deep past• Foster healthy ecological relationships• Apply ecological design (permaculture)

Next, we’ll examine the story of our species, and it’s relationship with the Inland Northwest. Then we’ll explore the ecological relationships available to us in this region. Finally, we will discuss practical methods for designing our habitats.

BECOMING HUMAN

• All living things are related• Life’s story goes back at least 3 billion years• Humans stem from a branch of life’s tree called the

primate family• Primate like mammals date back to the extinction of

the dinosaurs, making ours one of the oldest extant mammal families

• Our special relationships with flowering plants extend back at least as far

• Primates have always been picky eaters, with senses honed to finding the highest quality forage available

NOCTURNAL INSECTIVORES AT THE FEET OF THE DINOSAURS

• These ancestors lived in the Paleocene, 65-50 million years ago

• Dinosaurs had recently been wiped out

• Nocturnal habits favored a strong sense of smell

• Flowering plants were gaining ground with help from animals

• Pangaea had been splitting up

ARBOREAL FRUGIVOROUS PRIMATES

• These ancestors lived 50-10 million years ago, spanning the Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene

• Diurnal frugivorous habitats favored a strong sense of sight

• We become social creatures

• The warm humid climate was gradually cooling and drying

• Grasses evolve

APES: OUR COUSINS

• The last common ancestor of the great apes and humans lived about 15 million years ago

• The last common ancestor of chimpanzees and humans lived about 7 million years ago

• These ancestors were forest dwellers

• They ate mostly fruits and foliage, but were opportunistic and omnivorous

SURVING RELATIVES: ORANGUTANS

• Share 97% of our DNA

• Morphologically, more like us than chimps

• Fruit specialists

• Fond of fig family fruits like the Durian

Plant your garden like an orangutan does. Be a fruit friend!

• Animals move more than 95% of tropical seeds (Terborgh et al. 2002)

• Chimps have dispersed seeds as far as 3000 meters (Lambert 1997)

SURVING RELATIVES: GORILLAS

• ‘Dexterous Herbivores’

• Mountain Gorillas live in a near temperate climate

• Fond of nettles, cleavers, thistles, and bamboo shoots

Avoid competition from herbivores like a gorilla does. Be a dexterous herbivore!

There’s enough forage for everybody!

SURVIVING RELATIVES: CHIMPANZEES

• They share 96% of our DNA• Generalist omnivores, using nearly 200

plant species• Diet is 60-70% fruit • Fond of the fig family fruits• Occasionally hunt easy prey• Use simple tools• Crack nuts• Construct woven nests in trees• Use spears and digging sticks on the

savannah margins of their forest habitat!

(‘Savanna chimpanzees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants’ R. Adriana Hernandez-Aguilar , Jim Moore , and Travis Rayne Pickering)(‘Savanna Chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, Hunt with Tools’ Jill D. Pruetz, Paco Bertolani)

EARLY HOMINIDS: ONTO THE SAVANNA

• 3.6 million years ago our Australopithecine ancestors left shrinking forests and became savanna creatures

• Meat and plant roots replaced fruits as fuel for our hungry brains

• Growing brain, shrinking gut• We probably did a lot of

scavenging• Fruits, meat, roots, and nuts

would continue to be our staple foods until just 10,000 years ago

Paleolithic Diet

THE STAPLES WE EVOLVED TO EAT:

MEAT

FRUIT

ROOTS

NUTS

YOU ARE NOT A GRAINIVORE!!!!!!

PLANT/ANIMAL RELATIONSHIP POTENTIALWHAT PLANTS OFFER ANIMALS

• STORED ENERGY

• NUTRIENTS

• USEFULL CHEMICALS

• MATERIALS

• FAVORABLE ENVIRONMENT

• OXYGEN

WHAT ANIMALS OFFER PLANTS

• DISPERSAL

• DISTURBANCE

• NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION

• REGULATION OF OTHER ORGANISMS

• CARBON DIOXIDE

This is our relationship toolbox!

Primates like ourselves need strong relationships with plants. But many plants do fine without animal help, and offer little to us. The best plant allies will be ecological underdogs.

