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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
- 1 -
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF HEAVY ACCUMULATION IN MAIZE FARMLAND OF ABAJI AREA COUNCIL
OF FCT ABUJA
Shehu, D. E., Nadana, R. W. and Ejeikwu, E. O.
Department of Biology, School of Scieces FCT College of Education Zuba Department of Biological Sciences Faculty of Sceinces University of Abuja
Abstract
This paper assessed the level of heavy metals accumulation in soils and maize of Abaji area council. The objectives of the study were to determine the relationship between heavy metals concentration in soil and maize,to determine the soil physicochemical parameters and also to compare the concentration with the WHO permissible limit in soil and in food.The method of Association Of Analytical Chemist (AOAC) was used to analyse the soil physicochemical parameters while Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was use to analysed the soil and maize for heavy metals .The result revealed that the soil and maize planted inAbaji area council were not contaminated with heavy metals .The soil physicochemical parameter were within the range with sandy soil, low organic matter, electrical conductivity and moisture content. It wastherefore concluded that heavy metals accumulation in soil and maize was below the WHO(2001) permissible limit Recommendation was also given based on the findings. For example1 The use of pesticides, herbicide and fertilizers by farmers should be discouraged
Key words: Heavy metal, soils and accumulation
Introduction
Heavy metal pollution is one of the environmental
problemsin natural environmentthat have become a
global problem. The production and emission of
heavy metals have increased as a result of increase in
industrial activities and agricultural practices. Heavy
metals bio accumulatesand cause toxicity in
biological systems such as humans, animals,
microorganisms and plants. Accumulation of heavy
metals can reduce soil quality, reduce crop yield and
the quality of agricultural products, and thus give
negative impacts to the health of human, animals, and
the ecosystem (Nagajyoti:.,Lee, andSreekamh2010).
Some metals for example copper, zinc and iron are
important and beneficial to plants, and animals, but
high concentrations of all these metals have strong
toxic effects and can pose an environmental threat
(Nodelkoska, 2000). Wang and Chen (2009) reported
that heavy metals are of considerable environmental
concern due to their toxicity, wide sources,
nonbiodegradable properties, and accumulative
behaviors. According to Demirar; Yilmaz.: Tuna
:Ozdemir, and Khairul (2006). Maize is known as one
of the main food sources for human being since
ancient times. It is a domesticated plant and has
many beneficial uses for human and animal.
Prasannaet. al (2001) cited inKhairul; Zaida; Amelia;
Som; Nurul; Rahaiza,;Othman; Burok; Yunos; Tengku
(2015)reported that maize has been one of the most
intensively cultivated cereals worldwide, and it is
known to be the main energy source in human food.
Statement of the problem
Maize is one of the major crops that is cultivated and
also popularly consumed by all ecological zones in
Nigeria in either boiled, roasted, or in form of moimoi
and locally prepared beverages. According to central
bank report (1992) about 5.6 million tonnes of maize
is cultivated annually in Nigeria due to its demand. It
is therefore necessary to assess the level of
contamination of maize by heavy metals considering
the farming practice in the country which is
characterised by fertilizer, manure, pesticides and
herbicides application that are potential sources of
heavy metals
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
2
Justifications
Maize is a very important crop in Nigeria. It is ranked
as the second most important crop by food ranking
interns of the of people it feeds .It is used as a, staple
crop, raw materials for various food based industries
such as beverages, animal feeds, export commodity
etc. A lot of concern has been shown towards heavy
metal pollution with reported cases of heavy metals
contents of the soil and maize plant. Studies
conducted in Beijing china on heavy metal residues in
soil and accumulation in maize at long term irrigation
area by Yintao et al., (2015) revealed that maize is a
potential accumulator plant. Yintao ; Hong; Dan;
Yichen ; Shichao; and Jun (2015)therefore concluded
that maize plant can serve as an ideal slope
phytoremediation plant With this development it has
become obvious that heavy metals can become a
source of worry especially in agricultural lands,
vegetation, soil, animals and ultimately to the quality
of human life, Heavy metals have been linked to
serious environmental and health complications as
such studies into the levels of heavy metal
accumulation and contamination in maize is very
important and crucial.
The aim of this study is to:
To assess the level of accumulation of heavy metals in
soil and yellow open pollinated maize (kampam4 )
cultivated in the raining season
To compare the concentration with WHO standard
To determine the soil physico-chemical parameters
Methodology
Soil sample collection
Three sampling stations, Abaji, Yaba, Paikonbasa,
were used for the study. Soil samples were randomly
collected from each of the station monthly for the
period of 6 months from the rain feed farms
fourteen (14) soil samples was collected from the
rain feed farms in 2016. This method is in line with
the method described by Nwaogbe and Hymore
(2001).
One kilogram (1kg) of soil samples and 5 ears of
maize from 3 different points from each sampling
station was randomly collected. The soil sample were
collected in the depth of 0-15.cm from the surface of
the soil using metal cylinder borer and a simple
centimetre ruler the samples were later homogenised
into one sample to give better results. The samples
collected was kept in an appropriately labelled
polythene bag and taken to the laboratory for
analysis. Samples collected were analysed for the
presence and quantity of Cadmium (Cd), Iron (Fe),
Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn) and Lead (Pb) as randomly
selected from the list of the top ten heavy metals that
are classified by WHO (2015) as metals of major
environmental concern and are metals that are
contained in most of the chemicals that are apply on
the farms. Some soils physicochemical parameters e.g
moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity and
organic matter of the soil were analysed.
Determination of heavy metals in soil and maize
sample
Sample preparation
The method described by Mathew; Omono;, and
Kakulu (2012) was adapted for sample preparation.
This method involve placing the soil and maize
samples collected on a paper for air drying on bench
after freshly plants, stones and samples were left on
bench for 3-4 days to air dry at room temperature.
The dried soil samples was pounded in a mortar into
a fine powder and passed through a 2mm nylon sieve
and store in small labelled polythene bags. One gram.
About 1.0g of the ground samples was homogenized
and digested with 20mls of 1:1(v/v) concentrated
HNO3 and HCl acids (Analar grade) in 100ml beaker.
The flask was swirled gently and heated in an electro
thermal heater until evolution of white fumes
marking the end of the digestion process. The digest
was then cooled and filtered through whatman No 1
filter paper into 50ml volumetric flask and diluted to
50ml mark with distilled water according to
procedure reported by Pye (2009).
Preparation of standard solution
Standard solutions of the five metals was prepared by
dissolving (1.89g) Lead Sulphate (PbSO4),(4.39g),
Zinc sulphate ZnSO4, (3.93g) ,Copper sulphate CuSO4,
(1.8g), iron sulphate FeSO4and cadmium sulphate
CdSO4 (2.282g) analytical reagent grade in one litre of
deionised water to get standard solution of 1000m/l
Metal determination in the samples
The Five heavy metals (Zinc, Copper, Iron, Lead and
Cadmium) were determined by running the prepared
samples through Atomic Absorption spectrophoto-
meter machine and the absorbance of each sample
was taken in line with method described by (Wagboe
and Hymore, 2001).
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
3
Calibration curves.
The calibration curve for zinc was plotted with
2.0ppm,4.0ppm, 6.0ppm, 8.0and 10.0 for copper, lead
and cadmium it was plotted with
05ppm,1.0ppm,1.5ppm.2.5ppm and 3.5ppm and
4.5ppm that of iron was plotted with 10ppm,
20pp,30ppm40ppm, and 50pp. The concentration of
the metals in ppm analysed in the sample was
obtained by making reference to the standard curves
Determination of soil physicochemical
parameters
Moisture content analysis
The percentage moisture lost due to drying was
determined in triplicate at a temperature of 1050c for
3hrs using the method of Association of Analytical
Chemist (AOAC, 1990).
Soil particle analysis
Fifty grams (50g) of soil was weighed grinded and
sieve into a small bottle. To the soil 100ml of distilled
water was added and 50ml of sodium chloride was
also added and shaken on a flask shaker for one hour.
The sample was also fragmented further using
motorized mechanical shaker. Each sample was
quantitatively transferred into a sedimentation
cylinder and made up to a 1 litre mark with distil
water. The samples were disturbed by using a
plunger for proper soil suspension. The hydrometer
reading was taken by immersing the hydrometer into
the sample and a stop watch was used to determine
the readings. The temperature of suspension was also
taken in other to measure the percentage of silt and
clay in suspension while the two hours readings
without disturbance was taken to measure the
percentage of clay suspension (Andrés et al., 2014)
Organic Matter content analysis
The organic carbon content of the soil samples will be
determined by the method of American Society for
Testing Materials (ASTM D 2974 – Standard Test
Methods) used by Raluca and Simona (2006) using
titration
pH determination
Genway pH electrode meter was used to determine
the PH of the soil sample in accordance with AOAC
(1990)
Electrical conductivity (EC)
The electrical conductivity of the samples was
determined electrometrically with a calibrated
REXDOB-350 portable electrical conductivity meter.
The electrical conductivity of the sample was read
directly and recorded μS/cm in line with (Herk,
2012)
Table 1: Result and discussion
ANOVA analysis on heavy metals concentration of
soil and maize samples Sources of
Variation
SS Df MS F-
Ratio
F-
critical
Between
Groups
66.29 1 66.29
87.43
4.13
Within
Groups
25.78 34 0.76
Total 92.07 35
P=0.05
The table above shows Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
on soil and maize samples. The table indicated that
the calculated F-value of 87.43 is greater than the
critical value of 4.13. This means that there is no
(statistically) significant difference among the mean
concentration of heavy metals in soil and maize
samples ofAbaji Area Council at 0.05 level of
significance.This means that the higher the
concentration of heavy metals in soil, the higher the
concentration of the metals in maize. This is in line
with a research work by Yintao; Hong; Dan; Yichen;;
Shichao and Jun (2015) that maize is a hyper
accumulator plant and can be used for
phytoremediation of areas that are contaminated
with heavy metals.
Table 2 The comparison of mean rainy season heavy
metals concentration in soil and maize of Abaji area
council with WHO standard. The result showed that
Zn concentration in soil was 3.17, Cu was 0.1, Fe was
40, Pb and Cd was not detected. In paikonbasa Zn was
2.33, Cu was 0.08, Pb was 0.1, Fe was 40.83, Cd was
not detected. In Abaji Zn concentration was 1.75, Cu
was 0.53, Fe was 44.17, Cd and Pb was not detected.
In maize the result in yaba showed that Zn
concentration in yellow maize was 2.5, Cu was 6.2, Pb
was 0.1, Fe was 9.67, Cd was 4.0. In paikonbasa, Zn
concentration in white maize was 2.17, Cu was 0.18,
Pb was 0.1, Fe was 7.5, Cd was 3.22. The result of
heavy metals concentration in yellowmaize
kampam4 of Abaji station showed that Zn
concentration was 2.53, Cu was 0.1, Pb was 0.1, Fe
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
4
6.83, Cd and Cdwas 4.0. The concentration of the
heavy metals in soil and maize ofAbaji area council
was below the WHO permissible limit except Cd
which was above the WHO, 2000 permissible limit.
However heavy metals concentration was higher in
yellowmaize (kampan 4) compare to white (Rido) in
Abuja. The result of these findings does not support
the assertion by USAID (2015) p that any soil that
fertilizer, herbicides, and pesticides were used for
five years should be tested for heavy metals
contamination .This result also showed that maize
farmlad in Abaji area council was not contaminated
with heavy metals .However.there was evidence of
traces of this heavy metals in the soil which may
build up over time
Table 2: Comparison of the mean raining season heavy metal concentration in soil and maize of Abaji area council
with WHO standard
Location ZINC COPPER LEAD IRON CADMUM
Soil maize Soil Maize Soil maize Soil Maize soil Maize
Yaba/Kampam 4 3.17 2.5 0.1 0.2 ND 0.05 40 9.67 ND 1.5
Paikonbas/Rido 2.33 2.17 0.08 0.18 0.1 0.05 40.83 7.5 ND 1.21
Abaji/Kampam 4 1.75 2.53 0.53 0.1 ND 0.01 44.17 6.83 ND 1.51
WHO STANDARD 73 50 73.5 40 0.3 0.2 99.40 15 0.2 0.05
Figure 1 .The comparison of mean rainy season soil
physiochemical parameters of Abaji area council.
From the figure the result showed that all the
parameters from the three sampling stations were
within the same range. The soil was sandy; PH was
alkali, with low organic matter, moisture and
electrical conductivity
Figure 1. Mean raining season soil physicochemical
parameters in Abaji area council
Conclusion
It is obvious that the soils in Abaji area councils were
not contaminated with heavy metals, especially the
metals analysed .However traces of the metals were
observed at the absorbance level. This means that
there is possibility of the contamination of the soils
by heavy metals over time if the current farming
practice of fertilizer, herbicides, pesticides and other
chemicals continue
Recommendations
1. The use of pesticides, herbicide and fertilizers by
farmers should be discouraged among farmers by
relevant authorities
2. Alternative to the use of these chemicals should be
provided to farmers by relevant organizations or
ministry
1 0.84 7.22
128.1382.03
16.67 1.64 251.83 1.65 6.94
148.6
59.31
31.4714.22
251 2.73 7.43
138.45
76.15
18.485.26
25
%Moisture %OrganicMatter
PH EC ms/cm %Sand %Silt %Clay TEMP.
Yaba P/Basa AbajiKEY:
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
5
References
Demira .k, A., Yilmaz. F., Tuna A.L.Ozdemir, N and
Khairul N.I (2006). Heavy Metal Concentration in
water, sediment and tissues of
Leuciscuscephalus from a stream in
southwestern Turkey Chemoshere 63, 1451-
1458,
Khairul N. I, Zaida R Y, Amelia M.d, Som ,N R, Nurul A
M, Rahaiza, EOthman, N. A,Burok Y M, Yunos R
O, Tengku F T Y (2015) Heavy Metal
Concentration (Pb,Cu,Fe,Zn,Ni) in Plant Parts of
Zea Mays L. Cultivated in Agricultural Area Near
Alor Gajah, Melaka, Malaysia American Journal of
Environmental Engineering 5(3A): 8-12DOI:
10.5923/c.ajee.201501.02
Mathew A, Omono C,and Kakulu S (2012) comparison
of digestion methods for the determination of
metal levels in soils in
Itakpe,KogiState,Nigeria International Journal of
Pure and Applied Science and Technology 13(2)
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Nagajyoti, P.C., Lee K.D, andSreekamh S.V.M. (2010)
“Heavy metals, occurrence and toxicity for
plants: a review”, Environment, Chemical
Letters, (8), 199-216,.
Nodelkoska T.V. and P.M. Doran, “Characteristics of
heavy metal by plant species with potential for
phytoremediation and phytomining”, Minerals
Engineering 5, 549-56, 2000.[14]
Prasanna, B. M., Vasal S. K: Kasshm B.Kand Singh N.
N.(2001) Quality Protein Maize”, Current Science
Journal, 10, 1308–1319,
Wang J. C. and Chen, B (2009) Biosorbents for heavy
metals removal and their future”, Journal of
Biotechnology advances, Research review, China.
Elsevier,
Yintao,L,1 Hong Y, Dan S, Yichen J, Shichao Z, and Jun
Y,(2015).Heavy Metal Residues in Soil and
Accumulation in Maize at Long-Term
Wastewater Irrigation Area in Tongliao, China
Journal of Chemistry Available online Article
ID628280, 9pageshttp ://dx .doi .org/ 10. 1155/
2015/628280
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
6
TEACHERS’ CHARACTERISTICS AND DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS IN PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTH-
WEST, NIGERIA
Alabi, F. O.
Department of Educational Management, Adekunle Ajasin University,
Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria
Abstract
This paperinvestigated Teachers’ characteristics and disciplinary problems in public primary schools in South-West Nigeria. The research design adopted for the study was a descriptive type. The population for the study comprised all the public primary school teachers and their heads in the South-Western geo-political Zone of Nigeria, the sample for study consistedof 48 head teachers and 240 teachers selected through multi-stage, stratifiedand purposive sampling techniques. A research design questionnaire titled “Teachers Characteristics and Disciplinary Problems Questionnaire” (TCDPQ) was used to obtain necessary information from the respondents. The questionnaire was subjected to face and content validity by colleagues and pilot tested specifically for the study. The reliability co-efficient was 0.80. The researcher personally administered the questionnaire and 218 responses representing 90.8 percent return was achieved for analysis. The findings of the study revealed that more males than females are into teaching profession. Also, the two major identifiable disciplinary problems in public primary schools are; (i) pupils are often absent from schools in the first two weeks of resumption for a new academic term or session and (ii) examination malpractices are common. Based on the findings, it is recommended among other things that: (i) teachers should create an ethical school climate that can reduce indiscipline such as examination malpractices and (ii) manpower planning approach should be employed in the recruitment of staff into the teaching force.
Key words: Teachers, Characteristics, Disciplinary Problems, Public Primary Schools, South-west, Nigeria
Introduction
In Nigerian educational institutions, primary,
secondary or tertiary, the incidence of indiscipline is
common. It has, for the past decades generated
serious concern among parents, educators, policy
makers and government due to the extreme
disciplinary problems evident in moral degradation
and economic disasters that have characterized
Nigerian societies. The thinking is that education is
the gateway to achieving a nation’s aims and
aspirations, so whatever disciplinary problems
observed in schools has carry over effects in the
world of work and in governance. According to
Timothy, in Ali, Dada, Isiaka and Salmon (2014),
indiscipline is the opposite of discipline. According to
them, indiscipline refers to any act that contradicts
the societal value and norms. In the school system,
any act that runs contrary to school rules and
regulations and could hinder effective and efficient
realization of the school goals.
Considerable search attention have focused on causes
of indiscipline particularly in secondary schools and
tertiary institutions in Nigeria with the student factor
taking the Lion’s share. This is aptly expressed in Ali
et al (2014) definition of indiscipline as “an act, habit
or behavior exhibited by the learners or students
within the school premises and outside the school
which attract condemnation (instead of praise) by
the public/or the school staff”. There has been little
or no consideration for research work on the school’s
disciplinary disposition in relation to the teacher’s
characteristics particularly at the primary school
level. The thinking is perhaps as a result of what
Onyali (2014) observed that primary schools
encounter fewer forms of indiscipline than secondary
and tertiary institutions. Whereas the primary school
is the bedrock of the Universal Basic Education (UBE)
(FRN, 2004) upon which the quantum of the entire
body of knowledge, skills and competence at the
senior secondary schools and tertiary institutions
rests. A sound primary education, as Obidike (2014)
notes, is a prerequisite not only to sound secondary
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
7
education and tertiary education but to continuing
education which is life-long. Moreover, children at
the level of primary schools in Nigeria are usually
within age 6 and 12, thus are in their formative age.
This stage of their development coincides with Jean
Piaget operational stage of cognitive development. So
whatever virtue learnt at this stage of human life is
enduring.
It is widely believed that the essence of any school
organization with regard to maintenance of discipline
is defined majorly by its teachers, as the mirror image
of the student and the singular most critical change
agent in the education industry, it is an
incontrovertible fact that a teacher can only teach
what he knows and has the ability, experience and
enablement for dissemination. These teachers
everywhere are not the same. Obviously, they are
human beings that vary in terms of age, gender,
educational qualifications, marital status and cognate
experience, hence varying work behavior
(Ivancevick, Konopaske & Matteson, 2011). This
perhaps, explains why some parents, guardians
prefer certain teachers for their children/wards in
the school especially for effective teaching and
positive character development. This study is
therefore out to examine teacher’s characteristics
and disciplinary problems in Nigerian primary
schools. The teacher’s characteristics in this study are
those demographic variables such as age, sex,
teaching qualifications, cognate experience and
marital status which teachers bring into work place.
Statement of the Problem
There has been growing quest for character and
moral development education through schooling that
will produce responsible individuals in Nigeria as
evident in the stipulates of the NPE and several
curricular reforms at the various levels of the nation’s
education industry. Unfortunately, this quest has
remained a forlorn hope as cases of truancy,
absenteeism, sex offence, drug abuses, cultism,
examination malpractices, stealing, disobedience and
the likes have sadly, continued to be on the increase
even at the primary school level, which represents
the foundational level upon which all other levels of
the country’s educational development and even, the
work and leadership behaviour at societal level rests.
Worse still, in the series of research work on the
incidence of indiscipline in Nigerian schools, teacher
factor appears overlooked as they too are not left out
among the stakeholders that express their worries
and condemnation on the ugly disciplinary sceneries.
Therefore, it is pertinent to investigate teachers’
disciplinary disposition alongside variations in their
age, marital status, educational qualifications and
teaching experience in Nigerian primary schools.
Purpose of the Study
The study examined the characteristics of teachers in
South-westNigerian public primary schools. Also, the
study investigated the level of indiscipline in South–
west Nigerian public primary schools. The study also
identified the major disciplinary problems
experienced in South-west Nigerian public primary
schools.
Research Questions
1. What are the teachers’ characteristics of
teachers in public primary schools in South-
west Nigeria?
2. What are the major disciplinary problems
experienced in public primary schools in
South-west Nigeria?
3. What is the level of teacher indiscipline in
public primary schools in South-west
Nigeria?
Assumption
It is assumed that a teacher must be self-disciplined
to be able to enforce discipline in his students. An
undisciplined teacher presumed to be the parent of
his/her pupils and therefore is responsible for the
complete upbringing of the pupils will breed
indiscipline pupils and invariably indiscipline future
leaders.
Methodology
The study adopted the descriptive research design.
The researcher collected information that describes
teachers’ characteristics as well as the disciplinary
problems in public primary schools in Nigeria. The
target population consists all public primary school
teachers and their heads in the south-western geo-
political zone of Nigeria, consisting of six states
namely: Lagos, Ondo, Ogun, Oyo, Osun and Ekiti
states. The sample for this study consisted of 48 head
teachers and 192 teachers selected through multi-
stage, stratified and purposive sampling techniques.
At the first stage, 4 states namely: Ondo, Oyo, Ogun
and Osun were selected out of the 6 states in the
study area through simple random sampling
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
8
technique. In stage two, each of the 4 sampled states
were stratified into 3 senatorial districts (North,
Central and South) making a total of 12 senatorial
districts. In stage three, 4 public primary schools
were selected from each senatorial district through
stratified and purposive sampling technique to reflect
urban and rural setting as well as variations in
teachers’ demographic variables, thus making a total
of 48 schools. In stage four, 5 teachers handling
primary one to five in each school were purposively
selected to be evaluated by their head teachers,
making a total of 240 subjects. The rationale for using
the head teachers’ perception of their teachers’
disciplinary disposition was that they, as accounting
officers in their schools were believed to provide
realistic responses as regards the disciplinary
dispositions of their teachers.
A strong limitation to the study was the reluctance of
some of the Head teachers to complete the appraisal
instrument of some of their teachers.
A research instrument titled “Teachers’
Characteristics and Disciplinary Problems
Questionnaire” (TCDPQ) was designed by the
researcher to gather information. It consisted of
three sections, A, B and C. Section A consisted of
items seeking information on the respondents
demographic variables (age, sex, marital status,
educational qualification and teaching experience);
section B probed the disciplinary problems that are
prevalent in primary schools while section C
contained items that probed the respondents’
perception of the level of indiscipline. The
questionnaire was subjected to face and content
validity by colleagues and pilot tested specifically for
the study. The reliability coefficient was 0.80.
The researcher personally administered the
questionnaire to all the respondents in their
respective schools during the school hours. The
administration of the questionnaire was carried out
by the researcher with the assistance of a research
assistant. The selected teachers were instructed to
complete the section A of the questionnaire
administered on them and collected on the spot. The
questionnaires were then taken to the
headmaster/headmistress of each school to complete
the B and C aspect of the questionnaire for objectivity
sake because it bothers on character (value)
appraisal. In all, 218 responses representing 90.8
percent return rate was achieved.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the
research questions. The statistical techniques
employed for the collected data varied in accordance
with the nature of research questions for the study.
Tables, frequency counts and mean scores were used
to answer the three research questions (1, 2 and 3)
the decision rule was determined by a criterion mean
of 2.50 which was derived from the values assigned
to the response value. Therefore any item with mean
of 2.50 and above is positive while any one with
mean below 2.50 is negative.
Findings
Research Question 1: What are the teachers’
characteristics in public primary schools in South-
western Nigeria?
Table 1
Descriptive Analysis of Teachers’ Characteristics in
Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria Variables Level Frequency Percentage
% Gender Male
Female Total
70 148 218
32.11% 67.89 % 100 %
Age 18 – 25 26 – 35 36 – 45 46 and above Total
30 53 71 64 218
13.76 24.31 33.81 29.36 100
Marital status Single Married Widow/Widower Divorced Total
42 160 10 6 218
19.27 73. 40 4.59 2.10 100
Highest Educational Qualification
NCE HND Bachelor’s Degree/HND+PGDE Master’s Degree Doctoral Degree Total
113 - 99 6 - 218
51.84 - 45.41 2.10 - 100
Teaching Experience
Less than 10 years 10-19 years 20-29 years 30 years and above Total
14 76 104 24 218
6.42 34.86 47.71 11.01 100
From Table 1, it is shown that 32 percent of the
participants were male while 68 percent were
females. 34 percent of the participants were aged 36-
45 years, while another 29 percent were 46 years old
and above. Fewer participants were between 18 and
25 years and between 26-35 years that is, 14 percent
and 24 percent respectively. Thus, aged teachers 36-
45 years and 45+ years constituted a total of 63
percent of the respondents.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
9
In regard to marital status, 19 percent of the
participants were single, 73 percent were married
while just 5 percent were widow/widower and 2
percent were divorced.
As to teaching experience, 6 percent of the
respondents had between 1 and 10 years of
experience, 35 percent had 10-19 years, 48 percent
had between 20-29 years, while 11 percent had 30
years and above.
Concerning highest educational qualification of the
respondents, large majority had National Certificate
of Education (NCE) and bachelor’s degree/Higher
National Diploma (HND) + Post Graduate Diploma in
Education (PGDE) 52 percent and 45 percent
respectively while fewer respondents, 3 percent had
Masters Degree, there were no respondents with
HND or Doctoral Degree.
From the percentage ratings discussion of the
characteristics of the respondents, it is obvious that
there are more female teachers (58%) than male
(42%).
Also, older teachers represented by those between
36-45 years and 46 years and above far outweigh the
younger ones (25 years and below, and 26 -35 years).
This portends dangerous succession signal in the
school as the few new entrants may not match the
vacuum that will be created by the exit of the more
experienced retirees in the near future. Moreover,
there is the possibility of high rate of graduate
unemployment with regard to teaching profession
whereas the rational quest for globalization with
regard to science, information communication
technology and entrepreneurship education requires
more new professionals in the education industry.
Also, the vast majority of the respondents (73%) are
married while 19 percent are single, the remaining 5
percent and 2 percent are widows/widowers and
divorced respectively.
Research Question 2: What are the major
disciplinary problems experienced in public primary
schools in South-west Nigeria?
