The The ‘‘QualitativeQualitative’’ Research Research Process: Process:

Techniques for ResearchTechniques for Research

Dr Fiona M Beals

Lecture AimsLecture Aims

Review key research methods brought to qualitative research by ethnographic designs

Outline the role of the qualitative researcherIntroduce and look at methods of:

– Observation– Interviews– Fieldnotes– Reflective Journaling

ObservationObservation

Why Observe?Why Observe?

To develop a theoryTo prove/disprove a theoryMaking use of an “opportunity” (Wolcott,

1995)Provide a thick description to analyseProvide an instrument of triangulation

(alongside interviewing and fieldnotes)

What to observeWhat to observe

Interactions– Between people– Between people and settings– Between people and yourself

Behaviours– Reactions– Routines– Interactions

The Context/Setting The overt and the covert

How?How?

Traditional– Eyes, pen, and paper

Technological– Cameras/Video/ICT

Combination– Trad+Post– Even the post involves

a level of the traditional

To what degree/levelTo what degree/level

Four phases of observation1. Scoping

2. Descriptive

3. Focused

4. Selective

Each involves a differentfocus/depth

Phase One: ScopingPhase One: Scoping

Familisation with the setting– Setting mapping– Apparent rules/structures– General impressions– Your own reactions– Any thoughts/hypotheses

A reflexive toolJottings and diagrams

Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive

Detailed descriptions of settings, interactions, and behaviours

Focuses on questions that can be addressed through observation - the inquisitive eye

Uses delimiters and descriptors for current details and future reference

Phase Two: DescriptivePhase Two: Descriptive

Includes– Setting description– Recorded descriptions of events, interactions,

and individuals– Time intervals

Points of reference Points of description

– Researcher Reflection

Phase Three: Focused Phase Three: Focused ObservationObservation

Descriptive observation focusing on specific descriptive questions:– Space– Objects– Time– Behaviours– Individuals

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling From Spradley (1980)

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Descriptive QuestionsDescriptive Questions

Space Object Act Activity Event Time Actor Goal Feeling

Space

Object

Act

Activity

Event

Time

Actor

Goal

Feeling

Phase Four: Selective Phase Four: Selective ObservationObservation

The focusing down of ‘focus observations’ Looks at filling in the gaps Providing other dimensions to focused

observations and the phenomenon in question Focuses on the specifics

– Individual– Event– Behaviour– Context

Observation and TechnologyObservation and Technology

What are the strengths of involving technology as an observation tool?

What ‘new’ dilemmas arise from using technology as an observation tool?

Do paper and pen still have a role to play alongside technology?

What is this role?

InterviewsInterviews

Research InterviewingResearch Interviewing Unstructured

– Conversation– Central to ethnography

Semi-structured– Broad open questions with prompting– Fits within most qualitative paradigms

Structured– Tight questions with limited or already given responses– Quantitative/positivist research– Mixed paradigm research– Technology-based methodologies (phone interviewing, ICT

research)

Unstructured InterviewingUnstructured Interviewing

Conversations in the fieldIdeally recorded on tape or after the researchRequires the researcher to be skilled:

– In holding conversations– In listening– In focusing/re-focusing conversations

Requires time

Semi-Structured InterviewingSemi-Structured Interviewing

Guided conversationsUses broad opening questions which can be

redirected by interviewee or interviewer Uses verbal promptingAllows for the development of

conversation/research skillsGenerally piloted beforehandRecorded on tape and on paper

Structured InterviewingStructured Interviewing

Focused conversationsUses tight questions which require set

responses (sometimes given)Reflects survey researchAllows for collection of theme-driven dataRequires piloting with similar sampleRecorded on Paper

Interviewing and ParadigmsInterviewing and Paradigms

Different interviews suit different paradigms of research– Where do you think??

Structured is used most Unstructured is used most Semi-structured is used most

Unless theory building most qualitative research uses semi-structured interviews

Mixed design uses a mixture of structured and semi-structured questions

What leads to a good What leads to a good interviewinterview

Rapport– Before the interview– The first question/opening comments

Reciprocity– You shouldn’t be the only one gaining from the interview

Acceptance of the unexpected– Unanswered questions

Self-Confidence– Practice and faith in oneself

Ann Oakley (1981): The Ann Oakley (1981): The Central DilemmaCentral Dilemma

Who holds power in the interview process?Who gains from research?What is false about ‘rapport’

in qualitative research interviewing?

When does the relationship finish?

FieldnotesFieldnotes

FieldnotesFieldnotes

Sit alongside observations and interviewsDetailed notes and reflections of the fieldThree types

– Descriptive– Methodological– Reflexive

Occur after/before – rather than during

Descriptive FieldnotesDescriptive Fieldnotes

Include observations (scoping, descriptive, focused, and selective)

Describe the field – including maps, setting descriptions, and individual description

Methodological FieldnotesMethodological Fieldnotes

Reflections on methodological approaches being used

Notes on any changes to any approach being used

Reflexive FieldnotesReflexive Fieldnotes

Journaling of own

learning/experiences/

thoughts throughout the

process

May sit within or

alongside descriptive and

methodological notes

Technically seen as

journaling of experience

Leading to the Role of the Leading to the Role of the Qualitative Researcher Qualitative Researcher

The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role

“Being There”, “Getting Nosy” and “Looking Over Others’ Shoulders” (Wolcott, 1995)

The ReseacherThe Reseacher’’s Roles Role

Being a learner – ‘Sucking in’ the atmosphere of the field

– Reflecting on your own experiences

DilemmasDilemmas

What dilemmas and issues to research does the practice of observation bring?

How can fieldnotes counter these issues and dilemmas?

What else can the researcher do to ensure that the story makes sense intrinsically (on an emic level) and extrinsically (on an etic level)?

Outside of EthnographyOutside of Ethnography

Scoping observations are central to making sure that the research makes sense in itself

Fieldnotes ensures that researchers are observing the field and themselves throughout the research

Fieldnotes allow for the subjective nature of qualitative research to be acknowledged and, if necessary, discussed

Interviews work as a tool of triangulation ensuring that the story ‘fits’ and makes sense in itself

SummarySummary

The three key methods in qualitative research are– Observations– Interviews – Fieldnotes

It is important to use more than one (across or within) to allow for triangulation