ECOLOGICAL PROXIES

THE STORY OF HAWAII’S EDIBLES

LATER HOMINIDS: OUT OF AFRICA

• Homo habillis made the first stone cutting tools 2.5 million years ago

• Increasing hunting prowess allowed us to spread out of Africa

• Homo erectus occupied NE China as early as 1.6 million years ago

• Eurasia was later colonized by Neanderthal and Denisovan hominids

• Clothing and fire

MODERN HUMANS: UPPER PALEOLITHIC TO MESOLITHIC

• Projectile weapons

• We followed the meat highway

• Rapidly occupied every continent but Antarctica

• Up yours Columbus!

• Central Asia was occupied tens of thousands of years before Europe

Timeline of dietary shifts in the human line of evolutionfrom Nicholson (www.beyondveg.com)

-65 to 50 million years ago (Mya): Ancient primates, mostly insectivores.

-50 to 30 Mya: Shift to mostly frugivorous/herbivorous.

-30 to 10 Mya: Maintenance of mostly frugivorous pattern.

-7 to 5 Mya: Last common ancestor branches to gorillas, chimps, humans.

-4.5 Mya: First known hominid (proto-human).

-3.7 Mya: First fully bipedal hominid (Australopithecus).

-2 Mya: First true human (Homo habilis), first tools, increased meat-eating.

-1.7 Mya: Evolution of Homo erectus, considerable increase in meat consumption and widely omnivorous diet,

continues till dawn of agriculture.

-500,000 to 200,000 y.a.: Archaic Homo sapiens.

-150,000 y.a.: Neanderthals evolve.

-140,000 to 110,000 y.a.: First anatomically modern humans, possible increase in fire use for cooking (insufficient

evidence).

-40,000 B.C.: First behaviorally modern humans.

-40,000 to 10,000 B.C.: Late Paleolithic, latest period of universal hunting/gathering subsistence, seafood use

becomes evident in certain areas.

-20,000 B.C. to 9,000 B.C.: Mesolithic transition period.

-Approx. 10-8,000 B.C.: Neolithic period, beginnings of agriculture, precipitous drop in meat consumption, great

increase in grain consumption, decline in health as indicated by signs in skeletal remains.

TO NORTH AMERICA AND THE INLAND NORTHWEST

• There is clear evidence for the arrival of humans to North America as early as 14,000 years ago

• They arrived from Asia, via Beringia

• They left as the Old World was developing sedentism, bows, pit houses, and pottery

• 20,000? 40,000?• It was a bountiful land

ANTIQUITY OF PRIMATES IN NORTH AMERICA

• Fossil primate teeth from the John Day Fossil Beds hint at the regional antiquity of our family (Ekgmowechashala)

• The early primate, Tielhardina, lived in North America over 55 million years ago

• The primate like mammal, Plasiadapis, of 58 million years ago, also lived in North America

• North America and Asia formed a single landmass when primates evolved

• Many of our reptilian ancestors walked this rock when it was part of Pangaea

• Homo erectus occupied Northeast China 1.6 million years ago, an environment very similar to our own

CLOVIS

• Pleistocene North America hosted teeming herds and a fantastic array of giant mammals

• The Clovis culture specialized in hunting these massive creatures

• The Manis mastodon site near Sequim is over 13,000 years old

• Famous Wenatchee site• High mobility• Clovis culture spread rapidly, but

lasted only 300-500 years• The decline of the Clovis culture

coincided with mass extinctions• Most of America’s large mammals

were lost, and human hunting is suspect

FOLSOM AND PLANO

• Bison antiquus was largest animal left

• The Folsom culture specialized in hunting them

• B. antiquus becomes B. bison under hunting pressure

• Plano type cultures specialize in hunting modern bison

• Evidence of modern bison hunting at Lind Coulee, 8,000-9,000 years ago

• Bison range later contracts

ANIMAL WEALTH

• Furs, leathers, wool, felt (for clothing, shoes, bedding)

• Hides (for shelters)

• Meat, fat, organs, marrow (for food)