Table 2: Major Disciplinary Problems experienced in Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria
ITEM SA A D SD TOTAL MEAN 1. There is frequent cases of bullying and fighting among
pupils 16 34 69 99 403 1.85
2. Stealing is rampant among pupils in the schools 18 56 55 89 439 2.01 3. Truancy is common among students 34 39 55 90 441 2.02 4. Pupils here flout school rules and regulations with
impunity 18 36 65 99 409 1.88
5. There is frequent cases of impudence or assault of teachers by pupils or parents
21 30 67 100 408 1.87
6. Sex offences like having sex within the school or possessing of pornographic literature or films are common in the school
11 18 101 88 388 1.78
7. Suicide cases are rampant in the school 04 16 33 165 295 1.35 8. Pupils are often absent from school in the first two
weeks of resumption for a new term 101 67 25 25 680 3.12
9. There is frequent cases of willful destruction of school properties of other colleagues in the school
30 35 56 89 426 2.03
10. Drug offences like cigarettes, Indian hemp are rampant in the school
36 40 78 64 484 2.22
11. Cultism is common among pupils 31 34 58 87 429 2.04 12. Examination malpractices are common in the school 50 69 64 35 570 2.61
Grand Mean 2.07
Table 2 reveals that out of 12 items on the
disciplinary problems experienced in public primary
schools in South-west Nigeria, the respondents
agreed to 2 items and disagreed to 10 items.
Therefore, it is shown that pupils are always absent
from school in the first two weeks of resumption for a
new term and examination malpractices are common
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
10
in the schools. However, the grand mean of 2.07 is an
evidence that the problems experienced in these
primary schools as highlighted in table 3 are minimal.
Research Question 3: What is the level of teacher
indiscipline in public primary schools in South-west
Nigeria?
Table 3: Mean Rating of the Level of Teachers’ Indiscipline in Public Primary Schools in South-west Nigeria
Item Very
High
High Low Very
Low
Total Mean
1. Level of flouting of school rules and regulations with
impunity
20 32 66 100 408 1.87
2. Level of involving bias in introducing and enforcing
class rules
60 68 58 32 592 2.72
3. Level of involvement in smoking or alcoholism 26 39 60 93 434 1.99
4. Level of insubordination to the school administrator 18 36 65 99 409 1.88
5. Level of display of lackadaisical attitude towards
student welfare and safety needs
15 30 70 103 398 1.83
6. Level of dereliction to duty (not punctual or accepting
responsibility)
42 65 66 45 540 2.5
7. Level of lack of concern to extracurricular activities 34 39 55 90 441 2.02
8. Level of rough and indecent dressing 22 28 65 103 405 1.86
9. Level of involvement in leakage of examination
questions to students
12 22 75 109 373 1.71
10. Level of involvement in illicit relationship with his/her
students
18 36 65 99 409 1.88
11. Level of carelessness about school plant maintenance 78 86 31 23 655 3.0
12. Level of making or receiving phone calls while teaching
in the class.
46 66 59 47 547 2.51
Grand Mean 2.15
Table 3 shows that the level of teacher indiscipline
was high on 4 items while it was low on 8 items out
of the 12 items listed on the level of teacher
indiscipline in public primary schools in South-west
Nigeria. However, the grand mean 2.15 suggests that
generally, the level of teacher indiscipline in public
primary schools in South-west Nigeria was low.
Discussion of Findings
Indiscipline has continued to be the concern of all
right-thinking individuals with regard to the
operation of educational principles and practices in
Nigeria; education presumed to be the determinant of
the future destiny of the individual and invariably the
society at large. While energies are being dissipated
in the direction of other stakeholders – government,
students, parents and the society in general apart
from the teacher- in finding out the causes and
solution to the problems of indiscipline in Nigerian
schools, the aspect of the teacher factor seems
overlooked perhaps on the belief that teachers are
always right. The present study x-rays scholarly,
teachers’ characteristics and indiscipline in public
primary schools in South-west Nigeria.
The findings from research question one revealed
that 32 percent of the participants were male while
68 percent were females. This is in consonance with
Ivancevich et al.’s view that jobs can be gender
stereotyped. While some jobs like nurses and
teachers are “female”, some others like electricians
are “male”. Also, a total of 63.17% of the respondents
are 36 years and above while 36.83% falls below 35
years of age. The implication is that the disproportion
of younger workers to older workers will herald
succession incongruence in the near future and there
will be occurrence of young graduate unemployment
in the labour market.
The findings that overwhelming majority are married
should be expected because of the presence of more
teachers in the marriageable age category in the
teaching force. This shows that marital status of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
11
people seems to be a factor stimulating teaching
drive. This is consistent with the earlier finding of
Oluwanife (2015) that marital status of the
entrepreneurs is a factor stimulating
entrepreneurship drive among entrepreneurs in
Ondo State. This finding also corroborates Zatran and
Zawitz (2007) who posited that certain distinct roles
and behaviours of men and women in a given culture
are dictated by that culture’s gender norms and
values.
Findings from research question three shows that of
the 12 identifiable problems examined in public
primary schools in South-west Nigeria, 2 are
significant that is (pupils are often absent from
schools in the first two weeks of resumption for a
new termand examination malpractices are common
in the school. The reason for the first stated
identifiable disciplinary problem could be the
practice of using the first week of resumption for the
new academic term to subject pupils to clean up the
school surroundings that would have been untidy
after some weeks of vacation which they (pupils) are
trying to avoid.
Conclusion
Flowing from the assumption in Nigerian parlance
that “like teacher like pupils” and therefore, a
disciplined teacher would more likely produce
disciplined pupils and vice versa. This paper, through
the review of related literature and descriptive
analysis of the survey type has been able to establish
low level of acts of indiscipline among teachers in
Nigeria primary schools. However, certain acts of
indiscipline such as making phone calls during
classes and carelessness in school plant maintenance
are notable.
Recommendations
1. Teachers should behave in a fair, ethical and
courteous manner in order to reduce the
incidence of indiscipline in schools.
2. Teachers should create an ethical school climate
that can reduce indiscipline such as examination
malpractices.
3. Concerted effort and attendance strategies such
as opening test for students in the first week of
resumption should be instituted in our public
primary schools to guide against students staying
away from school in the first week of resumption.
4. The school principal should be proactive and
aggressive in enlightening the parents on the
needs to join hands with the school to release
and monitor the resumption of their
children/wards whenever the school resumes for
a new session/term.
5. Young teachers should be recruited into the
teaching force to forestall the probability of
occurrence of succession difficulty in the event of
retirement of old workers.
References
Ali, A. A., Dada, I. T., Isiaka, G. A., & Salmon, S. A. (2014). Types, causes and management of indiscipline acts among secondary school students in Shomolu local government area of Lagos state. Journal of Studies in Social Sciences, 8(2), 254 – 287.
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.
Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. (2011). Organizational behavior and management. New York: McGraw Hill.
Obidike, N. D. (2014). Administration and control of primary school education in Nigeria. In G. O. Unachukwu & P. N. Okorji (Eds.), Educational management: A skill building approach (pp. 653–671). Anambra, Nigeria: Rex Charles & Patrick Limited.
Oluwanife, M. S. (2015). Demographic factors influencing entrepreneurship drive among entrepreneurs in Ondo State. AAUA Journal of Developing Institutional and Human Capacity, 1(1), 90 – 99.
Onyali, L. C. (2014). School discipline. In G. O. Unachukwu & P. N. Okorji (Eds.), Educational management: A skill building approach. (pp 231–254) Anambra: Rex Charles & Patrick Limited.
Zafran, A., & Zawitz (2007). Gender roles and sex roles. Retrieved from http://www. academics.tjhsst.edu
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
12
QUALITY ASSURANCE AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF ACADEMIC STAFF IN PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN
SOUTHWEST NIGERIA
Arogundade, B. B., Fakunle, A. F. and Adetule O. Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.
Abstract
The study examined the relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff in public universities in Southwest Nigeria. The study was a descriptive research design of the survey type. A sample of 500 lecturers were selected using simple random and proportionate sampling technique. The instruments used to collect data was questionnaire titled Quality Assurance and Job Performance of Academic Staff Questionnaire (QAJPASQ). The instrument was validated and had reliability coefficient of 0.82. The three hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between educational facilities and academic staff job performance. It was also revealed that there was significant relationship between funding and academic staff job performance. The study revealed a significant relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff. Based on the findings, it was recommended that government should increase funding in public universities in Nigeria, this will enhance better facilities and high quality academic staff. This will reduce the frequent industrial actions by university workers.
Keywords: Quality Assurance, Job Performance, Academic Staff, Qualified Staff
Introduction
Education has been described as the bedrock of every
society and tool for nation building. For quality
education to be achieved in a nation the principal
agents of learning who are academic staffs, students
and conducive environment must be properly
organized. The academic staff must be adequate in
quality and quantity and facilities must be provided
as well. The key to efficient and effective education
system depend on the ability of the academic staff to
perform excellently. The Federal Republic of Nigeria
(2013) in the National Policy on Education states that
the goals of tertiary education shall be to contribute
to national development through high level of
relevant manpower training; to develop and inculcate
proper values to the survival of the individual and
society; to also develop the intellectual capacity of
individuals to be self-reliant and useful members of
the society.
In recent times, it has been observed that the level of
job performance of academic staff in universities has
become worrisome. It appears academic staff that are
expected to provide sound educated future leaders
are no more dedicated and committed to their
primary assignment, that is teaching, research and
community services. Some are fond of engaging
themselves in others services that are likely to fetch
them personal gains, when they actually suppose to
pay adequate attention to students. The problem has
been attributed to inadequate funding, facilities,
motivation, staff development and shortage of
qualified staff.
Statement of the Problem
In recent times, the level of job performance of
academic staff in public universities in Southwest
Nigeria was becoming worrisome to educational
stakeholders. There is concern about the manner in
which the system is loosing its confidence as regards
the effective and efficient nature of the system.
It appears that the perceived low level of job
performance of academic staff in the area of lectures
delivery skills, release of results and research
publications may be attributed to quantity and
quality of academic staff, poor educational facilities
and inadequate funding of tertiary education. Hence,
this study tends to examine the relationship between
quality assurance and job performance of academic
staff in public universities in Southwest Nigeria.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
13
Research Hypotheses
1. There is no significant relationship between
quality assurance and job performance of
academic staff.
2. There is no significant relationship between
quality of academic staff and their job
performance.
3. There is no significant relationship between
educational facilities and job performance of
academic staff.
4. There is no significant relationship between
funding and job performance of academic
staff
The Concept of Quality Assurance in University
The aim of the quality assurance in university system
is to guarantee the improvement of standards and
quality in university education in order to make
higher education meet the needs of students,
employers and financers (Lomas, 2002).It involves a
systematic procedures of verifying that education is
meeting the specified conditions requisite to the
actualization of its goals (Archibong, 2013). For
instance, teaching that is internally measured and
evaluated at a given university, and also measured
and evaluated externally during an accreditation
process are to ensures that quality assurance
principles are used as an indicators to ensure
compliance. Since quality assurance issues concern
all institutional responsibility and activities by
considering the specific characteristics of each area;
universities must therefore maintain the highest
international quality standards as benchmarks and
apply them to all areas of university activities all
these include research, teaching, quality educational
facilities, funding as well as in university
administration (Adu – Oppong, 2012).
Quality of education is often considered an
indefinable construct that is nebulous and at best
abstract. Quality assurance has to do with the process
of education. Quality assurance refers to deliberate,
evidence – based strategies and processes of
satisfying quality expectations. This is based on the
processes, environment and product (Okebukola,
2010; Okojie, 2013). In the same vein, Arikewuyo
(2004) sees quality in education as the ability of the
students to perform well in standard examinations
and relevance to the needs of individuals, community
and the society as a whole. He finally concludes that
quality serves as determination of gradations based
on standards of excellence beneath which a mark of
inferiority is imposed or adduced and above which
grades of superiority are defined.NPE(2004) stated
that quality assurance policy in Nigeria is concerned
with eight components of quality standards which
are :teaching and learning environment, leadership
and management, curriculum and other activities,
care ,guidance and support, learner’s welfare and
participation and school community relationship.
Quality assurance in education refers to conformity
to general accepted academic standards as defined by
an institution. it focuses on quality of input, process
and output of the educational system.
Quality Assurance and Job Performance
As the quality of university education comes under
serious criticism from various stakeholders in recent
years, it has become necessary for both internal and
external mechanisms to be deployed to control
education quality. The university academic staff is
considered central to the quality process. The
European Trade Union Committee for Education
General Assembly (2001) concedes that education is
a complex process whose outcome is the result of the
interplay of several factors. In other words, the
teacher and teaching are central to issues of
education quality. The National Policy on Education
(2004) clearly states that “no educational system can
rise above the qualities of its teachers”. Ajayi and
Ekundayo (2008) therefore concluded that teachers
are responsible for ensuring positive changes in the
lives of students.
Similarly, Adegbesan (2011) opined at the pivotal
role of teachers in ensuring educational quality.
Therefore the author observes that a nation can only
achieve quality education if the various actors such as
academic staff, students and the environment are
well organized. In other words, the academic staff
must be adequate in quality and quantity, facilities
must be provided as well and adequate funds must be
allocated to the university system. Consequently, this
paper examines the relationship between quality
assurance and job performance of academic staff in
public universities in Southwest Nigeria. Ajayi(2000)
emphasized on the need for the availability of
physical materials in the school system in order to
boost teachers job performance which would
invariably enhance academic performance of the
students.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
14
However, owing to the roles of NUC, it is express that
the quality of university education across the country
would have been improved in terms of having
building that are conducive to learning, adequate
lecture rooms that are well-equipped, adequate and
well equipped libraries and furniture. it is also
expected that universities would be well funded and
adequately staffed with qualified lecturers. But the
reverse is the case, Obemeata (1995) observed that if
all these factors, which indications of quality, are
provided in universities, it is expected that quality as
well as attainment of the objective of university
education will be high and achieved which will
invariably improve the job performance of academic
staff in public universities in south west Nigeria..
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive survey research
design. The sample for the study consisted of five
hundred academic staff from ten universities in
Southwest, Nigeria were randomly selected for the
study using proportionate random sampling
techniques. Six research assistants were employed to
administer questionnaires titled Quality Assurances
Variables of Job Performance of Academic Staff
(QAVJPAS) to collect data for the study. The
instrument was validated by experts and test – retest
method of reliability was adopted with reliability co –
efficient 0.76. This was considered high.
The data collected were analyzed using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation. The hypotheses
formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between quality assurance and job performance of academic staff.
Table 1: Relationship between quality assurance and
job performance.
Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab Quality Assurance
500 53.36 11.46 0.729*
0.195
Job performance
500 52.54 9.02
Significant p < 0.05
Table 1 reveals that rcal(0.729) is greater than
rtab(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant relationship between quality assurance
and job performance among academic staff.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship
between quality of academic staff and their job
performance.
Table 2: Relationship between quality of academic
staff and their Job Performance.
Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab
Qualified
lecturers
500 8.53 1.21
0.638*
0.195
Job
performance
500 20.00 1.70
Significant p < 0.05
Table 2 reveals that rcal(0.638) is greater than
rtab(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant relationship between quality of academic
staff and job performance among academic staff.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship
between educational facilities and job
performance of academic staff in public
universities in Southwest Nigeria
Table 3: Relationship between Educational facilities
and Job Performance
Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab
Educational
facilities
500 14.88 8.46
0.435*
0.195
Job
performance
500 52.54 9.02
Significant p < 0.05
Table 3 reveals that rcal (0.435) is greater than rtab
(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant relationship between educational facilities
and job performance among academic staff.
Hypothesis 4: There is no significant relationship
between funding and job performance of
academic staff in public universities in Southwest
Nigeria
Table 4: Relationship between Funding and Job
Performance of academic staff
Variable N Mean SD rcal rtab
Funding 500 15.95 3.15
0.567*
0.195 Job
performance
500 52.54 9.02
* p < 0.05
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
15
Table 4 revealed that rcal(0.567) is greater than
rtab(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant relationship between funding and job
performance of academic staff.
Discussion
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between the quality assurance and their
job performance. The findings agree with Obemeata
(1995) that if all these factors, which indications of
quality, are provided in universities, it is expected
that quality as well as attainment of the objective of
university education will be high and achieved which
will invariably improve the job performance of
academic staff in public universities in south west
Nigeria..
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between the quality of academic staff
and their job performance. The findings agree with
Okojie (2013) that the number of qualified lecturers
is a crucial factor in university quality assurance.
The study also showed that there was significant
relationship between educational facilities and job
performance of academic staff. The finding agrees
with Owuamanam and Owuamanam (2008) that
facilities form one of the potent factors that
contribute to academic achievement in the university
system.
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between funding and job performance of
academic staff. The findings also agree with Umoh
(2002) who identified funding as an aspect that must
be looked into if the quality of university education
must be improved in the country. Adegbesan (2011)
and Okojie (2013) opined that funding is at the core
of achieving quality education in terms of input,
process and output.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded
that quality assurance in terms of qualified academic
staff, educational facilities and funding were
determinants of job performance of academic staff in
public universities in Southwest Nigeria. It was
therefore recommended that government should
increased funding of public universities in Southwest
Nigeria. This will enhance better provisions of
educational facilities in universities and qualified
academic staff. This will reduce the frequent
industrial actions by universities workers.
References
Adegbesan, S. O. (2011). Establishing Quality
Assurance in Nigeria Education System:
Implication for Educational Managers,
Educational Research and Reviews, 6(2), 147 –
151. Retrieved from
http://www.academicjournals.org/ERRISSN.19
90-3839.
Adu – Oppong, A. A. (2012). Managing Quality in
Academic Institutions. Unpublished Thesis
Chartered Institute of Administrators and
Management Consultant – Ghana, 2012.
Ajayi,I.A(2000).Cost Analysis in Education topical
issues in research and Education. in institute of
education occasional publications. university of
Ado-Ekiti,Nigeria,pp:43
Ajayi, I. A. and Ekundayo, H. T. (2008). The
Deregulation of University Education in Nigeria:
Implications for Quality Assurance Nebula; 5(4),
218.
Archibong, I. A. (2013). Strengthening Internal
Quality Assurance for Improved Education
Delivery in Nigeria Public Universities. Research
on Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 1,
172 – 177.
Arikewuyo, M. O. (2004). Effective Funding and
Quality Assurance in Nigeria Education System.
A Paper presented at the 1st National Conference
of the Institute of Education, Olabisi Onabanjo
University, Ago – Iwoye, Jan. pp. 12 – 15.
European Trade Union Committee for Education
General Assembly (2001). Indicators and
Benchmarks on Quality of School Education.
Retrieved from http://etuce.homestead.com/
publication_until_2004/2000/etuce_rep_quality
_2000_eng.pdf
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National Policy
on Education, 6th Edition, Yaba, Lagos, NERDC
Press.
Lomas, L. (2002). Does the Development of Mass
Education Necessarily Mean the End of Quality.
Quality in Higher Education, Vol. 8, No. 1.
Obemeata,J.O.(1995).Education: An Unprofitable
Industry in Nigeria. postgraduate school
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Interdisciplinary Research Discourse University
of Ibadan, Ibadan.
Okebukola, P. (2010). Fifty years of Higher Education
in Nigeria: Trends in Quality Assurance. A Paper
presented at the International Conference on
the Contribution of Nigerian Universities to the
50th Independence Anniversary of Nigeria, 27th –
29th September.
Okojie, J. (2013). Quality Assurance and the
Challenges of Mandate Delivery in Nigerian
Universities, Paper presented at the Lagos State
University, Lagos, Nigeria, 18th Convocation
Lecture; 19th February.
Owuamanam, D. O & Owuamanam.T.O.(2008).
Sustaining Academic Progress through Objective
Evaluation of Research in Nigeria.College
Teaching Methods and Styles Journal,4(8).27-31.
Umoh, M. O. (2002). Reducing Teachers Instructional
Deficiencies in some Content Area of the Senior
Secondary School, Biology for Sustainable
Development. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual
Conference of STAN and Inaugural Conference
of CASTME Africa of STAN (pp. 219 – 223).
Wahlen, S. (1998). Is There a Scandinavian Model of
Education of Higher Education? Higher
Education Management, Vol. 10, No. 3.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
17
THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF CHAOTIC DYNAMICAL SYSTEMS BEHAVIOUR
1Owolabi, K.I and 2Gwary, T. M. 1Department of Psychology
F.C.T. College of Education, Zuba-Abuja 2Department of Mathematics, University of Abuja, Nigeria
Abstract
Many natural and social systems including climate, temperature, population growth, planetary motion and even the
stock and financial derivatives market exhibit chaotic dynamical systems behavior. The objective of the paper is to
present an overview of some chaotic dynamical systems that have been economic benefits. Specifically we wish to
discuss chaotic dynamical systems models in natural and social sciences especially in physics, climatology and
economics that have economic significance. Prominent among the chaotic models are the following: Henri Poincare’s
model of planetary motion, Edward Lorenz model of convection currents, foreign exchange chaotic model in economics
and bank account time evolution system.
Key Words: dynamical system, Henri Poincare; Edward Lorenz; Butterfly effect; foreign exchange; bank account.
Introduction
A key feature of non-linear dynamical systems is
chaotic behavior. To explain, analyze and understand
chaotic behavior in both natural and artificial
systems we use the mathematics of chaos theory.
Chaos theory is a scientific discipline which is focused
on the study of nonlinear systems, which are
generally complex and unpredictable (Brian, 1993).
The cause of unpredictability in nonlinear systems is
extreme sensitivity to initial conditions-what is
referred to as the butterfly effect. The concept means
that with a complex non-linear system, very small
changes in the starting conditions of a system will
result in dramatically different and large changes in
the outputs for that system. Chaos theory describes
complex motion and the dynamics of sensitive
systems.
Chaotic systems are mathematically deterministic but
nearly impossible to predict. Chaos is more evident in
long-term systems than in short-term systems.
Behavior in chaotic systems is a periodic, meaning
that no variable describing the state of the system
undergoes a regular repetition of values. A chaotic
system can actually evolve in a way that appears to
be smooth and ordered, however. Chaos refers to the
issue of whether or not it is possible to make accurate
long-term predictions of any system if the initial
conditions are known to an accurate degree.
Source: Lorenz, (1963)
Fig 1: Chaotic systems, in this case a fractal, can appear
to be smooth and ordered.
As a result of sensitivity to initial conditions like
initial position and velocity the French
mathematician Henri Poincare concluded that he
could not predict the trajectories of planets in the
solar system including the earth (Hofbauer and Karl
1984). The uncertainty in the movement of the earth
in Poincare’s model contributes to unpredictability in
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
18
climate change. In the same way the American
meteorologist Edward Lorenz discovered that a
simple model of heat convection possesses intrinsic
unpredictability (Lorenz, 1993). The two models
showed that long term weather forecasting is
impossible. The foreign exchange model is extremely
sensitive to initial conditions and also possesses
intrinsic unpredictability and fluctuation.
Review of Chaos Theory and Areas of Applications
Chaos is an unpredictable behavior occurring in a
deterministic system (Alligood, Sauer and York,
1996). Chaos which is caused by extreme sensitivity
to initial conditions in the parameters of a system
explains the complexity, the dual unpredictability and
determinism in a lot of physical and social systems.
Chaos was described as an enigma encased in a
puzzle (Ajala, 2002) probably because the concept is
still an intriguing phenomenon in science. The
chaotic models that could be used to explain climate
change and global warming are the planetary model
of Henri Poincare for the solar system and the
weather convection currents model of Edward
Lorenz as explored in the exposition by (Cambel,
1993) and (Field and Martin, 1992). Poincare’s work
on the solar system studies the position and
trajectories of planets including the earth. Poincare
used geometrical methods to give better
understanding of the complexity and chaoticity of
nonlinear dynamical systems like the solar system.
The position, inclination and movement of the earth
with respect to the sun is unpredictable in the
Poincare chaotic model. This behavior affects the
amount of radiation the earth receives from the sun
and hence the climate and climate change on earth. In
a similar way Edward Lorenz work on convection
currents is a model for forecasting weather and
climatic conditions given initial data on temperatures
and positions. Lorenz model studied the behavior of a
gaseous system. He simplified the Navier-Stokes
equations of fluid dynamics and produced a system of
three non-linear differential equations given as
follows:
dx/dt =-ax +ay --------------------------------------------(1)
dy/dt = -xz + rx-y ----------------------------------------.(2)
dz/dt =xy – bz ----------------------------------------------(3)
The constants a, r and b determines the behavior of
the system. These three differential equations
exhibit chaotic behavior-they are extremely sensitive
to initial conditions. Both Poincare’s model and
Lorenz model are chaotic in nature and models
unpredictability in climate and climate change. An
early pioneer of the theory was Edward Lorenz
whose interest in chaos came about accidentally
through his work on weather prediction in 1961.
Lorenz was using a basic computer, a Royal McBee
LGP-30, to run his weather simulation. He wanted to
see a sequence of data again and to save time he
started the simulation in the middle of its course. He
was able to do this by entering a printout of the data
corresponding to conditions in the middle of his
simulation which he had earlier calculated.
Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines,
including: geology, mathematics, microbiology,
biology, computer science, economics, engineering,
finance, meteorology, philosophy, physics, politics,
population dynamics, psychology, architecture,
cryptography and robotics. Chaotic behavior has
been observed in the laboratory in a variety of
systems, including electrical circuits, lasers,
oscillating chemical reactions, fluid dynamics, and
mechanical and magneto-mechanical devices, as well
as computer models of chaotic processes.
Observations of chaotic behavior in nature include
changes in weather, the dynamics of satellites in the
solar system, the time evolution of the magnetic field
of celestial bodies, population growth in ecology, the
dynamics of the action potentials in neurons, and
molecular vibrations. Chaos theory is currently being
applied to medical studies of epilepsy, specifically to
the prediction of seemingly random seizures by
observing initial conditions. In the real world, there
are three very good examples of instability: disease,
political unrest, and family and community
dysfunction. Disease is unstable because at any
moment there could be an outbreak of some deadly
disease for which there is no cure. This would cause
terror and chaos. Political unrest is very unstable
because people can revolt, throw over the
government and create a vast war. A war is another
type of a chaotic system.
Family and community dysfunction is also unstable
because if you have a very tiny problem with a few
people or a huge problem with many people, the
outcome will be huge with many people involved and
many people's lives in ruin. Chaos is also found in
systems as complex as electric circuits, measles
outbreaks, lasers, clashing gears, heart rhythms,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
19
electrical brain activity, circadian rhythms, fluids,
animal populations, and chemical reactions, and in
systems as simple as the pendulum. It also has been
thought possibly to occur in the stock market.
Quantum chaos theory studies how the
correspondence between quantum mechanics and
classical mechanics works in the context of chaotic
systems. Relativistic chaos describes chaotic systems
under general relativity. The motion of a system of
three or more stars interacting gravitationally (the
gravitational N-body problem) is generically chaotic.
In electrical engineering, chaotic systems are used in
communications, random number generators, and
encryption systems. In numerical analysis, the
Newton-Raphson method of approximating the roots
of a function can lead to chaotic iterations. It has been
observed that weather is a chaotic system and hence
long term prediction is not possible (Lorenz,1963).
FIG 1, Lorenz Butterfly diagram (Ajala, 2002).
The Butterfly diagram in fig1 above is a diagrammatic
representation of the Butterfly effect and is referred
as the Lorenz attractor. The Butterfly Effect is a
phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of
sensitive dependence on initial conditions in chaos
theory. The idea is that small variations in the initial
conditions of a dynamical system produce large
variations in the long term behavior of the system.
Edward Lorenz first analyzed the butterfly effect in a
1963 paper on weather simulation and prediction
(Lorenz, 1963). The practical consequence of the
butterfly effect is that complex systems such as the
weather are difficult to predict past a certain time
range - approximately a week, in the case of weather.
This is because any finite model that attempts to
simulate a system must necessarily truncate some
information about the initial conditions - for example,
when simulating the weather, one would not be able
to include the wind coming from every butterfly's
wings. In all practical cases, defects in the knowledge
of the initial conditions and deficiencies in the model
are equally important sources of error. In a chaotic
system, these errors are magnified as the simulation
progresses. Thus the predictions of the simulation
are useless after a certain finite amount of time.
