Technology Transfer; Changes in the Materials and Containers used to Store and Transport Wine

Technology Transfer; Changes in the Materials and Containers used to Store

and Transport Wine

Jonathan Musther2008000046

WSC5.05 Introduction to Wine Business – Assignment 1

WSC5.05 Introduction to Wine Business – Assignment 1 – Jonathan Musther Page 1

Introduction

From the time that grapes are crushed, the fermentation and storage of wine, either for

later consumption or for transportation, requires a certain degree of sophisticated

container technology. At all stages, the containers must be watertight, and apart from

during fermentation, they should keep gaseous exchange to a minimum (Jackson, 2008).

Our evidence for early winemaking comes from archeology. The oldest reliable evidence

for organised wine production is dated to approximately 8,000 years ago, although it has

been suggested that the level of organisation indicates that winemaking probably began

much earlier. The ancient winery identified at the Areni-1 cave in modern-day Armenia,

gives some important insights into the vessels and materials used to ferment and store

wine (Kaufman, 2011).

Early clay and ceramic vessels have survived well to provide a record of historical wine

storage. Animal skin and wooden vessels have survived less well, but some evidence

exists. These technologies were refined and modified over the centuries, particularly by

the Romans. This lead to many vessels we would recognise today, such as large wooden

casks and glass bottles (Dal Piaz, 2009). Comparatively recent developments, such as

stainless steel and plastics, have dramatically changed the way wine is stored in

wineries. The reduction in the cost of glass production has meant that almost all wine is

now eventually stored and transported in glass (Jackson, 2008).

This paper will explore the technological changes which have shaped the development of

vessels for wine storage and transportation.


History of Wine Storage

The oldest substantial evidence for wine

production exists in the Areni-1 cave in

Armenia. This includes a wine press, and

a large number of clay vessels, dated to

approximately 8,000 years old. This

evidence is more substantial than

previous finds, typically involving vessels

containing tartaric acid residues. The

vessels in the Areni-1 cave, however,

contain traces of malvidin, a flavonoid

present in grapes (Kaufman, 2011).

The press consists of a clay trough, in which grapes would be pressed by foot. The juice

would then drain into a large open vat, also made of clay, where fermentation would

occur. The clay storage vessels would then be used to store the wine (Owen, 2011).

Less reliable evidence for even earlier wine production and storage comes from Northern

China, where pots containing wine residues were dated to approximately 9,000 years

old, 1,000 years older than those at Areni-1 (Dal Piaz, 2009).

Working clay is an ancient human craft, as is roughly carving stone, and as such it seems

logical that these would be applied to wine production and storage. Throughout Europe

and the Mediterranean, evidence of clay vessels and open stone 'tanks' can be found.

The stone 'tanks' and troughs were presumably used for pressing and fermentation, while

smaller, portable clay vessels would be used for storage (Dal Piaz, 2009).

Wherever winemaking first occurred, clay remained the material of choice for

production and storage vessels throughout ancient times. This is likely due to its

abundance, and the ease with which it is worked into watertight containers (Dal Piaz,

2009).

Clay pots, particularly when unfired, are porous to some degree, allowing some loss of

contents, but this problem would be overcome in time, as would the problem of sealing

the clay vessels. It is likely that the early vessels were sealed with more clay, and

possibly some wood or reeds (Dal Piaz, 2009).


Illustration 1: A clay vessel found in the Areni-1 cave in Armenia. From Kaufman, 2011.

As ceramic technology developed, firing became more common, allowing thinner, lighter

and stronger, as well as less porous vessels to be produced. The Egyptians experimented

with many different types of closure for their fired clay vessels, these included cork,

wood and fired clay stoppers. All of these, with the possible exception of cork would

have been sealed with more soft, unfired clay, as well as resins or waxes (Dal Piaz,

2009). The Romans also used resins to seal clay vessels (Plataforma SINC, 2010).

By the time the Greek and Roman

civilisations rose to prominence,

the making of ceramic vessels was

advanced, with glazing possible,

but not routinely practiced. The

Greeks and Romans continued to

store wine in clay vessels, often

called amphora, because they were

economical to produce and

performed well as storage vessels.

The Greeks and later the Romans

traded wine extensively, for which

amphora were well suited.

Amphora were often destroyed once

their contents were used, as they

were so cheap to produce. It was

common practice to float a layer of oil (such as olive oil) on top of wine in order to

extend the life of the wine (Dal Piaz, 2009). Amphora were often lined with pitch or

resin, typically tree resin. This improved their impermeability, as well as flavouring the

wine (Johnson, 1989).

Despite their continued use of amphora, the Romans were able to produce glass bottles,

and had developed various closures, including cork. Glass was more typically used for

serving wine, which would be decanted from amphora (Dal Piaz, 2009).

The Romans also used barrels, although not as extensively as Amphora. The history of

the barrel is not very well recorded, partly because barrels tend not to survive. Pliny

the Elder wrote that barrels were developed by the Gauls in the Alps, as they could be

produced readily in colder climates where clay was harder to produce. There are


Illustration 2: Roman wine amphorae. From Middleton, 2007.

suggestions in the writings of Cato the Elder, that wooden casks were known by the

Romans before the conquest of Gaul. Cato also suggested that wines made, or stored in

casks, were of inferior quality and were suitable for slaves (Dal Piaz, 2009).

The Roman use of barrels slowly

increased as the Empire grew.

Typically the Romans liked to

transport wine and other goods by

water, using the sea and rivers.

Amphora were well suited to

transportation by boat, but are

awkward and heavy to transport by

land. Barrels are lighter and

stronger than amphora, they can be

easily rolled and have a longer life

expectancy. By the second century

AD, barrels were extensively used

throughout the Roman Empire (Dal Piaz, 2009).

Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, very little changed in the technology of

wine storage and transport, until the 17th century, when the glass bottle and cork closure

were finally perfected. This development wasn't simply the ability to produce glass and

shape cork, but rather the ability to do so economically. The development of bottle

storage allowed delicate, dry wine to be matured (Johnson, 1989).

The final development to have huge effects on the storage of wine was stainless steel.

Developed in the early 20th century, it wasn't until the 1950s that it began to be used for

wine tanks. At the time, most wine tanks were either wooden or concrete, both of

which were difficult to keep clean and hygienic. Stainless steel is an ideal material for

use in wine storage due to its corrosion resistance and the ease of cleaning and

sanitising (Cooper, 2004).


Illustration 3: Neumagen Wine Ship - a sculpture depicting transport of Roman wine, in barrels, on the Mosel river.

Contemporary Wine Storage

Wine storage is readily divided into four types, fermentation, maturation,

transportation, and final packaging. Wine fermentation and maturation vessels are

dominated by stainless steel tanks, which vary in size from a few hundred litres, to over

a million litres. Tank design varies depending on the specific use. For example red wine

fermentors typically have large access at the top, and large manways at the bottom,

while white wine fermentors typically have narrow top openings, and small manways.

Some wineries still make use of wooden or concrete fermentation vessels (Jackson,

2008).

After fermentation, wines are either matured in stainless steel tanks or wooden barrels.

Again, large wooden vessels and concrete tanks are still used, but stainless steel and

small barriques dominate (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008).

Wine is typically tranported from the winery for distribution to retail outlets, it is rarely

sold exclusively from the winery premises. This final transportation is often of bottled

product, but otherwise it may be transported in bulk for bottling elsewhere, possibly

after certain other operations. For bulk transportation within the same country, wine is

usually transported by stainless steel tanker. For longer distance, particularly

international transport, advanced plastic bladders can be used inside conventional steel

shipping containers. These provide comparatively cheap, food-grade, no-taint bulk wine

transport (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008).

The final package for wine is almost always a glass wine bottle. Modern glass wine

bottles are strong, uniform and unreactive with the wine. Glass bottles were sealed

primarily with cork stoppers, but cheaper alternatives, such as the aluminium screw

capsule are now found on a significant proportion of wine bottles. These screw capsules

are structurally made of aluminium, but this does not come into contact with the

product. A small food-grade no-taint plastic seal is present inside the screw capsule, it

is this which seals the bottle, and contacts the wine (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008).

Some wine is packaged and sold in plastic bladders, which usually contain between 2 and

15 litres, and are often housed in cardboard boxes for rigidity. A small proportion of

wine is packaged in other food-grade containers; plastic bottles, paperboard cartons,

and aluminium cans lined with a plastic laminate (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008).


Influences on the World of Wine

It is difficult to imagine anything more integral to the world of wine, than the vessels

used to produce and store it. From the moment the grapes are broken, the product is a

liquid one, meaning that storage vessels are essential. The technological changes that

have occurred over the centuries, have change the wine storage and transportation

paradigm. Early clay vessels allowed only short term storage due to porosity, and only

stored small quantities due to the difficulty of making large vessels. Later, fired and

even glazed ceramics, and the development of better stoppers and resin lining, allowed

longer term storage of wine, together with easier transportation. Better ceramics also

allowed the storage of larger quantities of wine, with some Roman vessels holding

thousands of litres (Dal Piaz, 2009).

Moving to the use of barrels allowed easier movement of wine throughout the world,

both over land and sea. Barrels were also strong, meaning fewer breakages than with

ceramics (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008). Now that wine could be transported, it could be

traded, forming the basis for what we consider to be the 'world of wine'.

With the development of the bottle, wine could be bought and sold in smaller

quantities, which could be stored with low risk of spoilage. Without the bottle,

individuals would not be able to purchase a range of different wines, or mature a few

bottles of a particular wine, sampling it at different points throughout its maturation.

Bottles allow consumers the choice of different wines from around the world, and they

ensure that the consumer receives (in most cases) a product which has survived

maturation and storage (Jackson, 2008).

Finally, the development of hygienic stainless steel, which can be used to build very

large tanks, has allowed the wine industry to produce certain wines on a large scale.

This has enabled the provision of 'consumer' wines, and relatively low prices. These

wines, due in part to the hygienic nature of the new tanks, while affordable, are well

made, and of a good commercial quality (Brostrom & Brostrom, 2008).


Challenges for the Future

It is unlikely that wine storage technology will change significantly in the foreseeable

future. In the winery, stainless steel has provided tanks which are easy to clean and

sanitise, and which can be made as large as is desired for wine purposes. While plastics

may find a place, they have limitations, such as the difficulty of modification and repair,

and their tendency to absorb, to some extent, aromas, or organic/chemical materials.

For transportation, maturation and distribution, the glass bottle is extremely well

suited. Glass is completely unreactive with wine, which allows extended maturation.

New closures may be developed along the lines of the aluminium screw-capsule, but for

the sake of tradition, if for no other reason, it is likely that some cork will still be used.

Glass bottles are heavy and have a high energy cost to produce. Cheaper plastics may

increasingly replace glass for consumer level wines which are not intended to be

matured (Jackson, 2008).

To save on transportation costs, particularly fuel costs, more wines may be transported

to their destination country in bulk, to be bottled there.

While these changes may occur to lesser or greater extents, they do not represent a

large shift in the wine world, rather they are gradual, incremental changes to the

industry as it exists now.


References

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