• Sinew, hide (for cord)

• Bone, tusk, tooth, antler (for implements)

• Hide, gut (for containers)

• Fat lamps (for lighting)

• Bone (for fuel)

• Hide and hoof (for glue)

• Transport

• Also: instruments, dyes, dairy products, sealants, preservatives,

SUBSTITUTES

Cotton, linen, nylon, rubber (and washing machines)

Thatch, boards, masonry, tar shingles, wafer board, tyvec

Fish, grain crops, formula food

Cotton, sisal, nylon

Metal, plastics, fiberglass

Baskets, clay pots, metal pots, tupperware

Plant oils, kerosene, electric lights

Wood, peat, coal, oil, natural gas

Plant pitches/gums, epoxy, synthetic resins

Automobiles, trains, airplanes

Soybean everything.

THE ‘GHOSTS OF EVOLUTION’: MEGAFAUNA ECOLOGY

“We live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the hugest, fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared.” –Wallace

• North America lost a fauna more rich than modern Africa’s

• Vegetation closed in on parklands• Fire becomes the dominant

‘herbivore’• Associated species decline• ‘Black mats’ form in sediments• America looks a lot less like our

savanna home• This happened less than 140 lifetimes

ago(Ecological consequences of Late Quaternary extinctions of megafaunaC.N. Johnson)

THE BIOMASS PARADOX

• Humans eat the reproductive and storage organs of plants

• In forests and late succession communities, plants invest more energy in maintenance and competition for sunlight (wood)

• Thus, total biomass is inversely correlated with edible biomass

• The burden goes to… the intervener!

• After the extinctions, humans used fire to maintain a suitable habitat

• Evidence of fire management on the plateau after 2,500 years ago

EAT YOUR COMPETITIONForage QualityHigh• Nectar• Seeds• Fatty nuts

Medium• Starchy nuts• Fruits• Starchy roots• Cambium• Tender buds and leaves• Tender grasses and

forbs

Low• Tough forbs• Tough grasses• Foliage of conifers

LAR

GER

BO

DIE

S

US

IDEA

L P

REY

P

OO

RP

REY

SAVANNA THEORY

• The perfect outdoor environment?

• “Like a park”

ELEMENTS OF PARKLANDAND THEIR FUNCTIONS

• Close cropped grass

• Widely space mature trees

• Large animals

• Flowering shrubs

• Flowering forbs

• Small animals

THE RISE OF COMPLEX CULTURES

• The loss of the megafauna forced humans everywhere to use other food sources more intensively

• Evidence of intensive use of roots on the Plateau by 6,000 years ago

• Pit houses, and intensive use of salmon by 5,000 years ago

• Sedentism in populous villages• Peak in population and social

complexity occurred between 2,500 and 1000 years ago

• Population and social complexity then declined to levels observed at European contact

• Bows not used until after 2,400 years ago!

PLATEAU CULTURE: 7,000 YEARS OF SUSTAINABILITY

• A beautiful lifestyle

• Savages!?

• Myths of destitution

We already live in a food forest.

• Plateau Indians used 135 native plants as food

• Many more excellent edibles have naturalized

• Our forest/steppe margin is an ideal human environment

THE ORIGINAL AFFLUENT SOCIETY

Ways rich people are like hunter/gatherers

Northwestern Proto-Agriculture

• Estuarine farming on the Northwest Coast

• Intensive management of camas meadows and other resources

• (Irrigation without agriculture in Owens Valley, CA)

THE DOMESTICATION SPECTRUM

AMERICAN AGRICULTURE

• Corn agriculture originated in Mesoamerica around 7,000 years ago

• Agriculture arose independently in several other world regions around this time

• Corn spread North and got frighteningly close

• Fremont Culture: AD 700-1300• Without large domestic animals or

plows, American agriculture was more limited than Fertile Crescent agriculture

• The Fremont, Anasazi, and others eventually abandoned farming for hunting/gathering

OPPORTUNITY OR NECCESITY?• Sedentism came first• Agriculture may have been a response

to population stress and game scarcity

• When the meat is gone, options are limited

• Agriculture can only occur in a game vacuum

• Agriculture provides a poor diet and is tedious work

• Ancient skeletons show that early farmers were stunted, malnourished, and diseased

• Agriculture is a proven method for concentrating wealth

TECHNOLOGY AS A RESPONSE TO STRESS

• Necessity is the mother of invention

• Bows adopted as prey got smaller

• Plant and synthetic products invented after animal products become scarce

• Governments pioneered to manage crowding

• Showers and microwave ovens allow us to spend more time at work

• Every war time invention ever!