Chaotic Dynamical Systems Models with Socio-
Economic Benefits
Poincare’s Climate Change Model
Chaos is an unpredictable behavior occurring in a
deterministic system (Alligood, Sauer and York.
1996). It is common knowledge in science that a
system consisting of two orbiting masses interacting
through gravitational force and acceleration can be
modeled as a differential equation. To interpret and
solve such equations we use Newton’s laws of motion
and gravitation as depicted in equation 10 where P is
momentum, M1 and M2 are masses, G is acceleration
due to gravity and r is distance between the masses.
dP/dt=GM1M2/r2
………………………….………………………….(4)
We call such a system analytically solvable and hence
deterministic. However a system consisting of three
or more masses interacting exclusively through
gravitational acceleration is not analytically solvable.
The system is a three body problem and the
differential equation that models it has no exact
solution. In fact any n-body problem (n ≥ 3) exhibits
such a behavior. The behavior of such systems is
irregular, wild, unpredictable and hence chaotic. The
dynamical systems that show such behavior was first
reported by Henri Poincare in connection with his
work on the solar system (Sussmann and Wisdom,
1992). Henri Poincare, a French mathematician and
Professor at the University of Paris initiated in 1889
the study of such systems which are now referred to
as Poincare systems. The differential equation that
models such systems has no exact solutions. We can
only use computational methods to find approximate
solutions. In his work, Poincare used the geometry of
special curves called manifolds. Manifolds are curves
in the plane or generally in Rn that are locally similar
to Rn. It was discovered that stable and unstable
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
20
manifolds can cross each other at points known as
monoclinic points and that in the neighborhood of
such points the behavior of the system is chaotic.
The trajectories are complex and have sensitive
dependence on initial conditions. Sensitivity to initial
condition implies that trajectories that are close
initially to each other separate at exponential rate as
parameters of time and space varies. The
transformation used in the Poincare system analysis
is the Poincare map. The Poincare map is the two
dimensional map G such that G (A)= B, where A
represent the kth downward piecing of the plane and
B the( k+1)th downward piecing. Given A, the
differential equation describing the system can be
solved with A as an initial value and the solution
followed until the next downward piecing. More
general surfaces Rn or manifolds can be used other
than the plane. The surface used is called the surface
of section. The surface of section is one dimension
less than the phase space. The Poincare map
transforms trajectories from the phase space to the
surface of section. The earth being a Poincare system
has chaotic trajectories which causes unpredictability
in climate and climate change.
Edward Lorenz Weather Prediction Model
Edward Lorenz an American meteorologist in 1961
proposed the following model of convection, similar
to the swirls of cream in a hot cup of coffee (Lorenz,
1993).The models are as specified in equations 5, 6
and 7.
dx/dt =-10x+10y……………………………….(5)
dy/dt =28x y+xz……………… ………………….(6)
dz/dt =-8/3x+xy……………………… …………..(7)
The points x, y, z correspond to the position of a point
in geometric space at time t. Lorenz system of
differential equations is unsolvable except by
numerical means. It was discovered that the solutions
are sensitive to initial conditions. The graph or
diagram of the solution is called the Lorenz attractor
or Lorenz butterfly. Lorenz and Poincare models are
historically regarded as the foundation of chaos
theory. The model revealed the unpredictability of
the weather and hence climate change. It is a model
of climate that is both stochastic and deterministic.
To illustrate the extreme sensitivity of the Lorenz
model to initial conditions consider the starting
points (1,1,10) and (1,1,10.01) . There is a difference
of 0.01 or 0.1% between the 3rd component of the
two points at t= 0. If we plot the butterfly diagram of
these two points from t=0 to t=7.5 we will observe
that the two curves fly apart. Edward Lorenz in
introducing chaos into science and mathematics
asked the question: can the flap of a butterfly’s wing
in Brazil cause a tornado in Texas, U.S.A? The
question can be rephrased into: can the flap of a
locust’s wing in Konduga Borno State Nigeria, cause
the water in the lake Chad Basin which covers five
countries in west and central Africa to diminish
(Gwary and Gwary; 2012)
Foreign Exchange Model in Economics
The model links the current exchange rate with
subsequent changes observed. The theory behind the
model states that an accurate a priori prediction of
the exchange rate evolution is impossible to be made
but the subsequent explanation of the changes is
possible (Sorin, Vled and Paul, 2010). To understand
the chaotic nature of the exchange rate model we
begin with the phenomenon of period doubling which
is the general feature of chaotic dynamical systems
trajectories. The period doubling evolves in 2, 4, 8, 16
and so on periods and the system evolution can
abruptly fall into chaotic regimes. For unimodal
functions there exists a symmetry in the parameter
values at which the period doubling occurs. Let A1 be
the value of the control parameter for which the first
period doubling occurs and An is the value for which
the nth period doubling occurs, then:
𝛿 = lim𝑛→∞
𝐴𝑛 − 𝐴𝑛−1
𝐴𝑛+1 − 𝐴𝑛 = 4.66920…………………..(8)
Where 𝛿 is the Feigenbaum number value for all
periodic unimodal functions. The chaotic model of
foreign currency demand is determined as
percentage of the deviation of current exchange rate
towards the expected one. The model is given by:
St = 𝛼(𝑒𝑒
𝑒𝑡 − 1), 𝛼 ≥ 0……………………………..(9)
Where
et is the current domestic price of the foreign
currency.
ee is the future estimated exchange rate.
𝛼 is the sensitivity parameter.
St is the currqent demand of foreign currency.
The trade balance (Ti) is a linear function depending
on the current exchange rates and the corresponding
exchange rate for the last period, written as deviation
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
21
from the expected values and is given by the
equation:
Tt = 𝛽(𝑒𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒) + 𝛾(𝑒𝑡−1 − 𝑒𝑒) 𝛽, 𝛾 >
0 … … … … … … … . . (10)
With the parameters 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 26 the
evolution of the model describing the system is
chaotic. The economic benefit of the model is that to a
large extent it can be used to predict foreign
exchange rates (Sorin Vlad, Paul Pascu and Nicolae
Morariu, 2010).
Bank Account Dynamical System
Consider a bank account opened with N1000 at 6%
interest compounded annually. The state of the
system is described by the following:
X(k+1) = 1.06x(k), X(0) = 1000 ……………….(11)
The state or balance of the bank account in all future
years can be computed. For example x(1) = 1.06x(0)
= 1.06x1000 = 1060. In general,
x(k) = (1.06)kx1000………………………………..(12)
is the model equation that is used to find the balance
after the kth year of deposit.
Conclusion
This paper presented and addresses the economic
benefits of some chaotic dynamical systems. The
models presented include Henri Poincare’s planetary
model, Edward Lorenz climatic model and foreign
exchange fluctuation model as well as model of bank
account time evolution system. It is apparent from
the review that chaotic dynamical systems behavior
is a revolutionary scientific idea that has a wide range
of applications for economic growth and
development. Chaotic dynamical system involves
both unpredictability and determinism caused by
extreme sensitivity to initial conditions. Chaotic
dynamical systems behavior can be observed in many
natural and artificial systems and shall always be a
mystery, a paradox, a puzzle, an enigma and a riddle
in nature that has tremendous economic benefits.
References
Ajala E.O (2002) Historical perspective of chaoticity,
Zuma Journal of Pure and Applied Sciences, vol4,
No.1; P23-53
Alligood K.T, Sauer T.D and York J.A (1996) Chaos: An
introduction to dynamical systems,
Springer Verlag, New York, p23-53.
Brian, Kaye (1993). Choas and Complexity,
Discovering the Surprising Patterns of Science
and Technology, VCH Publishers.
Cambel, A.B. (1993). Applied Chaos Theory: A
paradigm for Complexity, Academic Press.
Field Michael and Martin Golubitsky (1992).
Symmetry in Chaos, Oxford University Press.
GwaryT. M & Gwary M. M (2012) Chaotic models as
applied to climate change impactin the Lake
Chad Basin Area, Proceedings of Alexander Von
Humboldt Kolleg
International Conference 2012, p438- 441,
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.
Hofbauer, Josef and Karl Sigmund (1984) The Theory
of Evolution and Dynamical Systems,
Cambridge University Press.
Lorenz E. (1993). The Essence of chaos. The
University of Washington press, Seattle.
Lorenz E.(1963) Deterministic non periodic flow. J.
Atmospheric Science 20, 130-141.
Sorin V, Paul P and Nicolae (2010) Chaos Models in
Economics, Journal of Computing, vol.2,
issue1, January 2010, p79- 83.
Sussmann G.J and Wisdom J. (1992) Chaotic evolution
of the solar system, Science 257, p56-62
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
22
AVAILABILITY AND UTILIZATION OF E-LEARNING TECHNOLOGY FOR THE EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATION OF
PUBLIC SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN RIVERS STATE
Oloko, O. O. Department of Business Administration and Management,
Federal Polytechnic Ile-Oluji, Ondo State
Abstract
This study investigated the availability and utilization of e-Learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. The sample size of 25 principals and 870 teachers, given a total of 895 staff representing 10% of the total staff in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. Stratified sample technique was used to identify the sample size using the balloting method. The instrument titled “Availability and Utilization of e-Learning Technology Questionnaire” (AUe-LTQ) was designed by the researcher. Reliability index was determined using test-retest method (0.93). Mean and standard deviation were used as the statistical tools to answer the research questions, while z-test statistic was used to test the hypotheses. The finding revealed that lack of availability and improper utilization of e-learning technology affects the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, based on this finding, the following recommendations were made:for effective adoption of e-learning technology to prevail, all the staff in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State must change their mindset by viewing knowledge about e-technology as administrative tool that cannot be avoided if they must fit in and serve in the current e-technology race; the Rivers State senior secondary schools board should come up with a blue-print on methods of training and retraining all categories of staff on the competence in using e-learning technology; for e-learning facilities to be adequately available and utilized for effective administrative delivery in public senior secondary schools in Rivers State, the state government should give priority attention by funding technology.
Introduction
Information and communication technology (ICT)
has been adopted by all and sundries atall levels of
education as tool for education programmes because
it has generated a global village where one can access
information from any part of the universe within
second. The education section at utilizing ICT, creates
new and existing opportunities both for the school
and the students; thereby making teaching and
learning to be more effective and qualitative, Adyemi
(2014). Information and Communication Technology
is the combination of computer and
telecommunication equipment used mainly for the
processing, gathering, analyzing as well as storing of
information, and the acronym, ICT.information and
Communication Technology (Oloko, 2015). In a
rapidly changing global environment, information
and communication technology (ICT) is the bedrock
for national survival and development since, the
recognition of the significance of ICT on boosting the
educational standard. The federal government of
Nigeria, in its executive summary on the national
policy for information and communication
technology, challenges Nigeria, to devise bold and
courageous initiatives to address a host of vital socio-
economic issues such as reliable infrastructure,
skilled personnel, open government policies with
programmes on ICTs, and other essential issue of
capacity building.
Following the acceptance of this fact, obliged the
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004), to give mandate
to set standards to regulate framework for the
deployment of ICT infrastructure at all levels of
education in Nigeria, also mandated all the states
government in correlation with NGOs to adopt the
National Policy on computer education of 1998,
which has its objectives to encourage staff to develop
a close rapport with computer, and appreciate its
potentials for solving teaching and learning
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
23
challenges, and inculcate the use of ICTs in their day
to day smooth administration of the school system
(Adeosun, 2014). The emergence of ICT has become
so beneficial that one cannot imagine life without it in
the 19th century; for example, there were very few
channel of communication which had brought about
limitation in information dissemination, (Oloko,
2015), because it could take over six months or more
to communicate with one’s relatives across the
country, accompanied with much stress but with the
advent of ICTs, channel of communication is widened
and the speed of information dissemination also
increased since ICTs tools like video-conferencing,
group discussion are enabled. According to Adebayo
(2015), ICTs enable teachers to prepare lesson notes,
improved on their instructional materials, carry out
research on the subject assigned to them and do day
to day administration of the school system. For
Wikipedia (2014), e-learning is essentially the
computer and network enabled for transfer of skills
and knowledge, it is an instrument delivered via an
electronic media (Chitana, 2014). Tongsakul (2014),
referred to e-learning as comprising computer,
internet, multimedia projector, video tapes and CD
ROM. From these definition, Anowor (2014),
maintained that the concept of electronic learning
comprises;
i The use of technology to enable people to learn
anytime and anywhere,
ii The use of all form of electronically-supported
learning and teaching devices
iii The use of ICT in developing skills as well as
concept-based knowledge
iv The use of instructional media in form of texts,
images, animation, video and audio devices.
Therefore, the International form of Education
Technology and Society (IFETS, 2010), conceived e-
learning as the use of various technological tools that
are either web-based, web-distributed or web
capable for the purpose of improving educational
standard. Asynchronous e-learning as described by
Rosenberg (2014), is a learning that is “pre-coded” or
is available, prepared and kept and can be used when
needed at anything, but does not take place at the
same time, and learners are free to make their
schedule (Alu, 2014). This type is delivered on
demand and it enables the learner have control over
the learning process and content. According to Hall
(1997), asynchronous e-learning is of different types
ranging from less sophisticated power point slides
posted on the website to more sophisticated ones
which allow learners involvement (interactive).
These include electronic mail, one-line stimulation
with graphics, animation video and audio
components. Wellman (1997), in Zhang (2008),
itemized asynchronous variety as public electronic
bulletin boards/news groups or collaboration system
for discussions, downloading learning materials from
knowledge repositories by the help of internet,
example;
1. Company intranets that distributes training to
its employees
2. The use of online database and websites to
acquire information and pursue research.
Alu (2014), explained that by implication, e-learning
is not a straight-jacketed package. It leads itself to
various adaptations to suit specific needs and
interactions, and is capable of being used to teach any
subjects. The role of teachers as facilitators, coach,
and mentors according to Anderson (2015), requires
that all the teachers should be trained to be familiar
with e-learning experience as part of on-going
professional development. The reason according to
White (2013),isthat there are new ways of storing
and manipulating data/information that would
improve further development of teachers. Teachers
of secondary schools should be trained to acquire
skills that are foundational for e-learning application
such as skills in the setting up of computer, skill in
application of MS-word, application of MS-power
point, application of excel, the use of world wide web,
the use of Google search engine, skill on the use of
yahoo search, skill of mamma search, skill of
identification of web address, the use of email, skill of
downloading information, acquiring skill of power
point presentation, the use of operating window, the
skill of identifying computer peripherals. Ngwoke &
Numonde (2014), added that teachers should have
the ability of design education software to meet the
specific needs and choose the electronic text to match
with student’s need. The development of these are
important because, referring to the Organization of
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD,
2006), e-learning is becoming paramount in
universities education and every university is
increasing the provision of e-learning packages. In
view of this, Ifeakor&Okoli (2014) agreed that
teachers have made effective use of e-learning in
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
24
assessment of the students; which means e-learning
in business education has become one of the most
important and potentially significant and efficient
instructional methods to improve teaching and
learning. The adoption of e-learning in teaching and
learning of education is an idea whose time has come,
for the effective delivery of knowledge, and it has
become the most acceptable method of effective
educational service delivery in present times. The
assessment will be based on whether secondary
schools educators use e-learning packages in
teaching their subjects. Do they have both computer
and web competences to apply the package and what
challenges do they encounter in utilizing these
devices. Before we answer those questions, let us
define what e-learning is all about. E-learning as a
product of internet has been defined at various
quarters and it comprises all forms of electronically-
supported learning and teaching. E-learning takes
place anywhere, anytime, without face-to-face
interaction. It involves the appropriate use of
network technologies to create, foster, deliver and
facilitate learning. Ugwuoke (2014), added that it
encompasses face-to-face distance, mixed and
blended delivery models that utilize electronic
means. Asah (2015), opined that e-learning is
essentially the computer and network-enabled
transfer of skills and knowledge. It is an instrument
delivered via an electronic media (Chitana, 2008).
Tongsakul and Meejaceu (2009), referred to e-
learning as comprising computer, internet,
multimedia projector, video tapes and CD
ROM.Therefore, the international form of education
technology and society (IFETS, 2015), conceived e-
learning as the use of various technological tools that
are either web-based, web-distributed or web
capable for the purpose of education. The above
definition shows that e-learning programmes can be
delivered using a variety of information and
communication technology (ICT) such as HTML
based on-line tutorial; which relies on web pages
accessed through browser, text and graphic on
mobile device like digital assistant interactive video
and audio images delivered through CD-ROM, and
video and audio conferences conducted over
telecommunication channels such as telephone lines,
local area networks and internet (Akubilo, 2014,
Islam (1997), clarified that the application and the
process of e-learning include web based learning,
computer-based learning, virtual classroom and
digital collaborations, where content is delivered via
the internet/intranet, audio and video tape satellite,
TV and CD-ROM. It can be self-administered or by an
instructor; which includes media in the form of text
message, image animation, streaming video and
audio. It can also be referred to as computer-based
training (CBT) or internet based training (IBT) or
web based training (WBT).
However, e-learning can be synchronous or
asynchronous. Synchronous e-learning is “live” and
requires simultaneous participations of all learners
and instructors at different locations. Every learner is
expected to be at the computer at the same time
receiving instructions. It can be regarded as
scheduled delivery of learning (Alu, 2014),
synchronous e-learning takes varieties of forms, for
example multi cast and real time interactive
conferencing using (MOO system or IRC). A more
complex type involves learners. This offers learners
from different locations opportunity to log into the
training. Consequently, it is believed that the
imperative of modern ICT resources for e-learning
and teaching of business education is further
bolstered by the fact that even the students
themselves are now digital natives born into the ICT
culture who can be best groomed using ICT. This
position was supported by Wokocha (2013) who
observed that a good number of students today are
familiar with the World Wide Web, the search
engines as well as many software and hardware.
They extensively use the social media e.gfacebook,
twitter, skype, yahoo messenger, LinkedIn, skills page
and you tube. In a single handset possessed by a
student there could be over 100 applications running
live for information and entertainment.
In order to respond to the actual need of the students,
there is need to examine whether these e-learning
platforms (hardware and software) are utilized for
teaching and learning of business education courses
in colleges of education in Enugu State; so that the
graduates can expect to simulate the real work place
environments; because according to Obi (2005),
instructional facilities should be relevant, reliable and
suitable. From this perspective, three components of
e-learning can be identified, namely: technology and
delivery; content; and service. Since e-learning
utilizes technology to deliver, interact and facilitate
instructional processes and skill acquisition, lack of
necessary technologies for e-learning reduces the
training process to what is called talk and chalk
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
25
method of delivery of business courses, and this is
not consistent with the 21st century learning
environment, (Okute & Agomuo, 2014). According to
Kaiser (2013), ICT covers any product or material
that will store, retrieve, manipulate, transit or receive
information electronically in a digital form. These can
be classified under traditional computer-based
technologies with the application and use of standard
office applications (such as word processing,
spreadsheets, database software, presentation
software, desktop publishing, graphic software and
special applications as computer -aided designs) and
digital communication -based technology via
electronic means through internal networks (local
area networks –LAN) and external networks (wide
area networks – WAN); which are linked to a satellite.
In Higher Education Institutions typified by
universities, Nwamarah (2012), noted that the
organization and processing of data on students, staff
and finance to generate valuable information for
dissemination to all who might need it has become a
serious issue in modern universities. Access to vital
information might need it has become a serious issue
in modern universities. Access to vital information
which is available outside university environment is
a nightmare in most developing economics. ICT
facilities are helping to provide means of solving
these problems. The need for information sharing is
more felt in the academia as they have become
engines for the development of knowledge economics
of the 21st century.
According to Chafe (2012), the role of ICT as a vital
tool for teaching, administration and research
activities continues to grow as evidenced from the
rapid growth of the population of the growing needs
by staff and students in secondary schools level. ICT
is a very capital intensive project most especially in
big organizations like universities where access will
be required by majority of the population. The state
of funding of Nigerian universities by government is
so inadequate that to sustain ICT projects at all hubs
of teaching/learning, research and administration; is
almost impossible at most Nigerian universities. The
Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) saw the
wide gap created by the absence of ICT in most
Nigerian universities and decided to initiate the
Nigerian University Commission Network System
(NUNet) in every university to provide the backbone
for networking at the campuses and be able to have a
dial-up access to the NUC server for uploading/
downloading e-mail messages. As at the time of the
setting up of NUNet, few universities were able to
link-up but with the revolution in telephony in
Nigeria, by the introduction of the Global Satellite
Mobile System (GSM) in 2001, many were able to
link-up. Adedoyin, Akinnuwesi and Adegoke (2013);
Okerie, Agabi and Uche, (2005), noted that education
(teaching/learning and research) with its efficient
administration, is a prerequisite of today’s
knowledge-based society, with ICT being a powerful
tool for diffusing knowledge and could complement
the traditional practices of the education sector.
Higher education institutions have always been the
center for new discoveries and innovations brought
about by activities of teaching, learning and research.
Despite the potentials of ICT to enhance these
activities, a number of challenges are limiting the
adequate and proper utilization of ICT in the Nigerian
tertiary education system. These challenges are
classified into four areas according to Nwamarah
(2002);
- ICT infrastructure – This was virtually
nonexistent in all Nigerian universities till the
NuNet project was initiated. Presently, the new
private universities are being built with the ICT
infrastructure in mind.
- Technical Personnel-There is ample lack of
professionals in the ICT field of study and this is
worsened by the fact that universities cannot pay
competitive salaries to retain those they train so
most are employed in the booming oil industry
and banks in Nigeria.
- ICT Awareness – Even with the four walls of the
university, ICT awareness is so low for the NuNet
project to take-off. Awareness lectures and
training have to be organized for all categories of
staff as substantiated by Chafe (2012) and
Nwamarah (2012).
- Building structures – as a result of non- ICT
infrastructure, most universities face the
challenge of putting up new building with its
financial implication
In the world today, trend in pedagogy is ICT-oriented;
hence it is paramount to prepare the present
generation of Nigeria youths to have all round
development, which is compliant to this millennium
since our children cannot live in isolation because e-
learning technology will improve secondary
educational standard; for this purpose to be achieved,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
26
e-learning system in our various secondary schools
should be made available, utilization and other
militating factors affecting the e-learning technology
for effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State, should be well
addressed.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the
availability and utilization of e-learning technologies
for effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State. Categorically, the
study:
i. determinesthe extent which e-learning
technologies are available for effective
administration of public senior secondary
schools in Rivers State.
ii. finds out the extent which e-learning
technologies given are utilized for effective
administration of public senior secondary
schools in Rivers State.
iii. investigates the constraints facing e-learning
technologies for the effective administration of
public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Research Questions
The following three research questions were raised
to guide the study
i. To what extent are e-learning technologies
available for the effective administration of public
senior secondary schools in Rivers State?
ii. To what extent are e-learning technologies
utilized for the effective administration of public
senior secondary schools in Rivers State?
iii. What are the constraints facing e-learning
technology for the effective administration of
public senior secondary schools in Rivers State?
Hypotheses
The following three (3) null hypotheses were
formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the
mean rating of principals and teachers opinion
on the availability of e-learning technology for
the effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State.
Ho2: There is no significant difference between mean
rating of principals and teachers opinion on the
utilization of e-learning technology for the
effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State.
Ho3: There is no significant difference between the
mean rating of principals and teachers opinion
on the constraints facing e-learning technology
for effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State.
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive survey method. The
total population of the study consisted 247 principals
and 8,452 teachers, given a total population of 8,699
staff in the 247 public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State: Source: Rivers State senior secondary
Schools Board, Port Harcourt, 2015. The sample
size of 25 principals and 870 teachers given as total
of 895 staff representing ten percent of the total
population was used for the study. Astratified sample
technique was used for the study using balloting
method to identify and sub-set sample. The
questionnaire item titled “Availability and utilization
of e-Learning Technologies Questionnaire” (AUe-
LTQ) was designed and validated by the researchers
with the predetermined factors of four points Likerts
Scale model of Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points,
Strongly (S) = 3 points; Disagreed (D) = 2 points and
Strongly Disagreed (SD) = 1 points. The items (AUe-
LTQ) were divided into two section; section A,
consists the demography variables of 8 items and
section B, consists of items that elicited information
relevant to the research questions. Under
investigation were 37 items, given a total of 45 items,
and reliability index was determined using the
coefficient (r) 0.93 for high reliability. The
researchers administered a total of 895
questionnaires but 860 were successful filled and
responded to representing 96.08% of high response
rate. The research questions were answered using
mean scores, standard deviation, rank order and
decision rule; while the hypotheses were tested with
z-test tool at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
The results were derived from the analysis of the
three (3) research questions and the tested null
hypotheses at 0.05 level of significant
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
27
Research Question One To what extent is e-learning technology available for
effective administration of public senior secondary
schools in Rivers State?
Table 1: Showing the mean rating scores, standard deviation, rank order and decision rule of the principals and
teachers on the availability of e-learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary
schools in River State.
S/N Questionnaire Items on availability of
e-learning technologies
Principal Teacher ∑𝒙𝟏𝒙𝟐
𝟐 Rank
Order
Decision
Rules
SD SD
1 Computer based teaching 2.51 1.58 2.53 1.59 2.52 4th Agreed
2 CD ROM 2.68 1.63 2.91 1.78 2.78 3rd Agreed
3 Mobile devices 1.95 1.39 2.01 1.38 1.98 12th Disagreed
4 Microphones 2.77 1.66 2.83 1.74 2.80 2nd Agreed
5 DVDs 2.17 1.47 2.19 1.47 2.18 8th Disagreed
6 Video conferencing 1.41 1.19 1.44 1.20 1.43 13th Disagreed
7 Teleconferencing 1.35 1.16 1.38 1.17 1.37 14th Disagreed
8 On-line reference libraries 1.95 1.39 2.08 1.20 2.02 11th Disagreed
9 e-mail 2.35 1.53 2.45 1.53 2.40 6th Disagreed
10 Live-chat 1.25 1.12 1.16 1.09 1.20 15th Disagreed
11 Surfing on internal and wed browsing 1.01 1.01 1.03 1.03 1.02 16th Disagreed
12 Video game style simulation 2.53 1.58 2.42 1.54 2.41 5th Disagreed
13 Customized e-learning courses 2.19 1.48 2.22 1.63 2.20 7th Disagreed
14 Laptops 2.53 1.59 3.09 1.91 2.81 1st Agree
15 Satellite television 2.19 1.48 1.93 1.42 2.06 10th Disagreed
16 Virtual classroom 2.09 1.41 2.14 1.47 2.12 9th Disagreed
Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�), 2.04 2.11 2.08
Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.08
The analysis in table 1 revealed that items 14, 4, 1
with mean score (𝒙) = 2.81, 2.80, 2.78 and 2.51 are all
scores above criterion mean score of 2.50. Thus
indicated that laptops, microphones, CD ROM and
computer-based teaching were available for effective
administration; and below the accepted criterion
mean of 2.49 are the following items, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, with the mean scores 1.98, 2.18,
1.43, 1.37, 2.02, 2.40, 1.20, 1.02, 2.41, 2.20, 2.06 &
2.12. Scores below the criterion mean score of 2.49,
thus, indicated that those e-learning technologies
were not available for effective administration in
most public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Conclusively, the average aggregate mean score
(2.08) is less than the criterion mean score (2.50).
Thus, this implies that e-learning technologies were
not generally available in most public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State.
Hypothesis One
There is no significant difference between the mean
rating of principals and teachers opinion on the
availability of e-learning technology for effective
administration of public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State.
Table 2: z-test of significant difference the mean response of principal and teachers on the e-learning available for
the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Source of variations N SD Df Level of
sign.
z-cal z-crit Remark
Principals 20 2.04
858
0.05
1.17
1.96
Not
rejected
Teachers 840 2.11
Total variations 860 4.15
The z-cal is 1.17 at 858 df and 0.05 level of
significance against z-crit of 1.96. This is an
indication that the responses of the principals and
teachers on e-learning technologies agreed that
inadequate availability of e-learning technologies
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
28
affect the effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State.
Research Question Two
To what extent is e-learning technology utilized for
the effective administration of public senior
secondary schools in Rivers State?
Table 3: Showing the mean rating scores, standard deviation, rank order and decision rule of the principals and
teachers on the utilizationof e-learning technology for effective administration of public senior secondary schools in
River State.
S/N Questionnaire Items on utilization of e-learning technologies
Principal Teacher ∑𝒙𝟏𝒙𝟐
𝟐 Rank
Order Decision Rules
SD SD 17 Laptops 2.61 1.61 2.68 1.62 2.65 5th Agreed 18 e-mail 2.51 1.51 2.53 1.52 2.52 6th Agreed 19 CD ROMS 2.19 1.48 2.21 1.47 2.20 9th Disagreed 20 Mobile devices 2.31 1.52 2.29 1.47 2.30 7th Disagreed 21 On-line reference libraries 2.17 1.47 2.29 1.49 2.23 8th Disagreed 22 Microphone 3.07 1.90 3.09 1.89 3.08 1st Agreed 23 Electronic billboards 1.08 1.07 2.11 1.20 1.60 13th Disagreed 24 Smart Boards 1.20 1.11 1.38 1.17 1.29 16th Disagreed 25 Computer based administrations 2.91 1.83 2.83 1.70 2.87 3rd Agreed 26 Internet 2.73 1.65 2.81 1.69 2.77 4th Agreed 27 New groups 1.57 1.20 1.63 1.30 1.60 13th Disagreed 28 Chart room or message 1.32 1.15 1.34 1.16 1.33 15th Disagreed 29 Developing a classroom home page 1.98 1.38 2.03 1.18 2.01 12th Disagreed 30 Video conferencing in meeting 2.98 1.89 2.84 1.81 2.91 2nd Agree 31 Use of interactive training 2.07 1.20 2.09 1.20 2.08 11th Disagreed 32 Software in administration 1.98 1.38 2.22 1.50 2.10 10th Disagreed Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.16 2.28 Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 2.22
The analysis in table 3 revealed that items 17, 18, 22,
25, 26, 30, with the mean score ( 𝒙) = 2.65, 2.52, 3.08,
2.87 & 2.77, are all scored above criterion mean
score of 2.50.This indicated that laptops, e-mails,
microphone, computer-based administrations and
internet were being utilized for effective
administration; and below the accepted criterion
mean score of 2.49 are the following items, 19, 20, 21,
23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31 & 32, with mean score 2.20,
2.30, 2.23, 1.60, 1.29, 1.60, 1.33, 2.01, 2.08, 2.10, as
score below the criterion mean score of 2.49. Thus,
this indicated that those e-learning technologies were
not utilized for effective administration in most
public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Conclusively, by the average criterion mean score of
2.50, it implies that e-learning technologies were not
generally utilized for the effective administration in
most public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Hypothesis Two
There is no significant difference between mean
rating of principals and teachers opinion on the
utilization of e-learning technology for affective
administration of public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State
Table 4: z-test of significant difference the mean response of principal and teachers on the e-learning utilizationfor the effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State. Source of variations N SD df Level of
sign. z-cal z-crit Remark
Principals 20 2.16 858
0.05
1.31
1.96
Not rejected Teachers 840 2.28
Total variations 860 4.44
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
29
The z-cal is 1.31 of 858 df and 0.05 level of
significance against z-crit of 1.96. Thus, it is an
indication that the responses of the principals and
teachers agreed that improper utilization of e-
learning technologies affects effective administration
of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Research Question Three
What are the constraints facing e-learning technology
effective administration of public senior secondary
schools in Rivers State?
Table 5: Showing the mean rating scores, standard deviation, rank order and decision rule of the principals and
teachers on the constraints facing e-learning technology for the effective administration of public senior secondary
schools in River State.
S/N
Questionnaire Items on constraints of e-learning technologies
Principal Teacher ∑𝒙𝟏𝒙𝟐
𝟐 Rank
Order Decision Rules
SD SD 33 Irregular electricity supply hampering the
utilization of e-learning technologies 1.97 1.39 1.83 1.37 1.90 3rd Disagreed
34 Lack of administrative support in providing e-learning materials
2.53 1.57 2.67 1.63 2.60 2nd Agreed
35 Unwilling to change to the new method of e-learning operations
2.63 1.62 2.83 1.72 2.37 1st Agreed
36 The high cost of e-learning technologies facilities
1.18 1.18 1.24 1.12 1.21 6th Disagreed
37 High expensive cost of maintenance and repair of e-learning technologies
1.34 1.16 1.38 1.17 1.36 5th Disagreed
38 Inadequate fund to purchase modern e-learning equipment1
1.38 1.17 1.42 1.18 1.40 4th
39 Lack of adequate training to staff on how to integrate e-learning gadgets
1.20 1.11 1.22 1.12 1.21 6th Disagreed
Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 1.74 1.80 Average Aggregate Mean Score ( �̅�) 1.77
The analysis in table 5 revealed ( �̅�) that items = 2.73
and 2.60 are all score above criterion mean score of
2.50; this indicated that: lack of administrative
support in providing e-learning materials and
unwilling to change to the new method of e-learning
operations were not the constraints facing e-learning
in most schools. The major constraints were items
33, 36, 37, 38 and 39 with mean score of 1.90, 1.21,
1.36, 1.40, and 1.21 as score below the criterion mean
score of 2.50. Thus, the average aggregate mean score
1.77 is less than criterion mean score of 2.50; this
implies that there were constraints affecting e-
learning technologies for effective administrative in
most public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Hypothesis Three
There is no significance between the mean rating of
principals and teachers opinion on the constraints
facing e-learning technology for effective
administration of public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State.
Table 2: z-test of significant difference in mean on response of principal and teachers on e-learning constraints for
effective administration of public senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Source of variations N SD df Level of sign.
z-cal z-crit Remark
Principals 20 1.74 858
0.05
1.09
1.96
Not rejected
Teachers 840 1.80 Total variations 860 3.54
The z-cal is 1.09 at df and 0.05 level of significance
against z-crit of 1.96. Thus is an indication that the
response of the principals and teachers agreed that
there are numerous constraints facing e-learning
technology for effective administration in public
senior secondary schools in Rivers State.
Discussion of the Findings
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
30
The results in table 1 and 2 revealed generally that e-
learning technologies were not available for effective
administration in public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State. This is a clear indication that as Rivers
State is in the information age which requires
qualified skilled manpower in workforce, the only
way towards such attainment is to produce quality
educational products through e-learning. These
findings agreed with the opinion of Johnson (2015),
that e-learning is generally used as part of
administration in most universities in Nigeria. The
finding fulfills the desire of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria (2008), that ICT must be made available to
empower youths, with skills; and prepare them for
global competition and it must be integrated into the
mainstream of education and training via e-learning
in education. The study revealed in table 3 and 4 that
the respondents rate from the principals and
teachers agreed that, e-mail, lap-tops, microphone,
computer-based administrations, internal and video
conferencing in meeting, were well utilized in
effective administration. Asogwa (2014), reported in
a research work that staff that do not posses requisite
ICTs states for effective and efficient administration
should be bud-off from the system. They need to be
trained and retrained because according to Oloko
(2013), any reform within the educational system
will not have desired effect without quality staff to
implement it because, it is only when e-learning
technologies are available and transmitters are
equipped, that they will be able to utilize them in
educational service delivery. This is contrary to the
views of many researchers and writers including
Tinio (2014), who strongly emphasized the need for
adequate utilization of modern hardware platforms
for e-learning in order to be current with the work
place skills in this 21st century. Finally, the results in
table 5 and 6 indicated that all the respondents
agreed that some of the listed items like,
administration support in providing e-learning
materials and unwilling to change to the new method
of e-earning operations, mean score above 2.50, thus
the other items score below the criterion mean score
of 2.50 which proved that those items were
constraints to effective usage of e-learning in the
administration of public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State. The finding agreed with the opinion of
Asogwa (2013), that challenges of e-learning in
secondary schools in Edo State includes; power,
funds; skills and corruptions. He explained that
power supply had always failed; e-learning is capital
intensive. Today, affordable laptop like Hp note
books costs at least N80,000, which many cannot
afford. E-learning software are not only scarce but
when available are too expensive. To get good anti-
virus software for instance, could cost as much as
N40,000per annum (Asogwa, 2013). Asogwa (2013)
further supported these findings that another major
challenges facing optimization of e-learning is lacking
requisite skills, the teachers are not as skilled and
thorough in the understanding, operation and
application of the packages as they supposed to be.
Conclusion
Education system around the world are being
redesigned to rely more on electronic delivery
methods. No conventional senior secondary schools
can successfully cope with the ever growing demand
to prepare secondary students for self-reliance and
furthering in education. Based on the findings, it was
concluded that availability and utilization of e-
learning technology for ineffective administration in
public senior secondary schoolsin Rivers State is
grossly inadequate in line with global practice.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following,
recommendations were made:
- For effective adoption of e-learning technology to
prevail, all the staff in public senior secondary
schools in Rivers State, must change their
mindset by viewing knowledge about e-
technology as administrative tool that cannot be
avoided if they must fit in and in the current e-
technology race.
- The Rivers State senior secondary schools board
should come up with a blue-print on methods of
training and retraining all categories of staff on
the competence in usage of e-learning
technology.
- For e-learning facilities to be adequately
available and utilized for effective administrative
delivery in public senior secondary schools in
Rivers State, the state government should give
priority attention by funding the technology.
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34
TEACHER FACTORS AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ IN EKITI STATE
1Haastrup, T. EKUNDAYO, 2M.A YUSUF and O. I. BAMIKOLE 1&3Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. 2Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State
Abstract
This study examined teacher factors and academic performance of secondary schools students’ in Ekiti State. It investigated the relationship between each of the teacher factors (teacher time management, teacher mastery of subject and classroom reward) and students’ academic performance. The study adopted the descriptive research design of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all the 87, 336 secondary school students and 7,538 teachers in 203 secondary schools in Ekiti State. The sample for this study consisted 720 students selected from 24 public secondary schools in Ekiti State using multi-stage sampling procedure which involved simple random, stratified and purposive sampling techniques. Two set of instruments tagged “Teacher Factors Questionnaire (TFQ)” and an Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination results were used for the study. The TFQ was validated by research experts in educational management and Tests and Measurement to determine its appropriateness in order to meet the face and content validity. The test-retest method of reliability was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument with a co-efficient of 0.81. This was considered high for reliability. All the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that there was significant relationship between teacher factors and students’ academic performance. It was found that there was significant positive relationship between teacher time management and students’ academic performance (r=0.694), p<0.05. There was significant relationship between teacher mastery of subject matter and students’ academic performance (r=0.857), p< 0.05. Also there was significant relationship between classroom reward and students’ academic performance (r=0,509,) p<0.05. It was recommended that teachers should ensure strict adherence to and effective utilization of time allocated to their subjects through adequate coverage of lesson objectives within a given period. Periodic seminars and conferences should be organized for secondary school teachers on core teaching areas in order to enhance their knowledge of the subjects and enhance quality instructional delivery for better students’ academic performance.
Keywords: Time management, Mastery of subject matter, Classroom reward, Academic performance.
Introduction
The quality of education depends largely on the
quality of the teachers as reflected in the
performance of their duties. Over time, students’
academic performance in both internal and external
examinations had been a yardstick for measuring
teachers’ performance. Secondary education is
known to occupy a strategic position in Nigerian
education system (Tenibiaje, 2009). It serves as a link
between primary and higher education by absorbing
the products of the former and supplying entrants
into the latter. This suggests that a poor performance
from the secondary school level may spell doom for
that higher level.
In recent years, the performances of secondary
school students in external examinations conducted
by the West African Examination Council seems not
encouraging (Ashibi 2005, Ikoh 2007, Tenibiaje 2009,
Ayodele and Ige 2012). Hence, the investigation of
the teacher factors that influence academic
performance of secondary school students in Ekiti
State had attracted the attention of relevant
stakeholders including parents, guidance, teachers,
counsellors, psychologists, school administrators,
governments and researchers.
The story in Ekiti State is not different from what
happens generally regarding the performance of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
35
students in the examinations. Observation shows that
Ekiti state which used to be noted for academic
excellence in West African Examination Council
(WAEC) in the past had declined from 1st -10th
position to 34th position in 2013/2014 session.
Results showed that between 2001 and 2010, only
17% of the students who sat for the examination had
credit pass in English language 36% in Yoruba
language, 20% in Biology,31% in Mathematics and
26% in Economics in SSCE (Ministry of Education,
Ekiti State 2015).
In addition to this, the results of students who sat for
West African Examination Council (WAEC) within
2012 to 2016 also showed clearly the decline in
secondary school students’ academic performance in
Ekiti State. In 2012, 2013 and 2014, the number of
students who registered for West African
Examination Council were 11,956, 11,011, 13,639
respectively. Only 23%, 29%, 25% had 5 credits and
above including English and Mathematics while
others failed. In 2015, the percentage of candidates
that obtained five credits and above including English
language and Mathematics were 38.68% (Punch
Newspaper, 2016). While in 2016, candidates
recorded 50% with five credits in English language
and Mathematics which is still not encouraging. (Ekiti
State Ministry of Education, 2016).
Teachers have been known to have an important
influence on students’ academic performance as they
play a crucial role in their educational attainment.
The teacher is ultimately responsible for translating
policy into action and principles based on practice
during interaction with the students. Both teaching
and learning depend on teachers, no wonder an
effective teacher has been conceptualised as one who
produces desired results in the course of his duty.
Teachers are managers in the classroom and ought to
be in control from the beginning of the lesson to the
end so as to ensure that the students benefit from the
interactive business that transpires in the classroom
situation. This, to a greater extent, would enhance
smooth coordination and responses on the part of
both the teacher and the learners. Also, the actions
taken by the teacher to facilitate learning among the
students as well as the strategies used to create a
safe, orderly and conducive learning environment
must be upheld so as to improve student behaviours
and outcomes in the classroom.
Students’ academic performance refers to how
students deal with their studies and how they cope
with or accomplish different tasks given to them by
their teachers. It is the ability to study and remember
facts and being able to communicate the knowledge
verbally or written down on paper. Thus, academic
performance is the outcome of education, that is, the
extent to which a student, teacher or institution has
achieved their educational goals. Students’
performance according to Adeyemi (2008) can
simply be viewed as an outcome of all academic tasks
or rigours of a person which could be poorly or
successfully stated. As noted by Alonge (1998),
performance cannot be gingered in students if they
are discouraged. Teachers are expected to
meaningfully contribute to students’ academic
performance. A weighty performance of a student is
sometimes attributed to higher teacher factors.
Considering the importance of teacher factors and its
practical implications on students’ academic
performance in schools, this study intend to
specifically investigate teachers’ time management,
teachers’ mastery of the subject matter, classroom
reward and their relationship with students’
academic performance.
Time management skill of the teachers has proved to
have direct correlation with performance level of
students. However, the teachers who perceive to
have good time management are those that have the
desire to achieve result in higher level of academic
performance. Kayode and Ayodele (2015) opined
that, success can only be achieved in school when
teachers show good example of time management.
Though the practice in most of the secondary schools
is that school activities seem not to respect the
designed time table. Observations shows that most
teachers’ in secondary schools in Ekiti State spend 5-
10 minutes immediately after the morning assembly
for briefing and later go to the staff room to get
his/her materials heading straight to the classroom
coupled with the time students take to settle down .
This implies that about 5-10 minutes have been
wasted out of the 45 minutes for a period. The same
scenarios always play out immediately after the long
break. Observation also shows that some students
seem to deliberately ask questions to waste time. All
these appear to steal precious time that should be
meant for serious academic work thereby leading to
poor academic performance of students. Docking
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
36
(2000) argued that, a law abiding teacher is the one
expected to arrive on time to teach and to respect all
the time allocated to him or her on the time table so
as to enhance better academic performance of
students.
Time is a resource that affects all aspects of human
endeavours. It is a resource that is extremely limited
in supply and it is a factor that affects all stakeholders
in educational sector - students, teachers,
administrators, supervisors among others. According
to Ekundayo, Konwea and Yusuf (2010), instances
now abound where teachers complain of lack of time
to do certain things which they would have done. A
good teacher must make effective use of time for
everything he plans to do. Kayode and Ayodele
(2015) opined that the most important asset a
teacher should possess is the skill in managing his
time. Such skill will enable the teacher to devote a
balanced attention to interpersonal relations and
teaching. It appears that maximization of the use of
time for academic activities is required to enhance
students’ academic performance. Kelly and Johnson
(2005) argued that efficient use of time on the part of
the teachers and school administrator directly
associated with increased academic performance. A
teacher that has not planned his activities very well
before coming to class may find it difficult to
effectively manage his time very well in the class. If
time is not well managed, nothing may be achieved
during the teaching learning process. The resultant
effect of this may be poor job performance and
consequently poor academic performance of the
students.
Teachers’ mastery of subject matter (competence)
may be a strong variable influencing students’
performance. Kimberly (2009) stated that teachers
must be knowledgeable in their area of study. In
truth, if a teacher is not competent in his/her subject,
then any hope of effectiveness goes right out the
window. Hence, effective teaching and students’
performance could be measured by the level of a
teachers’ subject matter competence. Kimberly
(2009) regarded this as a prime predictor of
students’ learning. It appears that there is a high
correlation between what teachers know and what
they teach. Thompson and Goe (2009) noted that
regularity in mastery of subject matter even helps
students relax in class because it gives them a sense
that the teacher knows what he or she is doing. Thus,
the ability to teach effectively depends on the
teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter. Teachers
are handicapped if they are unfamiliar with the body
of knowledge taught and teachers’ characteristics.
Adediwura and Bada (2007) stated in their study that
nobody could teach what he does not know. They
went further to state that teachers must thoroughly
understand the content of what they teach. A teacher,
whose understanding of topic is thorough, uses
clearer language, their discourse is more connected,
and they provide better explanations than those
whose background is weaker.
The way the students perceive teaching in terms of
teacher’s knowledge of content of subject matter may
significantly affect the students’ academic
performance. It appears some teachers go into
teaching without knowing what to teach. Stoop
(2011) submitted that teachers who have mastery of
subject matter are considered to be more able to
concentrate on the most appropriate way to teach
particular topics to students who differ in their
abilities, prior knowledge and backgrounds.
It is to be noted that pedagogical knowledge are not
exactly the same thing as knowledge of subject
matter, they nevertheless intimately linked with each
other, because teachers’ mastery of subject matter
and use of pedagogical knowledge in the classroom
may influence high level of students’ academic
performance.
A teacher can reward the learner in the classroom in
order to increase the probability of reporting the
desired behaviour. According to Fadipe (2009),
reward is the process of influencing or stimulating a
student to take action that will accomplish desired
goals. Also Mallum and Haggai (2000) opined that
reward has greater influence on students’ academic
performance in the classroom. They maintained that
the work of the teacher is made easier when his
students are motivated with rewards. As a result of
the rewards given out by a teacher, students are
eager to learn, willing to undertake learning activities
and attend classroom regularly and punctually.
Students are aroused either by inner or external
stimulus. There are those whose interests are
aroused only by rewards. It appears that when
students are rewarded that quality teaching –
learning interaction is enhanced which may
eventually lead to better academic performance of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
37
the students. It has been observed by the researcher
that most teachers in Ekiti State secondary schools
reward students negatively especially when they
answer questions wrongly, come late to class,
untidiness, sleeping in the and so on. They do all
these by calling them all manners of names such as
dullard, failure, empty headed, no future ambition
(NFA) among others. All these seem to kill the morale
and interest of the students psychologically and
emotionally which may affect their academic
performance negatively. Likewise, observation shows
that when a student is applauded, recognized, praised
by the teacher for answering a question correctly,
write notes, neat, punctual and so on, such comments
appear to encourage the students to do more to
achieve better academic performance.
It is against this backdrop that this study intends to
investigate the relationship between the
aforementioned teacher factors and secondary school
students academic performance in Ekiti State,
Nigeria.
Research Hypotheses
Based on the purpose of the study, the following
research hypotheses were formulated to guide the
study and tested at 0.05 level of significance.
1. There is no significant relationship between
teachers’ time management and students’
academic performance.
2. There is no significant relationship between
teachers’ mastery of subject matter and students’
academic performance.
3. There is no significant relationship between
classroom reward and students’ academic
performance.
Methodology
The descriptive research design of the survey type
was adopted for this study. The population for this
study consisted 87, 336 secondary school students
and 7, 538 teachers in the 203 secondary schools in
Ekiti State, Nigeria as at the time of this study in
2016/2017 academic session. The sample for the
study comprised 720 students using multi stage
sampling procedure. The subjects were drawn from
24 public secondary schools in Ekiti State.
In stage one, two Local Government Areas were
randomly selected from each of the three senatorial
districts by balloting method. In stage two, four
public secondary schools were selected from each of
the six local governments chosen using stratified
random sampling technique. In the last stage, 30
students from senior secondary three were selected
from each of the 24 public secondary schools earlier
selected using purposive sampling technique. In this
study, two instruments were used to collect data for
the study.
The first one is tagged Teacher Factors Questionnaire
(TFQ) and second one is an Inventory on Senior
Secondary School Certificate Examination results in
the May/June, of 2013/2014, 2014/2015 and
2015/2016 sessions. The face and content validity
procedures of the instruments were ensured by
research experts to ascertain the appropriateness
and representation of contents in measuring what it
supposed to measure. Test- retest method of
reliability was used, the two results were correlated
using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC)
to determine the reliability of the instruments and
0.81 co-efficient was obtained which is considered
high enough to make the instruments reliable and
useful for the study. All the hypotheses were tested at
0.05 level of significance.
Results
The data obtained through the research instrument were analyzed and all hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship between teachers’ time management and students’ academic performance.
Scores on teachers’ time management and students’ academic performance were computed using items 1-8 in Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire ((TFQ)” and Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination results respectively. These scores were subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics at 0.05 level of significance. The result was presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Teachers’ Time Management and Students’
Academic Performance
Variables N Mean SD r-cal r-tab
Teachers’ time
management
24 15.82 1.60
0.694*
0.388
Academic
Performance
24
2.45 0.81
*p<0.05(significant result)
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
38
Table 1 showed that rcal(0.694) is greater than
rtable(0.388) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant positive relationship between teachers’
time management and students’ academic
performance.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship
between teachers’ mastery of subject matter and
students’ academic performance.
In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to
teachers’ mastery of subject matter and students’
academic performance were computed using items 9-
16 in Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire
(TFQ)” and Inventory on Senior Secondary School
Certificate Examination results respectively. These
scores were subjected to statistical analysis involving
Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistics at
0.05 level of significance. The result was presented in
Table 2.
Table 2: Teachers’ Mastery of Subject Matter and
Students’ Academic Performance
Variables N Mean SD r-cal r-tab
Teachers’
Mastery of
Subject Matter
24
16.22 1.48
0.857*
0.388
Students’
Academic
Performance
24
2.45 0.81
*p<0.05(significance result)
Table 2 showed that rcal(0.857) is greater than
rtable(0.388) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant positive relationship between teachers’
mastery of subject matter and students’ academic
performance.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant relationship
between classroom reward and students’ academic
performance.
In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to
classroom reward and students’ academic
performance were computed using items 17-24 in
Section B of “Teacher Factors Questionnaire (TFQ)”
and Inventory on Senior Secondary School Certificate
Examination results respectively. These scores were
subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearsons
Product Moment Correlation statistics at 0.05 level of
significance. The result was presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Classroom Reward and Students’ Academic
Performance
Variables N Mean SD r-cal r-tab
Classroom
Reward
24 16.62 3.57
0.509*
0.388 Students’
Academic
Performance
24 2.45 0.81
*p<0.05(significant result)
Table 3 showed that rcal(0.581) is greater than
rtable(0.388) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant positive relationship between classroom
reward and students’ academic performance.
Discussion of the Findings
It was found that there was significant relationship
between teachers’ time management and students’
academic performance. It implies that teachers’ time
management influence the academic performance of
students. It equally means that for any better
academic performance of students to be enhanced,
effective teachers’ time management is of great
importance. This finding could be as a result of the
fact that the government and school principal has
realized that if teachers manage time effectively it
will enhance performance both for teachers and
students as well. The finding supports the research
work of Docking (2000) and Kelly and Johnson
(2005) who argued that efficient use of time on the
part of the teachers and school administrator directly
associated with increased academic performance of
students.
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between teachers’ mastery of subject
matter and students’ academic performance. It
implies that teachers’ mastery of subject matter has
great influence on students’ academic performance.
To this end, it is certain that if teachers have mastery
of subject matter it will enhance better students’
academic performance. The finding is in accordance
with the findings of Thompson and Goe (2009) and
Stoop, (2011) who asserted that teachers who have
mastery of subject matter are considered to
concentrate on the most appropriate way to teach
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
39
particular topics to students who differ in their
abilities, prior knowledge and backgrounds.
It was again revealed that there was significant
relationship between classroom reward and
students’ academic performance. As a result, the idea
began to emerge that extrinsic motivators may have a
negative effect on a person's internal motivation,
since many of the rewards given in school are
extrinsic motivators, school became the setting for a
large body of research. The finding agrees with the
finding of Pretorius (2012) that the payment of
money to college students to lie about enjoying a dull
learning task did little to change the student's
opinion of the task. However, the finding contradicts
the submission of Grosser (2007) who argued that a
reward of food distracted the subjects from the
learning task, and resulted in less learning; the
subjects, nursery school students, were given pieces
of candy for correct answers in learning tasks dealing
with building blocks, while a control group was not
given anything for correct answers.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded
that teacher factors such as teacher’s time
management, teacher’s mastery of subject matter and
classroom reward were important predictors of
academic performance of secondary school students.
Based on the findings of this study, it was
recommended that:
1. Teachers should ensure strict adherence to and
effective utilization of time allocated to their
subjects by adequately covering their lesson
objectives within a given period.
2. Periodic seminars and conferences should be
organized for secondary school teachers on core
teaching areas in order to enhance their
knowledge of the subjects and enhance quality
instructional delivery for better students’
academic performance.
3. Teachers should adopt appropriate classroom
rewards such as encouragement, punishment
for erring students, praise etc in order to
enhance students’ participation in classroom
activities and overall academic performance of
students.
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teachers’ knowledge, attitude and teaching skills
as predictor of academic performance in
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performance in Senior Secondary Certificate
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Teachers’ Time Management on Secondary
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efficiency and the five-factor model of
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personality. Questia Academic Journal, 125(3), 1-
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Sciences, 8(3), 310-317.
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Ajaja, T.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
41
IMPACT OF EXTERNAL INSTRUCTIONAL SUPERVISIONAND SUPERVISORY ATTITUDE ON PRIMARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS’ PRODUCTIVITY IN SOUTH WEST NIGERIA
Faremi, M. F.