AGRICULTURE: A CAN OF WORMS

AGRICULTURE

POPULATION GROWTH LAND DEGRADATION

CONCENTRATION OF WEALTH

CONFLICT SCARCITY

AGRICULTURE’S IMPACTS

Ag also lead to:

• Extreme social stratification

• Epidemic disease

• Chronic disease

• Ownership institutions

• Paradigms of control

AG MUST EXPAND OR DIE

CLARIFICATION OF TERMS

Agriculture: growing annual grain/legumes on plowed land, typically on a broad scale

Horticulture: growing vegetable and/or perennial crops intensively, typically on a small scale (gardening)

Pastoralism: raising animals for food

AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY IMPACT SIMULTANEOUSLY

• Our region was aggressively colonized by the U.S. in the late 1800’s

• The U.S Army waged a series of bitter Indian Wars to stifle native resistance

• Disease and environmental destruction ultimately did more to subdue the tribes

• Native peoples were moved onto reservations, largely irrespective of traditional territories

• By 1930, almost all arable land on the Palouse was being farmed

• Completion of mega dams, like Grand Coulee (1941) cut off the salmon runs, breaking the backbone of Plateau cultures.

• Indians were encouraged to farm

RELUCTANT SODBUSTERS“My young men shall never work. Men who work cannot dream; and wisdom comes to us in dreams. You ask me to plow the ground. Shall I take a knife and tear my mother’s breast? Then when I die she will not take me to her bosom to rest. You ask me to dig for stone. Shall I dig under her skin for her bones? Then when I die I cannot enter her body to be born again. You ask me to cut grass and make hay and sell it, and be rich like white men. But how dare I cut off my mother’s hair?” -Smohalla

“My people did not farm and had no use for crops until the fish runs began to disappear from the streams and rivers. White activities causing pollution, and commercial fishing projects were the cause of this. Every year, the Colville found fewer salmon to take, not enough to live on, and so began to farm to stay alive. Finally, dams were built on the Columbia and the salmon were stopped altogether from coming above Grand Coulee. The salmon were gone, and high powered rifles are doing about the same to our game animals. By the time we saw the need to farm, the younger generations realized their ancestors had let the whites have the riches t and most fertile bottomland. And it was too late to get it back.” –Mourning Dove

ECONOMIC SUCCESSION

THE REST IS HISTORY

• Ever increasing growth of population and resource intensification

• Columbia River becomes earth’s most heavily dammed watershed

• Vast areas of steppe transformed to irrigated monocultures• Full use of arable land• “Green” Revolution brings ag chemicals, GMO’s• Bunchgrass prairies and old growth forests become

memories• Fossil fuel age blends into the nuclear age• Unprecedented wage slavery

WAITING FOR THE WORLD TO CHANGE…

?????

PROACTIVE SOLUTIONS: BIGGER, WILDER, VISIBLE FROM SPACE

INFORMED PRIORITIES:

-Reintegrate!!!

-Perennialize

-Expand Savannah

-Pleistocene Rewilding

-Fisheries Restoration/Creation

-Foster Population Decline

-Active Resistance to Abuse

APPROPRIATE LAND USE

MOUNTAINS FOOTHILLS BOTTOMLANDS RIPARIAN

-WatershedProtection-Old growth-Hunting-Community forestry?

-Food Forests-Habitations-Gardens

-Perennial pasture-Holistic management-Silvopastoral

-Vegetated-Fisheries-Beavers

EXPANDING SAVANNA

VEGETATION CONTROL

• Animal

• Mechanical

• Fire

• Chemical

LIFE IS A PARTY!- MAKE INVITATIONS

Healing our ties with nature will require abandoning abusive relationships, rescuing old

friendships, and making new connections.