Osun State University Osogbo, College of Education, Ipetu Ijesa
Abstract
Researchers are of the opinion that there should be relationship between external Instructional Supervision and Primary schools Teachers’ Productivity in South West Nigeria. This research concern itself with the relationship between external Instructional Supervision and Primary schools Teachers’ Productivity in South West Nigeria. It also examined the contributions of supervisory attitude to teachers’ productivity. The population for the study comprises of all the primary schools in South West Nigeria. The study used expo-facto and the descriptive research of the survey type. The sample for this study was 1,500 respondents comprising of 300 Head teachers and 1,200 teachers selected using multistage stratified and simple random techniques. Self designed instruments tagged Instructional Supervision Questionnaire (ISQ) and Teachers’ Productivity Inventory (TPI) were used to collect data for the Study. The TPI was a proforma of three years of primary six placement examination results which had already existed in the schools. It was used to measure teachers' productivity. The reliability coefficient of 0.85 was obtained for ISQ. Data collected were analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation. All hypotheses generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that the level of external Instructional Supervision and Primary Schools Teachers’ Productivity were at high levels during the period under investigation. It was also revealed that Teachers’ Productivity was significantly related to external instructional supervision and supervisory attitude. Based on the findings, it was recommended that Head teachers and supervisors from Ministry of education and teachers should be encouraged to improve on the high levels of supervisory attitude and teachers’ productivity.
Keywords: Primary School Teachers’ Productivity, External Instructional Supervision, Superv isory Attitude and
South West Nigeria
Introduction
Productivity as a concept can be regarded as a
measure of how well resources are combined and
utilized to accomplish specific and desirable goals. It
is a measure of what is received in return for what is
giving. Productivity generally is the relationship
between output of goods and services and the
resource inputs, both human and material, which are
utilized in production process. Its simplest definition
is given in Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary by
Hornby (1998) as; efficiency (especially in industry).
Productivity, therefore is a measure of efficiency in
the use of the factors of production namely; money,
man, methods and material including machinery
(Adibe 1999).
It appears the primary school teachers in South West
Nigeria are not performing their duties as expected.
Many teachers do not write their lesson notes on
daily basis while Head teachers seem not to be
checking these notes as and when due. Some teachers
tend to teach out of the scheme of work. Teachers
have been accused of abandoning their classrooms
for other things or not being as dedicated and
committed to duty as they used to be in the past.
Productivity measurement is the most difficult in
most service industries and education is certain by
no exception. In education, administrators need to be
wary of simple measures such as the number of
students' per teacher. Some observers assume that
quality must be higher when student - teachers' ratio
is lower; a class of 25 students is likely to be better
than a class of 50 students. Oluyede (2007)
submitted that there is a great reliance on somebody,
usually a superior officer, to rate an employee under
him/her along a set of performance dimension. She
added that rating is more or less an opinion or
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
42
judgment of the superior officer on how he/she
perceives the subordinate on how he/she carried out
the responsibilities assigned to individual so far she
added that supervisors are in the vantage point to
determine what is required of an employee job vis- a-
vis organizational objectives.
External instructional supervisors on the other hand
come from outside into school to perform
supervisory duties; usually on the personnel aspect
for example Staff of Local Government Education
Authority (LGEA) who are designated as district
supervisors of school or (DSS) and other supervisory
staff so assigned by state education laws, are external
supervisors who go out from their office to perform
supervisory tasks on their visits to schools within
their jurisdiction, Nwankwo (1981).
The external instructional supervisors are the
government officials from the ministry of education.
According to Ogunsaju (1988), the external
supervisors should see teachers as human being
rather than tools to get work done. The supervisors
should define the teachers' responsibility, concerning
teachers' task, discuss relevant issues affecting
teaching and learning and have confidence in
teachers when carrying out the teaching tasks. The
external supervisor should cooperate with the
teachers, make themselves always accessible to
teachers, and encourage free discussion with respect
to teachers. The external supervisors are to be very
current with relevant information given to teachers.
These mutual relationships seem to influence high
productivity of teachers.
At the primary education level, several local
government primary education boards have been
established to supervise teaching and learning
activities in the primary schools at the local level
(Akinwumiju 2003). The Local Inspectors of
Education supervise the strategies and methods of
teaching in the primary schools. They give
professional advice, identify resources necessary for
learning and perform overall evaluation of teachers
at this level. They hold conferences with the teachers
and discuss the failures and shortcomings of the
teachers with them and suggest useful solutions to
the problems (Knezevich, 1975).
By the same token, official manning of the primary
and secondary school desks at the various ministries
of education, Teaching Service Commission (T S C)
and State Primary Education Board (S P E B) pay
occasional visits to primary and secondary schools
under their control to perform supervisory tasks
from time to time as may be necessary. However,
external supervisors should not be confused with
school inspectors whose notions are distinct form,
but closely related to those of supervisors. External
supervisors are officers from the states ministry of
education and education parastatals such as TSC,
SPEB who are to visit the schools as scheduled to
supervise the teachers in the classrooms with the lay
down standards of education. Unlike the inspectors,
external instructional supervisors are not to find
faults or intimidate the teachers but to demonstrate
to them and correct them in love. The inspectors,
most of the times are fault finders.
According to Akubue (2001), the instructional
supervisors should understand the meaning of and
issues in supervision, he is to help teachers to plan,
present and evaluate instruction, he assesses
teachers in the classroom management, he is to help
teachers in curriculum development and evaluation.
He should study and understand the teachers he
supervises knowing their strengths and weaknesses.
The external instructional supervisor takes active
interest in improving the teaching- learning process
and constantly offers useful advice to teachers on its
improvement. He is consistent, humble, friendly,
modest and fair in dealing with the teachers under
his supervision. He is approachable, humorous and
open to suggestions from teachers. He is firm and
open in handling complaints from the teachers he
supervises.
The external supervisor recognizes good
performance and expresses appreciation. He also
develops objectives and standards of performance
expected of those he supervises. However Federal
Ministry of Education (FME / UNIC / UNESCO)
(2000) conducted a recent study on the learning
achievement of primary four pupils in the country
identified the following five salient issues as the main
sources of teachers' discouragement / discontent: No
regards for teachers by the society, poor condition of
service, irregular payment of teachers' salaries, poor
salaries and lack of teaching facilities/ materials.
The study also found out that all the teaching
resources required by any school worth its salt, only
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
43
the chalkboard and chalk were reported to be readily
and adequately available in the 960 primary schools
sampled for the study. This ample empirical evidence
is to support the assertion that the condition for
effective school instruction had always only been
partially met in this country. The study highlights
some factors that hinder effective instructional
delivery of the supervisors and the teachers; such as
teachers' attitude to work, teachers' lack of interest
in teaching, lack of basic knowledge or formal
training in teaching, presence of many untrained and
unqualified teachers, poor remuneration of teachers
which reduces their commitment to teaching. Others
are poor status accorded to teachers which dampen
their morale, inadequate provision of instructional
materials and teaching aids to schools, lack of
transportation facilities for supervisors to reach the
teachers, and supervisors' lack of training in
supervisory competences and so on.
Contrary to the reports of UBEP (2002) and others,
Beach and Reinhartz (2000) research stated that self-
direction supervision enables the individual teacher
to work independently and achieve the stated
objective without being supervised by the
instructional supervisors. In this research, the
supervisor can relax more on supervisory role. In this
case, the teacher would develop and carry out
individualized plans for professional growth with the
supervisor serving as a resource person. This
technique specifically is for the teacher who prefers
to work alone, yet seeks the aid of supervisor as a
mentor.
Beach and Reinhartz (2000) stated that the teacher
would self-evaluate his/her teaching using videotape,
inventories, reflective journals, or portfolios to
criticize the teaching procedure. The supervisor does
not need to evaluate the lesson, but through
individual conferences the supervisor could provide
feedback on improving the instruction if the teacher
so desires.
It has been pointed out by Akubue (2001) that the
problem on ground is not only that of having the right
quality and quantity of teachers but also that of not
having the right quality and quantity of supervisor.
This is because Government in Nigeria have through
their policy makers, continue to appoint supervisors
such as school heads and their assistants chiefly on
the basis of seniority and length of service without
due regard for appropriate training and qualification.
This approach cannot produce the calibre of
supervisors who have both knowledge and ability to
perform the behaviour as well as tasks required for
effective classroom supervision.
Based on the contradictory opinions, this study will
therefore investigate if there is any relationship
between external instructional supervision and
primary schools teachers' productivity in south west
Nigeria.
Garrett and Poole (2005) maintained that it is
important to measure output directly and not make
assumptions about what must be the case when
studying productivity. According to them, measuring
productivity in schools reassures a measure of both
efficiency and effectiveness. Thus efficiency and
effectiveness of teachers in this study would be
measured using rating of teachers by their head
masters and pupils final academic performance.
Teachers in Nigerian primary schools appear less
effective and efficient. There had been an
unprecedented controversy on the poor performance
of pupils\students at both primary and secondary
schools in Nigeria for some time now, which is an
indicator of teacher's poor productivity in the school
system Pupils appear not to be serious at their
studies while the government seems not to do
anything to save the situation.
Teachers' impart positive knowledge, skills and
attitude required for effective functioning of the
society to the people. To this end, the quality of
education, which a nation enjoys, cannot be isolated
from the efforts of the teachers. A teacher is the key
man in the entire education programme and the
quality of his training makes or mars the end result of
his job as a teacher.
Emunemu (2006) viewed instructional supervision
as to help teachers on the activities to facilitate career
exploration and development, the use of continuous
assessment and records to prepare and distribute
some publications relevant to school work. It
provides professional information and assistance to
teachers when they needed it. Adeyemo and Aremu
(2008) and Ibukun (1990) stated that instructional
supervision aimed to develop good report between
those involved in the school system that is; teachers,
pupils and community
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
44
In view of this, the place of the instructional
supervision and teachers’ productivity in the
attainment of educational goals and objectives cannot
be over emphasized; therefore, the perceived poor
academic performance in primary schools in Nigeria
could be linked with poor instructional supervision.
Statement of the Problem
Common observation shows there has been public
outcry on mass failure of pupils in their various
examinations in recent times. Teachers have been
accused of abandoning their classrooms for other
duties or not being as dedicated and committed to
duty as they used to do in the past. There is no
wonder why very little productive work seems to be
done in the public primary schools.
It appears teachers are derailing from their teaching
tasks in the schools because of inadequate
supervision. There are instances where some
teachers do not plan their lessons, some of them do
not have time for regular teaching, in some cases
teachers' use poor instructional methods of teaching,
pupils are not well disciplined by teachers and the
instructional supervisory visits to schools seem to be
grossly inadequate. The head teachers who serve as
internal instructional supervisors appear not to be
performing their duties adequately; some head
teachers have little or no time to assist the teachers
on new techniques of teaching. Some do not visit the
teachers in the classrooms regularly; some do not
have cordial relationship with the teachers while
some have not been given leadership in instructional
delivery.
All these indices are pointers to the fact that
instructional supervision are not well carried out in
the primary schools which seems to take its
unpleasant toll in the academic performance of the
pupils. It is against this backdrop that this study
investigated the impact of external instructional
supervision and supervisory attitude on primary
school teachers' productivity.
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were formulated to
pilot the study:
1. There is no significant relationship between
external instructional supervision and teachers'
productivity
2. There is no significant relationship between
instructional supervisory attitude and teachers'
productivity.
Methodology
The research is descriptive as the study describes the
existing situation regarding external instructional
supervision and attitude as predictors of teachers’
productivity in South West Nigerian primary schools
without manipulating any of the variables.
The population of the study consisted of Head
teachers and teachers from all the primary schools in
South West Nigeria. The South West Nigeria consists
of 6 States namely: Ekiti state, Lagos state, Ogun
State, Ondo State, Osun State and Oyo State. As at the
time of the study, there were 1,125 primary schools
in Ekiti State, Ondo state had 1,166 primary schools,
Ogun state had 1,336 primary schools, Oyo State had
1576 primary schools, and Osun state had 1,152
primary schools while Lagos state had a total number
of 2,237 primary schools making a total number of
8,592 primary schools in the six states. The schools
were both private and public.
The sample for this study would be 1500
respondents comprising of 300 head teachers and
1200 teachers from 300 schools. Multistage sampling
technique was used to select the sample. The first
stage was a random selection of three states out of
the six states and 300 primary schools from the three
states; it was a proportional random selection of 100
schools per state in South West Nigeria.
At the second stage, five local government areas
were selected from each state using simple random
technique. The third stage involved the use of
proportionate stratified sampling technique to select
public and private schools in each of the three states
selected.
At the fourth stage, simple and purposive random
sampling techniques were used to select 4 teachers
and 1 head teacher per school respectively. Teachers
who had spent at least five years in the school were
purposely sampled to ensure that they must have
contributed to pupils' academic performance being
measured.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
45
Research Instruments
Two sets of instruments were used for the study. The
first instrument lagged Instructional Supervision
Questionnaire (ISQ)' contains two sections. Section A
is for bio data of the respondents. Section B consists
of 29 items on external instructional supervision.
The second instrument is teacher's productivity
inventory; it indicates the three years of academic
performance of the pupils. The head teachers would
provide the information on pupils' academic
performance with regards to total number of pupils
who sat for the examination, number of pupils who
scored less than 40%, number of pupils who scored
40 - 49%,-and number of pupils who 50% and above.
Validity of the Instruments
The instruments for the study (ISQ and TPI) were
subjected to screening by the experts in the areas of
tests and Measurement and Educational
Management. The experts determined at face level
the appropriateness of the instruments in measuring
what they intended to Measure. Moreover, the
experts reviewed the items in terms of clarity such
that all words that could confuse the respondents
were removed. Based on their comments,
recommendations and modification, the instruments
were restructured and corrected.
Experts' judgments were also used to determine the
construct and content validity. Moreover, the experts
took time to check the extent to which the items of
the instruments were representative of the content,
construct behaviour and suitability specified by the
theoretical concept being measured.
Reliability of the instruments
The reliability of the ISQ was established through
test-retest method. This involves the administration
of the instruments in some Primary Schools in Osun
state. The questionnaire was administered twice
within an interval of two weeks on 80 teachers and
20 head teachers in twenty primary schools who
were not included in the sample. TPI was the results
of primary six placement examinations taken for the
past three years, it was used to measure teachers'
productivity.TPI needs no reliability because the data
had already existed in the schools.
The scores from the sets of responses were
correlated using Pearson product moment
correlation analysis in order to obtain the reliability
coefficient. A reliability co-efficient of 0.85 was
obtained for the ISQ. The coefficient was considered
high enough for the reliability. The Teacher
Productivity inventory (TPI) needs no reliability as
the data already existed in the schools. The results of
three years primary six placement examinations
which already existed in the schools were used to
measure Teachers' Productivity.
Administration of the Instruments
The instruments for the study were administered by
the researcher with the help of research assistants.
The researcher trained the research assistants to be
used in the administration of the instruments. Where
necessary, follow up visits were made by the
researcher to the schools to ensure that the
instruments were promptly completed and returned.
Data Analysis
Data collected for the study were analyzed using both
descriptive and inferential statistics. The descriptive
statistics that were used are frequency counts,
percentages, means, and standard deviation. The two
hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation analysis. The
hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship
between external instructional supervision and
teachers' productivity.
The hypothesis was tested using the responses to
items 30-58 of ISQ and TPI. The results are presented
in table 1.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
46
Table 1: Test of Relationship between External Instructional Supervision and Teachers’ Productivity.
V a r i a b l e s N M e a n S D r - c a l r-table
E x t e r n a l I n s t r u c t i o n a l 3 0 0 6 4 . 1 1 1 1 . 1 0
S u p e r v i s i o n 0 . 5 7 2 0 . 1 9 5
T e a c h e r s ' 3 0 0 6 4 . 7 0 1 1 . 3 9
P r o d u c t i v i t y
P<0.05
Table 1 reveals the relationship between external
instructional supervision and teachers' productivity.
The result from the analysis reveals that the value of
r-calculated is 0.572 is greater that the r-table of
0.195 at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis
is therefore rejected. This means that there is a
relationship between external instructional
supervision and teachers' productivity.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship
between instructional supervisory attitude and
teachers' productivity.
The hypothesis was tested using the responses to
items 10-18 of section B and items 39-47 of section C
of ISQ and the inventory (TPI). The results are
presented in table 3.
Table 2: Test of Relationship between Instructional Supervisory Attitude and Teachers' Productivity.
V a r i a b l e s N M e a n S D r - c a l r - t a b l e
I n s t r u c t i o n a l S u p e r v i s o r y 3 0 0 6 5 . 2 1 1 0 . 0 7
A t t i t u d e
0 . 5 3 2 0 . 1 9 5
T e a c h e r s ' P r o d u c t i v i t y 3 0 0 6 4 . 7 0 1 1 . 3 9
P < 0.05
Table 2 shows the relationship between instructional
supervisory attitude and teachers' productivity. The
result obtained from the analysis shows that the
value of r-calculated of 0.532 is greater than r-table
value of 0.195. Therefore, the null hypothesis is
rejected at 0.05 level of significant. This means there
is significant relationship between instructional
supervisory attitude and teachers' productivity.
Discussion
It was found that there was significant relationship
between external instructional supervision and
teachers' productivity. It could be inferred from the
tested hypothesis that better instructional
supervisors from the Ministry of Education both at
local and state levels enhance better productivity and
vice versa. The finding of this study supports
Knezevich (1975), Ogunsaju (1988), Beach and
Reinhartz (2000). The result of this study contradicts
Akubue (2001) and Akinwumiju (2003,
The study revealed that there was significant
relationship between instructional supervisory
attitude and teachers' productivity. This means that
the behaviour of instructional supervision is
important to teachers' productivity. It is expected
that supervisor should not see the teachers as
servants but see them as a professional colleagues
and partners in progress in achieving the goals of the
school system. It is expected also that the supervisors
are sensitive to the needs, feeling and aspiration of
teachers. Supervisors are not to be seniority
conscious but display maturity in performing their
duties, they are expected to show experience in
teaching and learning situation, encourage new ideas
of teaching and learning. They are expected to give
advice to inexperienced teachers and discuss the
outcome of supervision with the teachers. Where all
these are done, teachers' productivity will be
facilitated. The findings of the study may be as a
result of good instructional supervisory attitude on
the part of the external instructional supervision and
the teachers. These findings support those of UPEP
(2002) and Ogunsaju (1988) who were of the opinion
that supervisors should work in harmony with
teachers so as to achieve maximum productivity.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, external
Instructional supervision and supervisory attitude
were important factors in teachers' productivity.
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made: Since external
instructional supervision significantly related to
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
47
teachers' productivity, Government should continue
to lay more emphasis on these aspects of supervision
in order to improve teachers' productivity. Teachers
should continue to be more productive to show to the
society that they are actually working. Also, parents
should try as much as possible to buy necessary
textbooks for their wards so as to enhance better
teachers' productivity.
References
Adeyemo D. A. & Aremu A. O (2008): Career commitment among secondary school teachers in Oyo State: The role of biographical mediators Nigerian Journal of Applied Psychology, 5(1 & 2); 185- 195.
Adibe, P. (1999): Productivity and the rewards of labour in which way Nigeria. Selected speeches of Jerome, Udoji. Ibadan: Spectrum books.
Akinwumiju J. A. (2003): Impact of Motivation and Supervision on Teachers' Productivity in secondary schools in Oyo State: Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, University of Ibadan.
Akubue, E. A. (2001): In 28th Annual National
Agriculture Education Research Conference,
December 12, 2001, page 330.
Beach, D. M. and Reinhartz, J. (2000): Supervision: Focus on instruction. New York: Harper and Row.
Durosaro, D. O. (2004): Motivation Concept and Issues in Durosaro & Ogunsaju (Eds.) The Craft of Educational Management Ibadan: Reginason Book Publishers.
Emunemu, P. O. (2006): Modern Supervisory Approaches in primary schools. A lecture delivered to Primary School Head Teachers. Ekiti S UP E B.
Federal Government of Nigeria, (20000):
Universal Basic Education Scheme:
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press.
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standards Format Inspectorate Division, Abuja.
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primary school classroom. London: Routiledge
and Kegan Paul.
Garret, T. A. & Poole, W. (2005): Stop paying more
for less: Ways to boost productivity in higher
education. U.S.A.: Federal Reserve Bank.
Glanz, J. Shulmna, V. & Sullivan, S. (2007): Impact
of Instructional Supervision on student
achievement; can we make the connection?
Retrieved June 26 (2007) from ERIC via first
research.
Hornby, A. S. (1998): Oxford Advanced Learners’
Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford
University Press.
Ibukun, W. O. (1990): Educational supervision:
Concepts and practice with reference to
Ondo State Nigeria. Ilorin: Journal of
Educational Foundation. 1(1); 143-153
Knezevich: J. S. (1975): Administration of Public
Education. New York: Harper and Row.
Nwakwo, J. N. (1981): Education administration and
supervision. Associateship Certificate in
Education Series. Ibadan. Heinemann Books ltd.
Oluyede, S. (2007): Enhancing managerial
competence for public officers: introduction. A
paper delivered during a workshop organized
by University of Ibadan Consultancy unit, April,
16th -20th.
Ogunsaju, (1998): Education Supervision,
perspective, and practices in Nigeria, Ile Ife:
University of Ife press Ltd.
Universal Basic Education Programme (U. B. E. P.)
(2002): A training handbook for Nigerian
primary school inspectors and supervisors.
Ibadan: Sterling Horden publishers (Nig) Ltd.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
48
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION FACILITIES AND TRANSITION INTO PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN KWARA, KOGI
AND NIGER STATES OF NIGERIA
Fasasi Y. A. and Yisa M. H.
Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Abstract
Provision of adequate facilities in educational institutions is the hallmark of effective teaching, learning and transition to the next level of education. Government’s objective on Early Childhood Education (ECE) is to effect a smooth transition from home to school and the extent to which this has been achieved needs to be determined.This study investigated provision of ECE facilities and its influence on transition of pupils into primary schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States in Nigeria. Stratified proprotional random sampling technique was used to select 1,531 head teachers as participants in the study. Researcher-designed instruments ‘ECE Facility Checklist’ and ‘Smooth Transition Achievement Questionnaire’(STAQ) were used for data collection. The instruments were validated. Test-retest method was used to determine the reliability co-efficient of STAQ at 0.68. Two research questions were answered and two hypotheses were tested. The study found a significant difference in the level of provision of ECE facilities in public and private schools with p-value .000. Also, there was a significant difference in the level of achievement of smooth transition in public and private schools with p-value .012. It was concluded that inadequacy of ECE facilities could negatively affect the level of smooth transition of children in public schools. It was recommended among others that, the government should ensure that ECE schools are provided with adequate and relevant facilities to ensure smooth transition and that only primary schools with adequate facilities should be accredited to provide ECE in their schools.
Key words: Early Childhood Education Facilities, Smooth Transition, Public and Private Schools
Introduction
In recent years, provision of Early Childhood
Education (ECE) has received an increasing priority
in many countries. This could be due to the UNESCO
education policy of ‘catch them young’ which the
countries have adopted. In Nigeria, ECE is provided in
public and private primary educational institutions
with a view to giving children a foundation for
acquisition of further knowledge and skills.
ECE, also refered to as Early Childhood Care,
Development and Education, is the care, protection,
stimulation and learning given to children aged 0-6 in
creche, nursery and kindergarten. Administration of
creche and nursery is in the hands of private sectors
and social development officers while kindergarten
is in government and private primary school system
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013). The Government
encourages children to enrol in ECE schools in order
to acquire basic education and stay in the system to
further develop themselves in primary, secondary
and higher education. This is in realisation of the fact
that a nation cannot develop beyond the quality of its
human resources and that education is an
instrument for production of high level workforce
who will in turn tranform the nation into a developed
one.
An objective of ECE is to effect a smooth transition
from home to school.This could be seen as a very vital
objective. Other objectives such as preparation of
children for primary level, inculcation of social and
moral values, and teaching of learning skills as
contained in the education policy are likely to be
accomplished when a solid educational foundation
must have been laid through a smooth transition
from home to school. In order to achieve this, the
Government has encouraged private school
proprietors to produce and utilise teaching and
learning materials. It also required the public schools
to equip their ECE classes with relevant and adequate
materials (Ogunyemi, 2013, Awoyemi, 2013).
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
49
The importance of teaching and lerning facilities in
the achievement of educational objectives cannot be
over emphasised. Children are naturally explorers of
the environment. They react and adjust according to
the conduciveness and friendliness of the
environment (OECD, 2011, Bibi, 2013). When ECE
classrooms are equipped with necessary facilities for
reading, resting, drawing, painting and enough space
for recreation, the children will not only achieve easy
and smooth transition from home to school but will
also achieve total development. According to
Abdulkareem and Fasasi (2012), educational facilities
constitute essential inputs which could generate
favourable learning environment and interaction.
Adequate provision of the facilities at appropriate
time could make school curriculum meaningful and
functional, they concluded, The Government has
spelt out the facilities expected in the sschools. They
include piece of land which is spacious enough to
accommodate future development, administrative
blocks, toilet and health facilities, classroom
furniture, play ground and equipment, electricity,
pottable water, educative wallcharts, pictures and
toys, among others (Federal Ministry of Education,
2005). This study is therefore set to investigate
provision of teaching and learning facilities and the
extent to which it has influhenced smooth transition
in ECE schools.
Purpose of the study
Smooth and easy transition from home to school is
very crucial to the children, parents and the school.
Achieving this important goal could prepare the
children for skills which are needed to achieve all
other early childhood education goals. The purposes
of this study therefore, were to
1. find out the of level provision of ECE facilities in
public and private schools in Kwara, Kogi and
Niger States of Nigeria,
2. determine the level of achievement of smooth
transition in public and private early childhood
education schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger
States of Nigeria,
3. investigate whether there is significant
difference in the of provision of early childhood
education facilities in public and private schools
in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria, and
4. ascertain whether there is significant difference
in the of achievement of smooth transition in
public and private early childhood education
schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of
Nigeria.
Research Questions
1. What is the level of provision of early childhood
education facilities in public and private
schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of
Nigeria?
2. What is the level of achievement of smooth
transition in public and private early
childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi
and Niger States of Nigeria?
Research Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the
provision of early childhood education facilities in
public and private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger
States of Nigeria
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the
achievement of smooth transition in public and
private early childhood education schools in Kwara,
Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria
Methodology
Descriptive survey design was in the study. Stratified
proportional random sampling technique was used to
obtain a sample of 1,531, representing 35% of total
population of 4,378 early childhood education
schools. The sample consist 684 and 847 ECE public
and private schools respectively. Head teachers in all
the schools (684 public and 847 private) were
involved in the study.
Two research instruments were used for data
gathering. These were ECE Facility Checklist and
Smooth Transition Achievement Questionnaire
(STAQ). Validity of the instruments were determined
by experts in the field of Educational Management
and Educational Measurement and Evaluation from
University of Ilorin. Reliability test of STAQ was done
using test-retest method which yielded 0.68
coefficient. The instruments were administered by
the researchers and six trained reseach assistants.
Usable returns from the respondents in public and
private schools were 676 (98.8%) and 835 (98.6%)
respectively and these were used for data analyses.
Mean and percentage were used to answer research
questions while research hypotheses were tested
using t-test statisitc at 0.05 level of significance
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
50
Results and Discussions
Research Question 1: What is the level of provision of
early childhood education facilities in public and
private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger Sates of
Nigeria?
Table 1: Provision of Early Childhood Education Facilities in Public and Private Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger
States of Nigeria
Facilities Public Private
No. of No % No. of No %
Schools Available Schools Available
Play ground 676 518 76.6 835 835 100
Toilets 676 345 51.0 835 569 68.1
Water supply 676 352 52.0 835 494 59.1
Electronic 676 618 91.4 835 786 94.1
Instructional materials 676 618 91.4 835 791 94.1
Security 676 525 77.6 835 609 73.0
Musical instruments 676 358 52.9 835 616 73.7
Toys 676 445 65.8 835 627 75.0
Offices 676 676 100 835 835 100
Beds/mattress 676 255 37.7 835 632 75.6
TOTAL 6760 4710 69.7 8350 6704 80.3
Source: Fieldwork
Table 1 shows that out of all the facilities
investigated, beds and mattresses, water supply,
toilets, and musical instruments were the least
provided by public schools. All the sampled private
schools had one form of play-ground facility or the
other. However, provision of offices recorded 100%
in both public and private schools. Although, facilities
such as toys,classrooms, instructional materials,
electronics and security were found in most of the
sampled public and private schools, the percentages
for their provision were higher in private ECE
schools. It was observed that some facilities in public
and private schools were not functional. The high
population of children in private schools make the
available facilities inadequate. The facilities do not
meet the ratio of number of children per facility use
especially playing ground, beds/mattresses and toys.
Research Question 2: What is the level of smooth
transition achievement in public and private early
childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and
Niger Sates of Nigeria?
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
51
Table 2: Level of Smooth Transition in Public and Private Early Childhood Education Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria
Items Public Private
No sampled No Agreed % Agreed No sampled No Agreed % Agreed
My school has conducive 676 493 73 835 802 96 environment for children easy transition from home to school. My school has attractive environ- 676 460 68 835 710 85 ment for children easy adjustment to the school environment. My school has homely environ- 676 439 65 835 760 91 mentfor easy adjustment of children to school Children in my school adjust easily 676 480 71 835 805 95 to school environment on their first few weeks Children interact freely with one 676 546 76 835 835 100 another in my school Children do care for one another 676 392 58 835 626 75 in my school Children in my school participate 676 575 85 835 835 100 actively in class activities Childern in my school do not find 676 480 71 835 685 82 it diffucult letting their parents go when drooping them in school in the first few weeks of enrolment Children in my school are always 676 501 75 835 835 100 happily engaged in class activites through the school hours The children in my school are 676 548 81 835 835 100 fimiliar with the class settings Children in my school listen 676 546 76 835 701 84 to stories, learn songs and rhymes Children in my school react to 676 453 67 835 651 78 stories, songs and rhymes learnt in the class Children in my school are 676 392 58 835 676 81 adequately protected from environment hazards
TOTAL 8788 6341 72% 10855 9756 90% Source: Field work
The result in Table 2 demonstrates that level
of smooth transition in both public and private
schools is high. Children are always happily engaged
in class activities throughout the school hours, they
are familiar with the classroom settings and interact
freely with one another in the school as this items
recorded 100% agreed for both public and private
schools.
The rate of resistance of young children when taken
to school by parent or guardian was higher in public
schools than in private schools. This means that
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
52
children in private schools do not find it difficult
letting their parents go when dropping them in
school in the first few weeks of enrolment with 95%
for private schools and 71% for public schools. This
implies that the schools provide conducive, homely
and attractive environment for easy adjustment of
the children. Also, private schools had better,
conducive and attractive environment for children
easy transition from home to school and easy
adjustment to the school environment than the public
schools. As shown in Table 2, public schools had 73%
and 68% for conducive and attractive environments
respectively while private had 96% and 85%
respectively. It also implies that the children
emotional, psychological and physical needs
naturally provided by their mothers at home are
taken care of by the teachers in the schools using the
necessary available facilities for the convenience of
the children. The result also shows that more
children in private schools do not find it difficult to
let their parents go after dropping them at school
especially at the early stage of enrolment. This is
indicated by 82% positive for private schools and
71% positive for public schools. Responses in the
Table2 show that public schools had 72% smooth
transition while private schools had 90% smooth
transition.
Research Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the level of
provision of facilities in public and private early
childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and
Niger Sates of Nigeria.
Table 3. Significant Difference in the Levels of Provision of ECE Facilities by Public and Private Schools in Kwara,
Kogi and Niger States of Nigeria
Variables N Mean SD cal. t value p value Remark
Public 676 24.25 12.80 Ho
3.66 .000 Rejected
Private 835 26.45 9.92 Significant level: 0.05
The result in Table 3 shows that the p-value (.000) is
less than the calculated t value at 0.05 level of
significance. Hence the null hypothesis which stated
that there is no significant difference in the level of
provision of facilities in public and private early
childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and
Niger States of Nigeria is rejected. This shows that
there were more facilities such as classrooms, offices,
toilets, instructional materials, outdoor facilities
among others in private ECE schools (x=26.45) than
those of the public schools (x=24.25).
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the level of
achievement of smooth transition in public and
private schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger Sates of
Nigeria.
Table 4: The Levels of Smooth Transition Achievement in Public and Private Schools in Kwara, Kogi and Niger
States of Nigeria
Variables N Mean SD cal. t value p value Remark
Public 676 50.21 6.76 Ho
942 .012 rejected
Private 835 58.55 7.30
Significance level: (0.05)
The result in Table 4 revealed that the p-value (.012)
is less than the calculated t value at 0.05 level of
significance. This indicates that there was significant
difference in the levels of achievement of smooth
transition from home to schools in public and private
early childhood education schools in Kwara, Kogi and
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
53
Niger States of Nigeria. Hence, the null hypothesis
was rejected. The finding has shown that there was
significant difference in the levels of smooth
transition in public and private schools with
(x=50.21) for public and (x=58.55)for private
schools.
Discussion of Findings
The study reveaveled that public schools has low percentage in the provision of beds/mattresses, water supply, toilets, and musical instruments. The private schools however recorded above 50 % provision in all the facilities under study. This is in line with Amakiev (2013)’s assertion that provision and maintenance of infrastructure such as buildings, equipment and instructional materials are problems hindering the provision of ECE especially in public schools. The finding in Table 2 has shown more than 50% achivement of smooth transition in all the items under study in both private and public schools.Okoro (2006) opined that the pre-primary schools should be a happy place that provide easy transition from home to school. However, most of the ECE classroom activities are more of academic than home like setting that is to provide friendly, comfortable and exploring environment.In testing the hypotheses,
Table 3 revealed that, there exists a significant
difference in the provision of ECE facilities by public
and private schools. Myers (2000) stated that private
sector involvement in education is as a result of
common complain of inefficient administration of
public schools and the poor use of available scarce
resources. Therefore, it is presumed that privately
operated ECE schools are more equipped with
necessary facilities, conducive environment and
qualified teachers as they are operating within a
competitive environment and would need to be
accountable to users. Availability of more facilities in
the private ECE schools could be due to most private
schools starting as ECE schools before the
introduction of primary and secondary schools. As
the private schools progresses, they undergo
expansion and have ECE, primary and secondary
linkages.
Lack of adequate facilities in the public ECE schools
could be due to the establishment of ECE within the
existing public primary schools. The introduction of
free ECE is a welcome development. However the
existing primary schools where ECE was introduced
were already battling with inadequate and
dilapidated facilities. Hence, releasing some of their
facilities for provision of ECE could result in shortage
of the facilities in the primary school section. Thus,
available facilities for public school early childhood
education have to be managed as the government is
yet to make sufficient provision.
Table 4 shows that there exists a signicant difference
in ECE achievement of smooth transition by public
and private schools. This finding is in line with
Ogundele, Sambo and Bwoi (2014) finding which
revealed that the pre-primary pupils are prepared for
effective transition into primary level of education in
ECE schools. However, the present finding has
revealed that significant difference existed in the
achievement of smooth transition by public and
private schools. The smooth transition of child from
home to school as one of the goals of early childhood
education cannot be achieved without adequate
facilities in public and private schools.
Achievement of smooth transition could be as a result
of the private schools having conducive and
comfortable environment for children get their needs
met through the use of available facilities. The toilets,
beds and mattresses are readily and easily accessible
for use to meet the children nature needs. Also
children soon forget their worries of leaving their
parents as they interact with their peers using the
available facilities such as toys, outdoor facilities and
listening to stories read to them from story books
available in the school.
Conclusions
Based on the findings, it was concluded that both
public and private schools are providing early
childhood education facilities for the achievement of
smooth transition of the child from home to school.
However, there is significant difference in the level of
provision. The private schools were found to have
more facilities in place than in the public schools.
Recommendations
Based on the conclusions, it is recommended that, the
government as the proprietor of public schools,
should ensure that the schools are upgraded with
adequate and relevant facilities to ensure the
achievement of smooth transition. It is also
recommended that only public primary schools with
adequate facilities should be mandated to provide
early childhood education. Facilities such as toilets,
classrooms, toys are very important for children’s
comfort and easy transition in the schools. Therefore,
schools should source for facilities from non-
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
54
governmental organizations and parents in form of
donations and fund raising among other means.
The public schools need to imbibe maintenance
culture to maximize the use of available facilities to
increase their levels of smooth transition. To achieve
high level retention and subsequent transition,
parents especially mothers should be encouraged for
the first few weeks to either pick up the children
immediately the school closes or they should visit the
school during break time if possible to reduce the
loneliness and crying in children. Likewise, private
schools should be mandated to update ECE facilities
in their schools. Also, admission of ECE children into
their schools should not be more than their facilities
can handle.
References
Abdulkareem, A. Y. & Fasasi, Y. A. (2012).
Management of educational facilities in Nigerian
secondary schools: The roles of administrators
and inspectors. East African Researchers.
Published by Kisubi Brothers, University
College, Uganda 2(2), 99-107. Available online
http://www.kbuc.ac.ug
Amakiev, O. I. (2013). Historical analysis of Federal
Government innovations in early childhood
education in Nigeria,1977 - 2008. International
journal of accademic research in business and
social sciences, 63.
Awoyemi, O. A. (2013). Resolving the challenges of
private primary schools in Nigeria. In P. K.
Ojedele, M. Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds),
Challenges of Educational Development in
Nigeria (pp. 390-427). Ondo: NIEPA.
Bibi, M. (2013). Challenges of quality education in
Nigerian education system. In P. K. Ojedele, M.
Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds), Challenges of
Educational Development in Nigeria (pp. 563-
578). Ondo: NIEPA.
Federal Ministry of Education (2005). Minimum
standard for establishing schools. Abuja: Federal
Ministry of Education
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National policy on
education. Lagos: NERDC.
Myers, G. R. (2000). The role of the private sector in
early childhood care and development. World
Bank. Washinton DC: A paper presented at
conference on the early childhood development
investing in our children 's future.
OECD. (2011). Lessons from PISA for United States,
strong performers in education. OECD
Publishing.
Ogundele, M.O., Sambo, M.A. & Bwoi, G. M. (2O14).
Supervisory practices and goal achievement of
early childhood educational programme in
Kwara State. Asia Pacific Journal of a
multidisciplinary Research, 6-13.
Ogunyemi, T. F. (2013). Mushroom private
nursery/primary schools: The bane of
qualitative early childhood education in Nigeria.
In P. K. Ojedele, M. Arikewuyo, & A. Njoku (Eds),
Challenges of Educational Development in
Nigeria (pp. 809-826). Ondo: NIEPA.
Okoro, O. (2006). Philosophy of pre-primary
education. Onitsha: Ballin publishers Nigeria
limited.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
55
PRINCIPALS’ MOTIVATIONAL STRATEGIES AND TEACHERS’ TASK PERFORMANCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN EKITI STATE
1Ajayi I.A., 2Olawolu O.E and 3Olojuola O.M
1&3Dept. of Educational Management, Faculty of Education Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
2Dept. of Educational Foundations School of Education,
Federal College of Education (Tech), Omoku, Rivers State.
Abstract
This study examined principals’ motivational strategies and teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in Ekiti state. The study investigated the extent to which teachers’ working conditions, and authority-staff relationship, relate to teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in Ekiti state. The study adopted descriptive research design of survey type. The population of this study consisted of all the 7538 teachers and 179 principals in public secondary schools in Ekiti state. The sample consisted of 315 respondents selected through multistage sampling procedure, which include stratified random sampling and simple random sampling techniques. The instruments used were Principals’ Motivational Strategies Questionnaire (PMSQ), and Teachers’ Task Performance Questionnaire (TTPQ). The face and content validity were used. Test-re-test method was adopted to establish the reliability of the instruments, reliability coefficients of 0.88 and 0.89 were obtained for PMSQ and TTPQ respectively. The study showed that there was significant relationship between principals’ motivational strategies and teachers’ task performance. Moreover, working conditions, authority-staff relationship were significantly related to teachers’ task performance. Based on the findings of this study, it was recommended that good working conditions, authority-staff relationship could be guaranteed to ensure high teachers’ task performance.
Key words: Principals, Motivational strategies, Authority-staff, Task Performance
Introduction
In the recent years, there has been a high concern by
the education stakeholders about the performance of
secondary school students in their internal and
external examinations. Public opinions have often
been expressed that the teachers are no longer
dedicated and committed to their task performance.
The principals who are the heads of the institutions
seem not to adequately motivate the teachers to
perform their task towards the attainment of the
secondary schools’ goals as specified in the national
policy on education.
Observation has shown that teachers’ task appears
difficult and complex in recent times. There are
instances when secondary school students engaged
their teachers in fighting while performing their
lawful duties; the students indulge in stealing,
cultism, drug abuse and absenteeism. The parents
who are supposed to give moral training to their
children appear to have abandoned their
responsibility for some other things. The above
scenario shows that there are lapses somewhere. The
teachers are expected to curb indiscipline among the
students, teach their various lessons and carryout
other duties as may be assigned to them by the
principals. If the teachers who are trained and
expected to produce a host of cherished societal
virtues such as honesty, humanity, fairness, integrity,
punctuality, dedication and patriotism are not
dedicated and committed to these tasks, then there is
problem.
According to Ocho (1998) and Aghenta (1998),
through discharge of teachers’ task, a new era of
purity and progress is expected in the classroom and
the society at large. Also, Afe (1995) pointed out that
teaching task is done through conscious and
deliberate efforts. But for a teacher to carry out these,
he/she needs to be adequately motivated by his/her
principal. The principal organizes the efforts of
teachers who are the channel of instructions in the
school system to achieve the school goals.
In Ekiti state, public opinion have often been
expressed that the teachers lack proper motivation.
The teachers’ remuneration is not enough to tackle
high cost of living, salaries are not regularly paid, and
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
56
the authority-staff relationship is adjudged not
cordial. Teachers seem not to adequately enjoy their
fringe benefits and allowances like their counterparts
in the health sectors and some other sectors of the
economy. The fringe benefits include: hazard
allowance, overtime allowance, marking allowance,
disturbances allowance. This could motivate teachers
to work beyond predetermined level, if given
attention. The seemingly lack of commitment and
dedication to teaching such as inadequate coverage of
the syllabus, lateness to work, no feedback for
assignments, not participating in disciplining
students among others, has been attributed to lack of
motivation or drive. In realization of educational
goals and objectives, teachers’ contributions to
economical and socio-cultural development of any
society are very important.
Ibukun (1997) perceived motivation as a general
term that describes the needs, wishes, desires and
other internal forces that push individuals towards
organizational goals. While Metler (1992), Hall
(1996), Frelberg (1998), Akanbi (2003), and
described motivation as instigation to action. Ibukun
(1997) opined that the primary task of management
is to co-ordinate co-workers in an organization so
that the goal of the group can be achieved. He further
stated that one strategy for ensuring the achievement
of group goals is through the creation of conducive
mental and physical environment for work and this
could be attained through conscious motivation of
workers. Herzberg, betemson, & Synder-man, (1956)
studied various factors relating to the job
performance and their relation to employee
motivation and concluded that they can be divided
into hygiene factors and motivational factors (Tyner,
2007; Mahmood & Mahmood, 2010). Hygiene factors,
which relate to the work setting and not the content
of the work, include adequate wages, comfortable
and safe working conditions, fair company policies,
and job security (Van Herpen, 2003; Tyner, 2007).
These factors do not necessarily motivate employees
to excel but will definitely have an effect on the
employees performance and their absence may be a
potential source of employee dissatisfaction.
Many people viewed good salary as one of the most
important job factors, even more important than job
security and the chance to use one's abilities (Tyner,
2007; Mahmood & Mahmood, 2010). Salary and
security, two of the hygiene factors identified by
Herzberg, make it possible for employees to satisfy
the physiological and security needs as identified by
Abraham Maslow in his theory of needs. However,
the presence of hygiene factors is unlikely to
motivate employees to work harder. Motivational
factors, which relate to the content of the work itself,
include achievement, recognition, involvement,
responsibility, and advancement (Tyner, 2007). The
absence of motivational factors may not result in
dissatisfaction, but their presence is likely to
motivate employees to excel.
Today government cannot rely solely on the payment
of salaries and fringe, benefits or working conditions
to encourage teachers to perform effectively and
efficiently, it is the duty of the principal to create and
develop a conducive environment in which teachers
will be motivated to become productive members of
the school by striving for what will bring them
reward. It is against this background that this study
intends to investigate the influence of principals’
motivational strategies on teachers’ task
performance in secondary schools in Ekiti State.
When workers lack motivation they tend to resort to
anti-work behaviours such as absenteeism,
negligence of duty, late-coming, failure to meet
deadlines, display of open frustration and all these
factors work negatively to the performance and
credibility of an organization. Organizations need to
place all efforts to ensure that incentives such as
intrinsic and extrinsic motivator and Performance
management approaches are used in order to retain
and attract workers efforts, satisfaction and
commitment.
A good authority-staff relation motivational strategy
is essential to keep teachers motivated. This will
result in increased productivity. Teachers should feel
comfortable walking into the principal’s office at
virtually any time to express thoughts and concerns,
make suggestions, and ask questions. Principa.ls
should feel equally comfortable in walking into a
teacher’s classroom for the same reasons. A good
authority staff relationship is important for building
trust and confidentiality, and is a valuable resource
when building morale in the school (Lloyd, 2001). A
crucial aspect of the good authority-staff relationship
is communication, which promotes team
cohesiveness (Zoglio, 2002). Poor communication
results in low productivity, morale problems, and
lack of commitment among employees (Lloyd, 2001).
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
57
While teachers may not always listen to what their
administrators say, they always watch what their
administrators do. An easy low-cost way to keep
teachers motivated and to build high morale is to
celebrate, making the spirit of the organization
visible (Frelberg & Fredberg, 1998). Teachers need
formal and informal parties throughout the year to
celebrate teachers’ accomplishment and the positive
events that occur in the school. Frequent receptions
can help teachers to remain focused on the good
positive aspects of their profession.
“When there is an organizational event or
celebration, the character changes
somewhat. It gives people time to pull back,
relax, celebrate what has been
accomplished, and look at each other as
fellow humans bound together by a common
purpose” (Grazier, 1998).
It is not enough to achieve the goals and objectives of
institution, it is equally important to maintain the
group of workers. Some principals’ could force
workers to get work done quickly, but the workers
are hardly satisfied and sometimes they develop
hostile attitudes among themselves and towards the
principal which would normally lead to reduction in
teachers’ task performance when the principal is
absent. The low academic performance of students
especially in the secondary school system in the
country could be attributed to frustration caused by
non-challant attitudes of some principals to the needs
and welfare of the teachers in their schools.
Teachers spend most of their working days on the
school premises and the physical working conditions
of a school depend on the school’s financial state.
Although not every teacher has the opportunity to
work in a new school building, Vail (2005) pointed
out that the state of a school’s physical facilities
affects teacher morale. Lethoko, M.x, Heystek, J. &
Maree, J. G. (2001) maintain that people are more
likely to value attractive, new, and properly
maintained facilities and infrastructure. When
teachers constantly lack such facilities, they become
demotivated. The teachers indicated that they
appreciate a spacious staffroom and a comfortable
staffroom is a sign that they are appreciated as
professionals.
When teachers welfare is taken care of and they are
allowed to realize that their wholesome suggestions
are welcome, that they are definite part of the
educational programmes and are free at all times to
initiate and develop new ideas and experiment to
ascertain their value, there will usually be greater
friendliness among the workers and between the
authority and the workers. The work usually
continues in the absence of the principal and the
teachers are generally satisfied.
In essence, through good authority staff relationship,
teachers would feel satisfied and would be willing to
extend same to the students through high task
performance.
Statement of the Problem
The problem of this study arose from the background
information that teachers who are the channel of
instruction in the secondary school system appeared
not to be dedicated and committed to their task, the
principals as head of the school also seemed not to
be using adequate motivational methods to motivate
the teachers, leading to teachers’ poor working
condition, Authority-staff relationship appeared not
be cordial, which were believed to have contributed
to the perceived poor task performance of teachers
in our secondary schools today. It is against this
background that this study intends to investigate the
influence of principals’ motivational strategies on
teachers’ task performance in secondary schools in
Ekiti state.
Research Hypotheses
Based on the problem of this study, the following
hypotheses were formulated:
1. There is no significant relationship between
principal’s motivational strategies and teachers’
task performance.
2. There is no significant relationship between
teachers working condition and teachers task
performance.
3. There is no significant relationship between
authority-staff relationship and teachers’ task
performance.
Methodology
This study was a descriptive research design of
survey type. The sample consisted of 15 principals
and 300 teachers selected through multistage
sampling technique. The first stage involved the
selection of 5 secondary schools from each of the 3
senatorial districts in Ekiti State on local government
basis, using stratified random sampling technique.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
58
The second stage involved the use of simple random
sampling technique to select 20 teachers from each of
the selected schools making a total of 300 teachers
and 15 principals which made up 315 respondents.
The research instruments used were self-designed
questionnaire titled, Principals’ Motivational
Strategies Questionnaire (PMSQ) and Teachers’ Task
Performance Questionnaire (TTPQ). Face and content
validity of the instruments were done by experts in
the area of Educational Management in Ekiti State
University. The reliability of the instrument was
ensured, through test-re-test method in two selected
secondary schools which were not included in the
sample. The two scores were correlated using the
Pearson Product Moment Correlation co-efficient.
Reliability co-efficient of 0.88 and 0.89 were obtained
for Principals’ Motivational Strategies Questionnaire
(PMSQ) and Teachers’ Tasks Performance Question-
naire (TTPQ) respectively. The researcher
administered the instruments personally to the
respondents and they were given enough time to
reflect over the items. The data were analyzed using
descriptive and inferential statistics and all the
hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
The following were the results based on the
hypotheses generated:
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between
principal’s motivational strategies and teachers’ task
performance.
In order to test this hypothesis, scores on principal
motivational strategies and teachers’ task
performance were computed using Pearson Product
Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The
result is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Principals’ Motivational Strategies and
Teachers’ Task Performance
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
Principals’Motivational
Strategies
300 64.11 13.98
0.581*
0.195
Teachers Task
Performance
300 80.45 7.35
*P<0.05
Table 1 showed that rcal (0.581) was greater than rtable
(0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
significant relationship between principal’s motiva-
tional strategies and teachers’ task performance.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant relationship between teachers
working condition and teachers task performance,
In order to test this hypothesis, scores relating to
working condition and teachers’ task performance
were obtained and subsequently subjected to
statistical analysis involving Pearson’s Product
Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The
result is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Working Conditions and Teachers’ Task
Performance
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
Working
condition
300 10.70 3.71
0.333*
0.195
Teachers Task
Performance
300 80.45 7.35
*P<0.05
The result in Table 2 revealed that rcal (0.333) was
greater than rtable (0.195) at 0.05 level of significance.
The null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that
there was significant relationship between working
condition and teachers’ task performance.
Hypothesis 3
There is no significant relationship between
authority staff relationship and teachers’ task
performance.
In testing the hypothesis, scores on authority staff
relationship and teachers’ task performance were
computed and subjected to Pearson’s Product
Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The
result is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Authority-Staff Relationship and Teachers’
Task Performance
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
authority staff
relationship
300 13.11 2.93
0.432*
0.195
Teachers Task
Performance
300 80.45 7.35
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
59
*P<0.05
Table 3 revealed that rcal (0.432) was greater than
rtable (0.195) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
significant relationship between authority staff
relationship and teachers’ task performance.
Discussion
The finding of the study showed that there was
significant relationship between principals’
motivational strategies and teachers’ task
performance. This implies that, the achievement of
the goal which teachers are motivated to attain, such
as obtaining a higher qualification, which could
results in teacher earning a better earning a better
salary which could restore the teacher’s
psychological balance. The teacher will thus strive to
do his/her best to attain the best task performance.
Hence, if motivation of employees is increased, their
motivation to work will also improve, as well as their
accomplishments and the organizational
performance. The finding is in line with Afe (1995)
who pointed out that teaching task is done through
conscious and deliberate efforts. But for a teacher to
carry out these, he/she needs to be adequately
motivated by his/her principal.
The study also showed that there is significant
relationship between working conditions and
teachers’ task performance in public secondary
schools in Ekiti state. This implies that a healthy
organizational climate is desirable for better
commitment and productivity. Hence, if good
working condition is absent in school system, it could
pose danger to teachers’ task performance and
consequently affects the students’ academic
achievement in school environment. The finding is
consistent with the assertion of Ocho (1998) and
Aghenta (1998), through discharge of teachers’ task,
a new era of purity and progress is expected in the
classroom and the society at large.
The finding of the study revealed that there was
significant relationship between authority-staff
relationship and teachers’ task performance. This
implies that a good authority-staff relation
motivational strategy is essential to keep teachers
motivated, this will result to increase productivity.
Hence, poor authority-staff relationship results in low
productivity, morale problems and lack of
commitment among employees. The finding agrees
with Lloyd, (2001) who stated that a good authority
staff relationship is vital for a successful school and
begins with the administration. While teachers may
not always listen to what their administrators say,
they always watch what their administrators do.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded
that good working condition and authority-staff
relationship were good motivational strategies that
could be employed by the principals to bring about
better teachers task performance in secondary school
in Ekiti State. On the basis of the findings, the
following recommendations are made:
1. There should be improved working conditions
in terms of prompt payment of salary and fringe
benefits, allocation of office accommodation, and
creating conducive working environment.
2. School principals should ensure cordial
relationship with staff members and effective
supervision of teachers for optimum
performance.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
61
INSTITUTIONAL COMMUNICATION FLOWS AND LECTURERS’ JOB PERFORMANCE IN KWARA STATE
POLYTECHNIC, ILORIN, NIGERIA
1Ojo, O. J. and 2Illo,C. O.
Department of Educational Management University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State
Department of Educational Foundations and Management School of Education
Michael Otedola College of Primary Education, NoforijaEpe, Lagos State.
Abstract
It is often said that communication is a very crucial component of organization activity.It is based on this assertion that this study examined institutional communication flow and lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. The descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study.The population of this study comprised of 320 lecturers and 6560 students.A total of 200 participants were randomly selected for this study. Two researcher-designed questionnaires were used in data collection from the respondents.In other to ascertain the validity of the instruments used CFQ and LJPQ were given to experts in Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin for both the face and the content validity. The reliability of the instruments was carried out using test re-test method and the co-efficient obtained were 0.79 and 0.82 for the Communication Flow Questionnaire and Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaires respectively.Three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The findings of this study revealed that there was a significant relationship between institutional upward communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00< 0.05); there was a significant relationship between horizontal communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00 < 0.05); the study also revealed that there was a significant relationship between downward communication flow and lecturers' job performance in Kwara State Polytechnic because the (p-value 0.00 < 0.05).
The study recommended that, management of Kwara State Polytechnic should utilize the three communication flows to the fullest in order to enhance lecturers job performance.