Which life forms do we want in our community? The possibilities are exiting!

OUR ASSOCIATES:TREES AND SCHRUBS

FRUITS:

1. Rose Family*2. Fig Family3. Dogwood Family*4. Honeysuckle Family*5. Oleaster Family*6. Ebony Family7. Custard Family8. Buckthorn Family*9. Gooseberry Family*10. Heather Family*11. Chocolate Vine Family12. Grape Family*13. Kiwi Family14. Tomato FamilyMinor Families: Sumac*, Rue, Elm*

NUTS:

1. Beech Family*2. Walnut Family3. Rose Family*4. Pine Family*5. Birch Family*6. Soapberry Family7. Bladdernut FamilyMinor Families: Gingko, Pea, Elm*

NITROGEN FIXERS:

1. Pea Family2. Birch Family*3. Oleaster Family*4. Buckthorn Family*5. Rose Family*6. Poplar Family?*

VIN

ES

OUR ASSOCIATES: EDIBLE FORBS

TERRESTRIAL ROOTS:

1. Carrot Family2. Sunflower Family3. Lily Family4. Mustard Family5. Yam Family6. Pea Family7. Purslane Family8. Tomato Family9. Mint Family10. Beet Family11. Oxalis Family12. Rose Family…

AQUATIC ROOTS:

1. Cattail Family2. Wapato Family…

HERBACIOUS FRUITS:

1. Tomato Family2. Gourd Family

NEGLECTED ALLIES

• Apples• Pear• Plums• Cherry Plums• Apricots• Sweet Cherries• Mulberries• Carpathian Walnuts• Black Walnuts• Blackberries• Grapes• Burdock• Parsnip• Asparagus• Watercress• Black Locust• Pea Shrub

All have wild breeding populations in our region!

OUR ASSOCIATES:HERBIVORES

MAMMALS (8):

BOVIDS

(cattle, bison, yaks, goats, sheep, muskox, siaga)

PRONGHORN

(only pronghorn)

CERVIDS

(deer, elk, moose, caribou)

ARTIODACTYLS

(horses, donkeys, tapirs)

TYLOPODA

(camels, llamas)

SUINA

(pigs, peccaries)

LAGOMORPHS

(rabbits, hares)

RODENTS

(marmots, porcupines, beavers, squirrels, capybaras)

BIRDS (4):

GALLIFORMS(chickens, turkeys, quail, grouse, pheasants)

ANATIDAE(ducks, geese, swans)

COLUMIDAE(pigeons, doves)

RATITES(ostriches, emus, rheas)

FISH:

CYPRINIFORMS(carp, minnows, loaches)

…

INVERTEBRATES:(mussels, crawfish, snails, cicadas, ants, termites, crickets, grasshoppers)

PLIESTOCENE REWILDING

Extinct Large Herbivores of North America• Wooly and Columbian Mammoths• American Mastodon• Ground Sloths• Bison• Shrub Oxen• Pronghorn• Giant Moose• Horses • Tapirs• Camel• Llamas• Peccaries• Capybara• Giant Beaver• Glyptodont• Giant armadillo

Potential ProxySpecies

African Bush ElephantSumatran Elephant?-Plains Bison, Woods Bison, Bovids?Muskox? Bovids?Modern PronghornModern MooseZebras, Oganers, Przewalski’s HorseMountain TapirBactrian or Dromedary CamelsModern Llama and AlpacaChocoan Peccary, Pigs?Modern CapybaraModern Beaver-Modern Armadillo

HABITAT VS. THE ORCHARD

• All Rose Family• Clone Monoculture• Dwarfed Trees• Close Spacing• Grass Ground Cover• Unnatural Climate• Must Irrigate• Must Fertilize/Spray• No animals!?

HABITAT VS. THE ORCHARD

TEMPORAL DIVERSITY

WATER TO GROW

CLOSING THE NUTRIENT LOOP