Keywords: Communication Flows, Lecturers’ Job Performance, Upward, Downward and Horizontal
Introduction
Communication is an essential component of any
organization and it is needed for the effective
functioning of an organization. No wonder that many
communication theorists opined that the growth and
survival of an organization depends on the
communication flows that is put in place by the
management.In most organizations including the
polytechnics, it is expected that superordinates (the
management team, directors of institutes and Head of
Departments) pass information to their subordinates
in anticipation for effective performance of duties
assigned to them for the goals of the institutions as
stipulated in the National Policy on Education (2013)
to be achieved.
Communication flow is an essential element in all
aspects of an institution. It is a well-known fact that
not many institutional leaders know the effect of
their communication flow on the performance of
their subordinates. It is in line with this statement
that the researcher opined that job performance of
lecturers in the polytechnic in Kwara State is
dependent on the communication channel and flow
that is put in place by the school
administrators.Suffice to say that there a lot of
variables apart from communication flows that
determine lecturers job performance in polytechnics,
it is in line with this assertion that Fashiku (2016),
submitted that the consequences of leaders’
communication pattern should be borne in mind and
not to be underestimated or swept under the carpet.
Based on globalization and advancement in
communication technology all over the world, many
institutional leaders in organizations including
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
62
polytechnics discovered that an important aspect of
their job is to communicate their organization’s
policies, programmes, mission and vision statements
to all and sundry in the organization which will
eventually translates to effective job performance.
Managers of polytechnics are paid to communicate
the programmes of the school to the academic and
the non-academic staff alike.According to Asamu
(2014), the basic functions of management (Planning,
Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling) will
not be carried out successfully without proper
communication. Different units and departments
exist in the polytechnic and it is through the flow of
communication put in place that interaction takes
place for the attainment of organizational goals.
The structure of the polytechnic provides for
communication in three major directions i.e upward,
downward and horizontal. The downward
communication occurs when information and
messages emanatefrom a higher level inside an
organization to a lower one. With regards to the
polytechnic, it is a communication flow that involves
giving of instructions about the programmes and
policies of the institution by the administrators at the
top to the lecturers.In the words of Zaremba (2011),
downward communication is used to bring into the
notice of lecturers in the polytechnics the directives
and regulations of management so as to ensure
effective compliance.School administrators, most of
the times make use of downward communication
flow as a means of providing prompt feedback to
lecturers regarding their performance.
The upward communication flow is the involves the
passing of information from the workers at the
bottom of an organizationalhierarchy to the people at
the top. Based on the submission of Fashiku (2016),
upward communication flow is seen as a medium
through which the surbordinates relay their
disaffection, likes and dislikes to the management in
an organization with regards their job
performance.Furthermore, the use of upward
communication flow acts as a motivator to lecturers
because they see it as a means of contributing their
own quota to the management and administration of
the institution. It is based on this premise that Kalla
(2015), considered upward communication as a good
labour-management strategy of managing conflict
and ensuring crisis free organization.
Horizontal communication flow take place between
and across departments and among ordinates on the
same level in the managerial hierarchy. It is also
called lateral communication flow. Communications
where information flows horizontally from
colleagues at the same level in the organization to
other colleagues at the same level (Wilcox &
Cameron, 2011).Horizontal communication is also
referred to as peer to peer or lateral communication
(Gollwitzer, 2015). This is the type of communication
among ordinates in the departments, divisions or
units which are at the same level of organizational
chain of command. In line with the above statement,
colleagues, employees and teammembers share
information, collaborate and solve problems and this
eventually improve job performance in an
organization.
Performance could be described in various ways. It
could be an act of accomplishing or executing a given
task by a job holder. It could also be described as the
ability to combine skillfully the right behaviour
towards the achievement of organizational goals and
objectives (Olaniyan, 1999). Lecturers job
Performance referred to the way and manner with
which lecturers in polytechnics are able to carry out
assigned duties. Effective job performance can be
achieved only when there is a reasonable level of
expectation-fit and when the social exchange
between managers and employees is fair and equal
(Wang, 2005). Effective institutional communication
flow between polytechnics administrators and
lecturers is very important for effective job
performance. It is worthy to note that communication
covers all activities that the polytechnic
administrator does to bring about effective lecturers’
job performance.
Statement of the Problem
Lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State
polytechnic is affected by communication log jams
some of which includes: Distortion of information
which is occasioned when information is not passed
through the right flow, misinterpretation of
information, delay of information, manipulation and
diluting of information along the flow of
communication. It is based on the aforementioned
problem that this study examined institutional
communication flow and lecturers' job performance
in Kwara State polytechnic, Nigeria.
Purposes of the Study
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
63
The major purpose of this study was to examine the
relationship that exists between institutional
communication flow and lecturers’ job performance
in Kwara State polytechnic. Specifically, downward,
upward and horizontal communication flow were
examined as components of institutional
communication flow. The extent to which each of
these components relates to lecturers’ job
performance was determined in this study.
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been formulated to
pilot this study.
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
institutional upward communication flow and
lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State
Polytechnic.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
institutional downward communication flow and
lecturers’ job performance.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between
institutional horizontal communication flow and
lecturers’ job performance.
Methodology
The research design for this study was descriptive of
the survey type.The target population of this study
was made up of both the lecturers and students of
Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. Preliminary
investigation shows that the institution has 6
institutes and 320 lecturers and 6560
students.However, for the purpose of this study,
random sampling techniques was used to select three
institutes from the six and the respondents were
drawn from the lecturers and students. The
instrument used for this study was questionnaire
developed by the researcher. This questionnaire was
divided into two parts, one for the lecturers which
was tagged Communication Flow Questionnaire
(CFQ) and the other for the students was tagged
Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaire (LPQ). The
questionnaires were rated on a four-point response
format ranging from Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),
Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).In order to
ascertain the validity of the instruments used CFQ
and LJPQ were given to experts in Faculty of
Education, University of Ilorin for both the face and
the content validity. The reliability of the
instrumentswas carried out using test re-test method
and the co-efficient obtained were 0.79 and 0.82 for
the Communication Flow Questionnaire and
Lecturers’ Job Performance Questionnaires
respectively.The questionnaire was distributed to the
respondents in the selected departments of the
institutionby the researcher while Pearson product-
moment correlation co-efficient was used to test the
hypotheses generated at 0.05 level of significance.
Results and Discussions
Testing of Hypotheses
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
institutional upward communication flow and
lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State
Polytechnic.
Table 1: Upward communication flow and Lecturers’
job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-
value P-value
Decision
Upward Communication Flow
200 1.58 .62
.405 .000 Ho Rejected
Lecturers’ Job Performance
200 12.48 5.64
*Significant P< .05
Table 1 shows that the calculated p-value of 0.000
was less than the significance value of 0.05.
Therefore, the hypothesis is hereby rejected. The
implication of this finding is that when upward
communication is encouraged by polytechnic
administrators it helps to facilitate as well as enhance
effective participation and good relationships
between lecturers’ and management. The finding of
this study is in agreement with that of Fashiku (2007)
who found that upward communication flow is seen
as a medium through which the low rating staffs
relay their disaffection, likes and dislikes to the
management in an organization with regards their
job performance. The finding also corroborates that
of Kalla (2015) who found that upward
communication is a good labor-management strategy
of managing conflict and ensuring crisis free
organization.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
downward communication and lecturers’ job
performance.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
64
Table 2: Downward communication flow and
Lecturers’ job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-
value
P-
value
Decision
Downward
Communication
Flow
200 1.76 .53
.579 .000 Ho
Rejected
Lecturers’ Job
Performance
200 12.48 5.64
*Significant P< .05
Table 2 shows that the calculated p-value of .000 is
less than the significant value of 0.05. Therefore, the
hypothesis is rejected. This means that there exists a
relationship between downward communication and
lecturers’ job performance. The finding of this study
agrees with that of Zaremba (2011) who found that
downward communication is used to bring into the
notice of lecturers in the polytechnics the directives
and regulations of management so as to ensure
effective compliance. It was revealed from the
findings of this study that poor downward
communication constitutes or serve as hindrance to
lecturers’ job performance in Kwara State
Polytechnic. The findings also show that downward
communication flow was used to give report to
lecturers with respect to their job performance.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between
horizontal communication flow and lecturers’ job
performance.
Table 3: Horizontal communication flow and
Lecturers’ job performance Variable N X SD Cal r-
value
P-
value
Decision
Horizontal
Communication
Flow
200 1.70 .61
.692 .000 Ho
Rejected
Lecturers’ Job
Performance
200 12.48 5.64
*Significant P< .05
Table 3 shows that the calculated p-value of .000 is
less than the significant value of 0.05. This shows that
the hypothesis was rejected. The finding is in
consonance with earlier researchers such as Wilcox &
Cameron (2011) and Gollwitzer (2015) who
submitted that colleagues, employees and
teammembers that share information collaborate and
solve problems and this eventually improve job
performance in an organization.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded
that the communication flow is a crucial and very
important variable as regards lecturers’ job
performance in Kwara State Polytechnic, Nigeria. In is
clear from the analysis of this study that
communication flows, downward, upward and
horizontal are connected to lecturers’ job
performance.It was evident from the findings of this
study that all the three flow of communication has
significant relationship with lecturers’ job
performance in Kwara state polytechnic, Nigeria.
Recommendations
Based on the result of the study, the following
recommendations were made:
i. The management of Kwara state polytechnic
should encourage the use of upward
communication flow in order to enhance
lecturers job performance as it will serve as a
motivator when a lecturer knows that his
voice is being heard or his suggestions are
being welcomed.
ii. The school management should try as much
as possible to give room for lecturers to be
heard, to be part of decision making so as to
get the best of the lecturers’ performance.
iii. Management should try as much as possible
to encourage feedbacks when communication
is passed downward and also to make any
information to be passed to be void of
ambiguity and that it should be thoroughly
supervised to avoid manipulation of
information.
References
Asamu, F. (2014). Impact of Communication on
Workers' Performance in selected Organisation
in Lagos State, Nigeria. Journal of Humanities and
Social Sciences, 19 (8); 75-82.
Fashiku, C. O. (2016). Leaders’ communication
pattern: a predictor of lecturers’ job
performance in Nigeria. International Journal of
Educational Leadership and Management, 4(2),
103-126.
Gollwitzer, P. (2015). Action phases and mindsets. In
E. Higgins, & R. Sorrentino, Handbook of
motivation and cognition (pp. 53-92). New York:
Guilford Press.
Kalla, H. K. (2015). Integrated internal
communications: A multidisciplinary
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
65
perspective. Corporate Communications: An
International Journal, 10(4), 302-314.
Olaniyan, A. O. (1999). Principal Preparation,
Selection and Leadership Roles” Teachers and
Teaching in Nigeria. Festa Press Ltd, Benin.73-
88.
Wang, D. (2005). “Procedural justice, participation
and power distance Information sharing in
Chinese firms”, Management Research Review
33(1), 66-78.
Wilcox, D., & Cameron, G. T. (2011). Public relations
strategies and tactics. Boston: Pearson
education.
Zaremba, A. (2011). Organizational Communication:
Foundations for Business & Collaboration.
Mason: Thomson South-Western.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
66
TEACHING PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT IN OGUN STATE
Obadara, O. E. Department of Educational Management,
Tai Solarin University of Education, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study examined the relationship between teaching performance expectations and secondary school teachers’ professional development in Ogun State. Descriptive survey design was used for the study. A sample of 120 public secondary schools out of 474 in Ogun State and 1532 teachers out of 15320 teachers in the state was drawn for the study using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. The study developed and used a questionnaire tagged “Teaching Performance Expectations and Teachers’ Professional Development Questionnaire (TPETPDQ)” with a reliability coefficient of 0.89. Inferential statistic of Pearson’sProduct Moment Correlation was employed to analyse the data and the null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.The findings revealed that there wassignificant relationship between professional knowledge; instructional planning;instructional delivery and teachers’ professional development. Alsothere was significantrelationship between assessment of learning;learning environment; professionalism and teachers’ professional development.It is therefore recommended among others thatthe educational administrators should develop individual teacher professional development plans to ensure that teachers take the necessary coursework and receive the necessary professional development to teach the subject which they are assigned.
Keywords: Education; Teaching; Performance; Professionalism; Learning environment; School improvement.
Introduction
Education today is rapidly changing day by day.
Education systems need to emphasize on
development of lifelong learners, and individuals that
will be able to think straight and develop
multifaceted ways of solving problems. Students need
to be capable not only of constantly adapting but also
of continuously learning and growing, and
repositioning themselves in a fast changing world.
Therefore, teachers are expected to embrace
diversity with differentiated pedagogical
practices.They should become creative in problem
solving, in the production of teaching and learning
materials, preparation of lesson plans and classroom
management.
Teachers are a critical factor in qualitative education delivery, thus, for any educational reform to be successful, teachers’ professional development must be given utmost priority. The initiatives or changes that are brought by any education reform must be reflected in the training of the teachers therefore,
the need for teachers’ professional development. Teaching today requires teachers to be high-level knowledge workers who constantly advance their own professional knowledge as well as that of their profession. In the past it was curriculum-centered, the present is learner centered. Teachers are being asked to personalize learning experiences to ensure that every student has a chance to succeed and to deal with increasing cultural diversity in their classrooms and differences in learning styles in such ways that allow individual effective learning achievement.
The teachers interpret the aims and goals of education and educate the students in accordance with them. No wonder Darling-Hammond (2000) asserts that the states interested in improving student academic performance should look at the preparation and qualification of the teachers they hire and retain in the profession. According to Sanders (1999) cited by Obadara (2014):
The single biggest factor affecting academic
growth of any population of youngsters is
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
67
the effectiveness of the individual classroom
teacher… The teacher’s effect on academic
growth dwarfs and nearly renders trivial all
other factors that people have historically
worried about.
Professional development refers to many types of
educational experiences related to an individual’s
work. It may be in form of workshops or short-term
courses that would offer teachers new information on
a particular aspect of their work. People in a wide
variety of professions and businesses participate in
professional development to learn and apply new
knowledge and skills that will improve their
performance on the job. People often use other
names, including staff development, in-service
training, professional learning, or continuing
education in place of professional development.
Whatever the term used, the purpose is the same,
that is, to improve learning of educators and
students. Professional development is ‘the process
which improves the knowledge, skills or attitudes of
teachers’ (Sparks and Hirsh, 1997).
The teaching performance expectations are the
professional responsibilities required of professional
teachers for the accomplishment of educational goals
and objectives. This can be derived from Teacher
Performance Evaluation System. A fair and
comprehensive evaluation system provides accurate
and sufficient details of teachers’ job expectations.
For the purpose of this study, a two-tiered approach,
consisting of six standards and multiple performance
indicators, to define the expectations for teacher
performance (performance appraisal rubrics)
developed by Stronge (2013) is adapted for the
assessment of teaching performance expectations.
The performance appraisal rubric according to
Stronge (2013) is a behavioural summary scale that
guides evaluators in assessing how well a standard is
performed. It states the measure of performance
expected of teachers and provides a qualitative
description of performance at each level. The
performance indicators provide examples of
observable and tangible behaviours for each
standard. The performance appraisal rubric includes
the following:
Professional Knowledge: The teacher demonstrates an
understanding of the curriculum, subject content, and
diverse needs of students by providing meaningful
learning experiences.
Instructional Planning: The teacher needs to plan
using the approved curriculum, instructional
strategies, resources, and data to meet the needs of
all students.
Instructional Delivery: The teacher effectively engages
students in learning by using a variety of
instructional strategies in order to meet individual
learning needs.
Assessment of Learning: The teacher uses effective
and relevant evaluation contents and methods to
measure student progress. He equally guides
instructional content and delivery methods, and
provides timely feedback to students, parents, and
stakeholders.
Learning Environment: The teacher uses resources,
routines, and procedures to provide a respectful, safe,
positive, student-centered environment that is
conducive for learning.
Professionalism:The teacher demonstrates
behaviours that are consistent with legal, ethical, and
professional standards, contributes to the profession,
and engages in professional growth that results in
improved student learning.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examinethe
relationship betweenteaching performance expec-
tations and secondary school teachers’ professional
development in Ogun State. It is therefore intended
that the findings of this study would provide the
government and the stakeholders in education useful
information on how to strengthen the teaching
profession and the enhancement of teachers’ job
performance towards achievement of educational
goals.
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were developed and
tested in the study.
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
professional knowledge and teachers’ professional
development.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
instructional planning and teachers’ professional
development.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
68
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between
instructional deliveryand teachers’ professional
development.
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between
assessment of learningand teachers’ professional
development.
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between
learning environment andteachers’ professional
development.
Ho6: There is no significant relationship
betweenprofessionalism and teachers’ professional
development.
Methodology
Descriptive survey design was used for the study.A
sample of 120 public secondary schools out of 474 in
Ogun State and 1532 teachers out of 15320 teachers
in the state was drawnfor the study using
proportionate stratified random sampling technique.
The study developed and used a questionnaire tagged
“Teaching Performance Expectations and Teachers’
Professional Development Questionnaire
(TPETPDQ)” with a reliability coefficient of 0.89. The
questionnaire has two sections. The first section
elicits information on the respondents’ demographic
data while the second section contains 30 items that
measure the variables of the study.It was constructed
on a 4-point Likert format ranging from ‘strongly
disagree’ to ‘strongly agree’.Pearson’sProduct
Moment Correlation coefficient was employed to
analyse the data, and the null hypotheses developed
for the study were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
The results of the study are presented below according to the hypotheses developed for the study.
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
professional knowledge and teachers’ professional
development.
Table 1: Relationship between Professional
Knowledge and Teachers’ Professional Development
Variables N Mean Std.
Dev. df r-cal.
r-
tab. P Remark
Professional
Knowledge 1532 342.5 237.3 1530 0.215 0.030 0.05 Sig.
Teachers’
Professional
Development
1532 321.4 255.1
The result in table 1 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.215)is greater than tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between professional
knowledge and teachers’ professional development,
is rejected. This implies that there is a significant
relationship between professional knowledge and
teachers’ professional development.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
instructional planning and teachers’ professional
development.
Table 2: Relationship between Instructional
Planning and Teachers’ Professional Development
Variables N Mean Std.
Dev. df r-cal.
r-
tab. P Remark
Instructional
Planning 1532 377.1 222.2
1530 0.221 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’
Professional
Development
1532 311.5 232.4
The result in table 2 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.221) is greater than the tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between instructional
planning and teachers’ professional development, is
rejected. This shows that there is a significant
relationship between instructional planning and
teachers’ professional development.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between
instructional deliveryand teachers’ professional
development.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
69
Table 3: Relationship between Instructional Delivery
and Teachers’ Professional Development
Variables N Mean Std. Dev.
df r-cal. r-tab.
P Remark
Instructional Delivery
1532 432.1 282.5
1530 0.275 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’ Professional Development
1532 412.1 210.3
The result in table 3 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.275) is greater than the tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between instructional
delivery and teachers’ professional development, is
rejected. This implies that there is a significant
relationship between instructional delivery and
teachers’ professional development.
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between
assessment of learningand teachers’ professional
development.
Table 4: Relationship between Assessment of
Learning and Teachers’ Professional Development
Variables N Mean Std. Dev.
df r-cal. r-tab.
P Remark
Assessment for and of Learning
1532 492.3 299.8
1530 0.261 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’ Professional Development
1532 447.4 291.1
The result in table 4 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.261) is greater than the tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between assessment of
learning and teachers’ professional development, is
rejected. This indicates that there is a significant
relationship between assessment of learning and
teachers’ professional development.
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between
learning environment andteachers’ professional
development.
Table 5: Relationship between Learning
Environment and Teachers’ Professional Dev-
elopment
Variables N Mean Std. Dev.
df r-cal. r-tab.
P Remark
Learning Environment
1532 387.4 248.4
1530 0.213 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’ Professional Development
1532 322.9 242.4
The result in table 5 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.213)is greater than the tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between learning
environment and teachers’ professional
development, is rejected. Thus, there is a significant
relationship between learning environment and
teachers’ professional development.
Ho6: There is no significant relationship
betweenprofessionalism and teachers’ professional
development.
Table 6: Relationship between Professionalism and
Teachers’ Professional Development
Variables N Mean Std. Dev.
df r-cal. r-tab.
P Remark
Professionalism 1532 401.1 299.3
1530 0.253 0.030 0.05 Sig. Teachers’ Professional Development
1532 369.5 233.1
The result in table 6 above shows that the calculated
r - value (0.253) is greater than the tabulated r - value
(0.030)at 0.05 level of significance. Therefore, the
null hypothesis, which states that, there is no
significant relationship between professionalism and
teachers’ professional development, is rejected. This
shows that there is a significant relationship between
professionalism and teachers’ professional
development.
Discussion of Findings
The study recorded significant relationship between
professional knowledge; instructional planning;
instructional delivery; assessment of learning;
learning environment; professionalism and teachers’
professional development. This implies that teaching
performance expectationsinfluence teachers’
professional development. These results might not be
unconnected with the fact that once a committed
teacher is exposed to the responsibilities expected of
him the more he prepares to discharge or exhibit
professional competence.The finding of this present
study upholdsthe finding of Okafor (1998) who
observed that the outcome of teachers
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
70
professionaldevelopment which was usually
classified in terms of teachers competenceinclude
knowledge of goal of teaching and its
implementation, knowledgeof subject matter and
skills to be taught and their influence on learning
andteaching.Also, Knapp (2003) pointed out that
professional development is a critical link to
improved teaching. Similarly, Hanushek (1996)
pointed out that the areas that form the core of in-
servicetraining ofteachers are as follows: lesson
preparations; use of instructionalmaterials, using
different methods of teaching, knowledge of
specializedsubject matter, classroom discipline and
their physical appearance.
Looking at teaching performance expectations or
performance indicators, a competent and effective
teacher must among others effectively address
appropriate and required curriculum standards;
integratekey content elements and higher-level
thinking skills in instruction;demonstrate ability to
link present content with past and future learning
experiences, other subject areas, and real-world
experiences and applications. He must also
demonstrateaccurate knowledge of the subject
matter;skills relevant to the subject area(s)
taught;demonstrates appropriate accommodations
and modifications for diverse learners; he must
equally base instruction on goals that reflect high
expectations and understanding of the
subject;understands intellectual, social, emotional,
and physical development of the age group of
students;uses precise language, correct vocabulary
and grammar, and acceptable forms of
communication as it relates to a specific discipline
and/or grade level; and has knowledge and
understanding of school, family, and community
resources to help meet all students’ learning needs
(Stronge, 2013).
Conclusion
This study used comprehensive measures of
performance expected of teachers, which capture the
essence of good teaching to ascertain their
importance to teachers’ professional development. It
is thus inferred that both professional knowledge;
instructional planning; instructional delivery;
assessment of learning; learning environment; and
professionalism contribute immensely to the
professional development of the secondary school
teachers.As it is aptly believed that no education
system can rise above the quality of its teachers since
teachers are instrumental in translating content
standards into teachable classrooms lessons. The
teacher remains a constant factor in the successful
implementation of educational programmes.As the
teacher is the key person to make the educational
system a success, therefore it is necessary that he
should be provided with adequateprofessional
knowledge and development required to deliver in
the career. He must be qualified and competent, both
academically and professionally.
Recommendations
It should be noted that improved schools’
performance depends importantly on improved
classroom teachers and their teaching qualities.
Therefore, the school administrators should develop
and implement high quality professional
development to reduce the number of teachers
without pedagogical/teaching knowledge and those
teaching outside their fields.
The educational administrators should develop
individual teacher professional development plans to
ensure that teachers take the necessary coursework
and receive the necessary professional development
to teach the subject which they are assigned.
Lastly, there is no doubt that the teaching
performance expectations are the reflections of
teachers’ initial preparation. Therefore the teachers
need to be fully trained academically and
professionally.
References
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and
student achievement: A review of state policy
evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8
(1). Retrieved from http://olam.ed.asu.edu/
epaa/v8n1/
Hanushek, E.A. (1996). A more complete picture of
school resource policies. Review of Educational
Research, 66(3), 397-409.
Knapp, M. (2003). Professional development as a
policy pathway. Review of Research in Education,
27, 109–157.
Obadara, O.E. (2014). Influence of teacher factors on
academic performance of secondary school
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
71
Students in Ogun State, Nigeria.Academic Journal
of Research and Development,2(1), 50 - 65.
Okafor, C.F. (1998). Nigeria teacher education: A
search for newdirection. Enugu: Fourth
Dimension Publishers Co. Ltd.
Sanders, W. L. (1999). Teachers, teachers, teachers!
Blueprint Magazine, 4.
Sparks, D. & Hirsh, S. (1997).A new vision for staff
development.Alexandria, Virginia: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Stronge, J.H. (2013). Principal evaluation: A
framework for effective performance. Alexandria,
Virginia: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
72
PRIVATE COST AND EFFICIENCY OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES
Oyetakin, A. I. Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education
AdekunleAjasinUniversity, Akungba, Ondo State, Nigeria E-mail: daroyiomo@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper examined the private cost of public university education and efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian universities. This study was carried out to examine the challenges of funding the education of undergraduates by parents and how it affected their academic performance. As a survey method of descriptive research design, it made use of cost indicators for measuring the state of private cost of university education and academic output of university students in Nigeria. The study covered five public universities in South West geo-political zone of Nigeria selected through a purposive random sampling technique. The participants cut across 1500 different categories of students. Data were collected through the use of a validated“Private Cost and University Students’ Efficiency Questionnaire” (PCUSEQ) with a reliability of r =0.79), validated self-developed tuition check list (r =0.91), and academic records of the classes of degree obtained by graduated students from 2010 to 2014. Data analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics revealed that there was no significant difference in the direct private cost of university education across the public universities (F(4,20)=1.081; p>.05),and that the relationship between direct private cost of public university education and the efficiency of undergraduate students in these public universities was not statistically significant (r =.000, .678, -.582, -.710, and -.781;N=6, p>.05).The implication of these findings proved that undergraduate students’ efficiency was not tied in any way to their direct private costs of university education. The study therefore proffered that the increased direct private cost in forms of increased tuition fees and other institutional expenses should translate to providing adequate learning environment and equipment by the universities to enhance students’ efficiency.
Keywords: Real income, Human capital, Private cost, Efficiency, Undergraduate students, and Nigerian universities
Introduction
Nigeria is the largest single geographic unit along the
west coast of Africa,bounded on the west, north, east,
and south, respectively by Dahomey, Niger-Chad,
Cameroon’s, and the Atlantic Ocean. The land mass
covers approximately 972000 square kilometers. At
the time of independence in 1960, there were three
regions-the northern, western, and eastern regions.
In 1963, the mid west region was carved out of
western Nigeria, and in 1967 the entire country was
divided into twelve states. In February 1976, the
administration of the country was regrouped into 19
states with a federal capital. Today, there are now 36
states plus the federal capital territory. According to
the 1963 National population census, Nigeria was
having 55,670 million people. In 1974 it was 79
million and over 80 million in 1991.With the
population census of 2006, Nigeria is by far the most
populous African country, having a total population
of 140million people. At present, Nigeria has been
grouped into six geo-political zones, namely North
Central, North East, North West, South West, South
East, and South-South.
Since Nigerian independence in October 1st 1960,
there has been a wide spread concern of project
abandonment, and cost overruns. Cost of university
education is at an alarming rate and at such, access to
university education is being threatened.
Governments, both state and federal, are no longer
adequately funding universities. The annual
budgetary allocation to education is highly ridiculous
and frustrating compared to that of some countries.
The World Bank’s report (2012) shows budgetary
allocation by some selected countries as indicated in
the table 1:
Table 1: Annual budgetary allocation to education by
some selected countries. S/N Country % Budget
Allocation to Education
Position
1 2
Ghana Cote d’Ivoire
31.0 30.0
1st 2nd
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Uganda Morocco South Africa Swaziland Kenya United Arab Emirate Botswana Iran USA Tunisia Lesotho Burkina Faso Norway Columbia Nicaragua India Nigeria
27.0 26.4 25.8 24.6 23.0 22.5 19.0 17.7 17.1 17.0 17.0 16.8 16.2 15.6 15.0 12.7 8.4
3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
Source: World Bank (2012)
The table 1 shows that Nigeria’s budgetary allocation
to education is the lowest (8.4%). In the same Vein,
the Federal Government allocated N426.53bn to the
education sector in the 2013 budget, and this
represents 8.7 percent, out of which 3 percent goes to
tertiary institutions (Federal Government of Nigeria)
These have had serious consequences on actualizing
developmental objectives in various sectors of the
economy. University education from a global
perspective is fundamental to the construction of a
knowledge economy and society in all nations (World
Bank, 2008). Yet the potential of educational system
in developing countries like Nigeria is frequently
thwarted by long-standing problems of policy
changes or reform programmes and cost.
Furthermore, this development explains why the
nation’s universities continue to suffer the problem
of very low rating in the world ranking of
universities.According to Odiaka (2013), the nation’s
first university, the University of Ibadan was rated
3216th position in the Webometrics Word ranking of
universities in July, 2012. In the Africa, where Nigeria
calls herself the giant, university of Ibadan was rated
45th position behind South African and Ghanaian
universities.
This scenario of inadequate funding has made the
Nigerian universities to look elsewhere for funding to
survive, hence high tuition fees. Mincer (1974) has
argued that the persistent pressure on resources and
ever increasing unsatisfied demand for education
have made it imperative for the government and
higher institutions to seek alternative avenues in
educational financing. This position is corroborated
by Akpotu (2008) when he submits that though the
government seems to put in a lot of money into the
education sector, this is not enough to acquire,
maintain, and sustain the needed human, physical
and material resources in the education sector.
The high tuition fees and some other school expenses
have culminated into high private cost of university
education. In some state universities, students are
paying as high as N348,750.00(US$2179.69) while in
private universities, the tuition fees range from
N250,000.00 (US$1562.5) to N1,590,000.00
(US$9937.5) (Ofem and Akinyemi, 2012). In spite of
this high private cost, there is an increasing demand
for university education in Nigeria. A policy question
then arises: does the increased private cost of
university education reflect in the efficiency of
undergraduate students? In an attempt to answer
this question, this study therefore was conducted to
investigate the influence of private cost on the
efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian
universities.
Theoretical Framework
The fundamental concept of this study centres on the
theory of investment plan in education and the
market votes as the basis for the utility function of
the cost of university education and the efficiency of
human capital development in Nigeria. On the issue
of cost for any product consumed by an individual,
Achumba (2000) opines that consumers are value
maximizers. They form an expectation of value and
act on it.Thus, the value of education is the ratio of
benefits to costs hence consumer delivered value is
the difference between total consumer’s benefits and
total consumer’s costs. Therefore, total customer
value is the bundle of benefit customers expect from
a given product or service. “So if you are going to
spend millions, you want to make sure they are going
to work” (Andrea, 2003). Thus, it can be deduced that
the success of any University undergraduate depends
upon the resources available to him/her. Money is
very important in education because by it, all other
vital elements in the school can be obtained such as
school buildings, purchases, allowances, as well as
running expense (Mehran, 2000).
According to Oyetakin (2010), Market voting system
has ethical value; each individual is paid according to
his marginal social product. The higher the incomes
of an individual, the higher the market vote to
education and the lower the income, the lower the
market vote for education consumption.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
74
Figure 1: Graphical Illustration of Market Votes
Figure 1 shows that an increase in income from Y1 to
Y2 will increase the market vote of an individual from
MV1 to MV2.Also a rise in income from Y2 to Y3
makes a rational consumer to increase his market
vote for a product from MV2 to MV3.As a corollary to
the above, one should expect that equality in
educational opportunities is a function of political
vote while the market voting system is a function of
inequality.According to Hammer (1996), human
beings are differently talented. Hence no one
assumes that human beings are equal when they
come to school. Some come from better than average
homes, others come from what might be described as
average homes while yet others come from the
lowest stratum of the society.
Education utility is seen simultaneously as
consumption and investment because the two are
inseparable. Oguntoye and Alani (1998) also noted
that utility derived from education depends on
education for current consumption, long period
future consumption skills and knowledge useful in
economic activities, which enhance future earnings.
The above assertion is in support of Psacharopoulos’
(1995) submission that there is a positive correlation
between educational investment and earnings of an
individual or society. However, social and private
returns at all levels of education generally decline by
the level of a country’s per capita income.
The costs of education refer to resources utilized in
the education production process; they include not
only government expenditure on education, but also
household spending on education and the foregone
opportunities of schooling (e.g., gainful employment).
Costs of education are also regarded as the monetary
and non-monetary values used up in the process of
educating an individual or a group of individuals and
government agencies directly associated with the
development and operation of a project. Education
cost studies range from microanalysis of national
educational expenditures across nations to
microanalysis of educational decision-making by
individuals and households. Coombs and Hallak
(1987) differentiate between public costs and private
costs. Public costs are those financed by government,
generally on the basis of taxes, loans and other public
revenue while private costs are those borne by
individual students and their families.
Private Costs of Education and efficiency
Private costs are the costs borne by the parents,
guardians and individuals. They are the monetary
value of all what individuals, households, families, or
private institutions invest in education (Akinyemi,
2010). Campbell and Brown (2002) regard them as
costs borne by the beneficiaries. They include fees,
levies, school uniform, textbooks and stationery, cost
of transportation to and from school, boarding and
feeding among others.It is pertinent to note that
Babalola (2011) in his word lamented on the
financial dependence on the government by most
universities in Africa which gave room to persistent
cases of financial insecurity and instability owing to
unsustainable government’s resourcing of several
Y = Income Level
MV = Market Vote
R = Rationality
R
R
*
*
* Y3
Y1
Y2
MV1 MV2 MV3
0
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
75
universities. This lack of sustainable financing
continues to limit enrolment growth and tilt higher
education in developing countries toward low-cost
and low-quality programmes. This leads to the
argument for less public support for and more
private involvement in higher education. Thus, the
financing of the university education by the
parents/individuals also varies which could also have
effect on the academic performance of
undergraduates. Analysis of efficiency of education
has generally been based on the cost at which the
output is optimized.
According to Barrow (1991), stochastic cost frontier
models for local educational authorities in England,
maintained that the socioeconomic background
variables appear to be more important statistically
than variables relating to input quantities such as the
pupil-teacher ratio. He used the average cost per
pupil in schools as dependent variable, and the
number of students as a scale factor, performance in
ordinary level examination as output, and
proportions of pupils receiving free meals, from low
socioeconomic background, with additional
educational needs as socioeconomic variables. He
argued that socioeconomic variables could be
thought of as "correcting the examination
performance variables to give a measure of value
added rather than gross output." It is interesting to
recall that Jimnez (1986), on the contrary, used test
scores to purge out the differential effects of
socioeconomic background of students. Barrow’s
socioeconomic variables appear to have been
conceived as environmental factors. To the best of
the researcher’s knowledge, Barrow’s piece was the
first published article of this type where a stochastic
cost frontier was used to assess efficiency of schools.
However, he did not elaborate on how the estimated
cost frontier of schools could be used to guide policy
analysis of fiscal issues so important for the
operation of local educational authorities.
In a study conducted by Anderson and Kabir (2000)
on cost and efficiency, the results indicate that
stochastic frontier models can contribute a great deal
of insight regarding school district cost and sources
of inefficiency. First, the usual ordinary least squares
(OLS) method of estimation is clearly rejected with a
stochastic frontier model being clearly superior.
Based on both the cross section and panel data
estimations, there are scale economies apparent in
school district cost. The cost frontier declines with
school district membership and is concave.
Furthermore, teachers’ educational experience
appears to exert a positive effect on cost efficiency of
school districts. A large part of the estimated
inefficiency across school districts is explained by
differences in teacher experience.
Objectives of Study
Considering the acute shortage of funds facing our
tertiary institution system in Nigeria which has
resulted in serious setbacks to the industrial
development amidstcost of providing university
education in Nigeria, this study examined the
1. Trends of the average direct private cost of public
university education of undergraduates from
2007 to 2011.
2. Relationship between private cost of university education and the efficiency of undergraduates in the period under study.
Research Questions
The following questions were raised: 1. Is there any significant difference in the direct
private costs of university education across the
public universities in Nigeria?
2. What is the relationship between private cost of university education and the efficiency of public university students in Nigeria?
Method
Research Design
The study employed a survey method of descriptive research design to unravel the influence of private cost on the efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigerian universities.
Sample
The participants in this study involved 1500 different categories of undergraduate students selected through a purposive random sampling method from five public universities in the South West geo-political Zone of Nigeria.
Instruments
The study used three research instruments:
(a) A self developed validated questionnaire tagged Private Cost and University Students’ Efficiency Questionnaire (PCUSEQ) to collect relevant data from the 1500 participants (r = .79).
(b) A self developed Tuition Check List to garner information on the tuitions paid by students on
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
76
different courses from the Bursary Departments of the sampled universities (r = .91).
(c) Academic records of the classes of degrees
obtained by graduated students from 2010 to
2014 in the sampled universities.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed through descriptive and
inferential statistics tools (SPSS- Analysis of Variance
and Correlation Statistics) to test the research
questions for the study. The data obtained from 1,500
students were grouped on the basis of the schools
attended. These were later regrouped on the basis of
the discipline/course of study to which each student
belongs.Mean and other measures of descriptions
were used to illustrate the average direct private cost
after adjusting for alpha coefficient of 0.67. Further
analysis was made to determine how much was
expended from the average private cost on student
tuition and needs such as: (1) Books and Stationeries
(2), Meals at School (3), Clothing (4), Transportation
(5), Accommodation (6), Sport, and (7) Social
activities.In order to obtain the direct private cost,
the amount spent by parents/students on each of the
money-requiring items of schooling per annum were
added up to provide the private cost for the
respective years.
The amount listed by sampled students in each
school/faculty as it was done with the universities
was summed up and the mean was obtained. The
means became the index of private cost for the
universities.Similarly, the index of private cost in
each university was added up to obtain the index of
private unit cost (PUC) for the particular year as
separate independent units.
Furthermore, in answering the research questions,
existing academic records from students’
departments were used. The summary of the
performance for students from 2007 to 2011 were
also used in scoring the undergraduate efficiency as
compared to their direct private unit cost for each
year.
PUCu= AFu
PUCu = Direct private unit cost ofuniversity
education for undergraduate
n = Total cost of materials incurred by parents
t = The year involved (2007-2011)
AFu = Annual direct private cost ofuniversity for
undergraduate.
= Summation
Class of Certificates (Measure of Efficiency)
First Class-Distinction (1st) = 70 + (A)
Second Class Upper (21) = 60-69 (B)
Second Class Lower (22) = 50 -59 (C)
Third Class = 49 – 45 (D)
Pass = 40 – 44 (E)
Results
Table 2: Average direct Private Cost of Public
University education of Students in Nigeria from
2010 to 2014 Sampled Universities Period I II III IV V Average
N ( $ ) N ( $ ) N ($) N ($) N ($) N
2010 117,900.24 (736.88)119,277.19 (745.48) 210,654.13
(1316.59) 117,900.24 (736.88) 116,523.30 (728.27) 136,451.02
2011117,242.47 (732.77)118,568.82 (741.06)119,895.16
(749.35)117,242.47 (732.77) 115,916.30 (724.48) 117,773.04
2012118,641.50 (741.51)210,075.40 (1312.97)211,509.43
(1321.93) 118,641.50 (741.51) 117,207.54 (722.55)155,215.07
2013210,428.05(1315.18)211,999.44 (1325.00)213,570.83
(1334.82) 210,428.05 (1315.18) 118,856.66 (742.85) 193,056.61
2014213,138.68 (1332.12) 214,918.57 (1343.24) 216,698.47
(1354.37) 213,138.68 (1332.12) 211,358.78 (1320.99)
213,850.64
Source: FieldworkN 160 = US$1 (As at study period)
Table 2 shows the trends of average direct private cost of public university education of students in the five sampled public universities in Nigeria from 2010 to 2014.
Average direct private costs of N136,451.02(US$852.82),N117,773.04(US$736.08), N155,215.07(US$970.09),N193,056.61(US$1206.60), and N213,850.64(US$1336.57) were spent by parents in universities I, II, III, IV, and V respectively from 2010 to 2014. This trend shows an increasing average private direct cost for the years under study. However, a continuous rising direct private cost from 2010 to 2014 was recorded in all the universities.
Research Question 1
Is there any significant difference in the direct private costs of university education across the public universities in Nigeria?
t=1
n
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
77
Table 3: Direct Private Cost of Public University education and Efficiency of undergraduates in Nigeria from
200710 to 2014
PUC N (A)1st Class (B) 21 (C) 22 (D) 3rd (E) Pass 100,000 - 120,000
1 (0.07%) 32 (2.13%) 112 (7.47%) 51(3.4%) 53 (3.53%)
120,001 - 140,000
5 (0.33%) 57 (3.8%) 178 (11.87%) 23 (1.53%) 21 (1.4%)
140,001 - 160,000
9 (0.6%) 79 (5.27%) 242 (16.13%) 33 (2.2%) 17 (1.13%)
160,001 - 180,000
3 (0.2%) 34 (2.27%) 111 (7.4%) 19 (1.27%) 23 (1.53%)
180,001 - 200,000
2 (0.13%) 114 (7.6%) 70 (4.67%) 26 (1.73%) 17 (1.13%)
200,001 + 4 (0.27%) 89 (5.93%) 45 (3%) 20 (1.33%) 10 (0.67%) T Total 24 (1.6%) 405 (27%) 758 (50.53%) 172 (11.47%) 141 (9.4%) Source: Fieldwork
A cursory look at students who spend highest PUC N 200,000 (US$1250) and above in the table 3 reveals a negative impact of this cost on their classes of degree compared to those with PUCs ranging from N120,001 to N160,000. In the class of 1st class degrees, students with PUC range of N 120,001 andN 160,000 outperformed with 5(0.33%) and 9(0.6%) respectively while 2 (0.13%) and 4(0.27%) were
recorded for students with the PUC of N180,001 and N200,001 upward respectively.
The mix of undergraduate students’ efficiency and private cost is also depicted in figure 2 to show at a glance how efficiency is been influenced by the private cost of public university education.
Figure 2: Graph Showing Private Unit Cost and Academic Efficiency of University Students from 2010 to 2014
Source: Derived from table 3
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1 2 3 4 5 6 PUC: 1=100,000-120,000;2=120,001-140,000; 3=140,001-160,000;4=160,001-180,000;5=180,001-200,000;200,001-220,000
Series 1=1st Class; Series 2= 2nd Class Upper; Series 3= 2nd
Class Lower; Series 4=3rd Class; Series 5=Pass
Class of Degree
Series1 Series2 Series3 Series4 Series5
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
78
In answering the research question, the academic
performance of undergraduate students (result) and
private cost of the sampled students were subjected
to Pearson product correlation coefficient in order to
establish if any significant relationship exists
between the private cost of university education and
undergraduate students’ academic performance
Research Question 2
What is the relationship between private cost of
university education and the efficiency of public
university students in Nigeria?
Table 4: Correlations of Private Cost and Efficiency of Undergraduates in Nigerian Universities (2007 to 2011)
PUC Distinction
Second
class upper
Second
class lower Third class Pass
PUC Pearson
Correlation 1 .000 .678 -.582 -.710 -.781
Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .139 .225 .114 .067
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Distinction (A) Pearson
Correlation .000 1 .205 .781 -.211 -.514
Sig. (2-tailed) 1.000 .697 .067 .688 .297
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Second Class
Upper(B)
Pearson
Correlation .678 .205 1 -.218 -.343 -.682
Sig. (2-tailed) .139 .697 .678 .505 .135
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Second Class
Lower(C)
Pearson
Correlation -.582 .781 -.218 1 .204 .031
Sig. (2-tailed) .225 .067 .678 .698 .954
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Third Class (D) Pearson
Correlation -.710 -.211 -.343 .204 1 .861(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .114 .688 .505 .698 .028
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
Pass (E) Pearson
Correlation -.781 -.514 -.682 .031 .861(*) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .067 .297 .135 .954 .028
N 6 6 6 6 6 6
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 4 shows the correlation analysis of private cost
and efficiency of undergraduates reflected in the
different classes of degree obtained in the sampled
universities. The correlation analysis for the data
revealed that PUC and distinction (first class), second
class upper, second class lower, third class, and pass
degrees were not significantly related. Distinction(r
=.000; n= 6 ,p>.05), Second Class Upper( r = .678; n=
6 , p>.05), Second Class Lower (r =-.582; n= 6 , p>.05),
Third Class( r =-.710; n=6 , p> .05) and Pass (r = -
.781; n= 6 ,p> .05). This shows that private cost of
university education has nothing to do with the
efficiency of public university students in Nigeria.
Discussion of Result
The study revealed that private cost of university
education ranged between N116,523.30 (US$728.27)
and N216,698.47(US$1343.24) from 2007 to 2011
which shows a continuous rising among universities
in Nigeria. This finding confirms with what Adenegan,
Yusuf, and Sodipo (2002); Samuel (2003); and
Borthwick (1999) found in their studies of
expenditure on education. They discovered that the
level of private expenditure, which originated from
individuals and enterprises, was more than what the
government expended. This finding corroborates the
principle of fiscal justice postulated by Samuel (2003)
that he who receives the largest benefits of education
should bear the greatest burden of its cost. It is
assumed that private returns to investment in
education are more than social returns; hence
households should be made to pay heavily for
education.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
79
The study further revealed that a significant
difference did not exist in the private costs of
university education across the Nigerian public
universities. This trend corroborates the Federal
Government of Nigeria’s directive through National
Universities Commission (NUC) that all universities
should generate 10 percent of their total yearly fund
internally through various revenue diversification
means (Odebiyi and Aina, 1999). With the level of
underfunding in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, there
is the need to evolve worthwhile strategies that will
make it possible for the universities to achieve
qualitative education, hence increased tuition fees
among others which have jacked up private cost.
Furthermore, this study had also found that private
cost of university education did not in any way
influence the efficiency of undergraduate students in
public universities in Nigeria. Thus, the students who
incurred low private cost of university education
performed better than those who incurred high
private cost of university education.
Efficiency of undergraduate students in the Nigeria’s
public universities is not tied to their private costs.
There are other factors that influence students’
efficiency. They are learning environment,
government funding policy and students’ innate
ability among others. Thus, if the increased private
cost does not translate into providing adequate
learning infrastructure on campus, it will affect the
students’ efficiency. If the government funding policy
is not adequate, it will affect the students’ efficiency.
According to Akinyemi and Ayo- shobowale (2013),
the issue of university underfunding in developing
economies especially in Nigeria is prime cause of
other problems that have undermined quality in
university education, and it has manifestation in
problems such as academic staff shortage, dearth of
library books and journals, decline of reading culture
among students, dilapidated buildings, obsolete
equipment, abandoned capital projects, poor
electricity and water supply, hostile working
environment, incessant strikes and mass exodus of
Africa’s best brains in academics. All these
aforementioned variables influence the students’
efficiency negatively. The study also discovered that
the state of Nigerian economy had a significant effect
on private cost of university education across the
universities in Nigeria.
Conclusion
In this study, the relationship between the private
cost of public university education and efficiency of
undergraduate students in the Nigeria’s universities
was investigated and established. The challenges of
funding the education of undergraduates and how
they affect their academic performance were also
examined. On the whole, it was found that a
significant relationship did not exist between private
cost of public university education and the efficiency
of university students in Nigeria. Efforts should
therefore be made by the governments and the
university authorities in Nigeria to enhance students’
efficiency in spite of continuous increased private
cost of university education
Recommendations
1. Inefficiency of undergraduate students in spite of
increased private cost should be blamed largely on
government due to her reluctance to funding the
universities adequately. The government should take
clue from other African countries and increase her
annual budgetary allocation to education from less
than 10 percent to at least 26 percent recommended
by UNESCO.
2. Students should be made to study those courses
commensurate with their latent abilities. Parents
should desist from forcing their wards to study those
courses not interesting to them (students) and which
they do not have flair for. “I studied Medicine and
performed excellently in the university as a parent
does not mean my child will be good at Medicine and
must be compelled to read the same”. Students’
innate abilities should rather be discovered and
encouraged to be developed through formal
education.
3. Increased tuition fees should translate into providing
adequate leaning environment for students. Well
stocked library and modern equipment should be
provided for conducive learning environment. Also
academic staff should be remunerated to avert low
commitment and brain drain. Furthermore, learners’
environment should be properly harnessed with
learning environment to enhance students’ efficiency.
4. Finally, government should provide targeted
scholarship and bursaries to students from low and
middle households.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
80
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
82
AGE AND TEST ANXIETY AS CORRELATES OF ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
1Olatunji O. A., 2Okunade H. F. and 3Awogbami, O.V. 1Department of Psychology, Faculty of the Social Sciences
Federal University OyeEkiti, EkitiState, Nigeria. 2Department of Social Science Education, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado – Ekiti, EkitiState, Nigeria. 3Centre for Gender and Development Studies, Ekiti State University,
Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.
Abstract
This study examined age and test anxiety as correlates of academic performance among University students using a
correlational design. Two hundred (200) undergraduates of Federal University Oye -Ekiti (FUOYE) were sampled using
convenience sampling method. The participants were categorized into two age groups: older (23 – 30 years) and
younger (18 – 22 years). Self-report instruments comprising of Test Anxiety Inventory (TAT) was used for data
collection while the test scores of the students on a Faculty general course (FSS 001) was used to measure the academic
performance of the students. Three hypotheses were tested usingPearson correlation and t-test. The findings revealed
that age did not correlate with academic performance (r= -.03, p>.05), while test anxiety gives a negative relationship
with academic performance (r= -.144, p<.05), that is, the higher the test anxiety the lower the academic performance.
The results also revealed that there was no significant gender difference in academic performance among university
students (t = -0.51, df = 198, p>.05).It was recommended that all helping professionals working in the schoolsystem
especially in the university such as counselors, clinical -psychologists, educationists and social personnel should use
appropriate methods toidentify students suffering from test anxiety and help them out of theproblem.
Keywords: Age, Test anxiety, Gender, Academic performance, Undergraduates, Education
Introduction
Academic performance is frequently defined in
terms of examination performance. It is the outcome
of education; it is the extent to which a student,
teacher or institution has achieved their educational
goals (Abubakar&Oguguo, 2011). It is observed that
academic performance is an issue to investigate
because the rate at which students are failing
nowadays is worrisome and that has become an
issueof concern to education stakeholders. Educators
are beginning to recognize that anxiety has an impact
on the overall academic performance of an individual
student. Testing of students has become an
increasingly important component in the educational
world, this is important to know the ability of such
students to succeed (Anthony, Shyngle&Chidi, 2017).
Speilberger and Vagg (1995) regarded test anxiety as
a situation specific which is a temporary emotional
state. To these authors, test anxiety is different from
trait anxiety which is a constant personality
characteristic, test anxious individuals are more
prone to react with excessive anxiety such as worry,
negative thoughts, nervousness and physiological
arousal across testing situations. This proneness
predisposes them to experiencing more intense
levels of anxiety which is considered as the emotional
component of test anxiety in evaluative situations.
The high level of anxiety among people activates
worry conditions stored up in memory and these
conditions interfere with test performance (Wigfield,
1994). A positive relationship between trait and test
anxiety is therefore expected.
All school children and many adults are tested at
various times in their lives. School teachers identify
students with the characteristics needed for
promotion or placement in various classes. Likewise,
theemployers constantly confront the problemof
identifying individuals with the characteristics
needed for specific jobs within their organization
(Walsh, Engreton and O’Brier, 1988). All these can
only be achieved through tests. The term "test"
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
83
therefore is used loosely to include such things from
brief school examination to complex inventories of
personality traits(Walter, 2002). Some of these tests
yield numerical grades whereas others result in a
report of the examinee's impressions (Barbara &
Davis, 1999).Walter (2002) defined test as a
deliberate tendency to find out the level of interest,
knowledge, skill and achievement on a given task.
A test is a systematic procedure for comparing the
behavior of two or more persons (Cronbach, 1980).
According to him, intelligence cannot be visualized or
measured as one can see and measure a sheet of
paper. He stated that tests are constructed in such a
manner that the evidence of an individual's behavior
or performance is compared to the behavior or
performance of other individuals to whom the test
has been administered. The testperformance is
evaluated and an interpretation derived is given.
There are varieties of tests which include the
following: Achievement tests, Mental ability tests,
Aptitude tests, Tests of developed abilities,
Schoolreadiness tests, Interest inventories,
Personality measures.
Test anxiety is a psychological condition in which
people especially students experience extreme
distress and anxiety in testing situations (Tobias,
1985). While many of these students experience
some degree of stress and anxiety before and during
examinations, test anxiety usually impair their
learning and also hurt their test performance. Test
anxiety is thus an overwhelming feeling of
disturbance and distress among students globally
and can be a devastating problem for these class of
age groups as they grow and develop which may later
impair their performance and their well-being in life
in the long run (Farooqi, Ghani, &Spielberger, 2012)
Statement of problem
It has been observed that the attitude of the students
towards learning and their overall academic
performance is declining every day as students are
no longer interested in studying but looking for
shortcut in making it in life. Nigerian students of
nowadays are faced with so many challenges which
invariably impair their focus and passing their exams
and tests in schools. While some of these problems
are actually beyond their control, many of these
challenges are those they can actually master and
control. This study is aimed at establishing if truly the
fear that goes with preparing for tests or exams and
that goes with writing and passing such tests and
exams reside in university students. The study would
also want to know the extent to which male and
female students differ when compared on the level of
their academic performance.
Objectives of the study
The main objective of this study is to examine the
influence of test anxiety on academic performance
among university students. Specific objectives are as
follows:
(i) To examine the correlation between age and
academic performance of university students.
(ii) To examine the relationship between test
anxiety and academic performance among
university students.
(iii) To examine whether male university
students will perform academically better
than the female university students.
Research questions
The following are the questions the study seeks to
answer:
(i) Is there an association between age and
academic performance of university students?
(ii) Is there a relationship between test anxiety
and academic performance among university
students?
(iii) Is there a relationship between male and
female on academic performance?
Hypotheses
(i) Age of university students will have a
significant correlation with academic
performance.
(ii) Test anxiety will have a significant correlation
with academic performance among university
students.
(iii) Male university students will significantly have
higher academic performance than the female
university students.
Methodology
This research is a correlational design to establish the
relationship between test anxiety and academic
performance among university students. The study
consisted of 200 participantswhich were selected
using stratified random sampling technique and
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
84
convenience sampling method from the population of
the students.The study was conducted in Federal
University Oye-Ekiti.
The Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) developed by
Spielberger (1980) to measure anxiety proneness in
tests, examinations and evaluative situations was
employed to measure test anxiety while the test
scores on faculty general course was used to measure
the academic performance.
The socio-demographic information of the
participant was analyzed using descriptive statistics
while the hypotheses weretested using Pearson
correlation and t- test (at 0.05 level of significance)
were used in order to determine the influence of the
independent variables on the dependent variable.
Results
The data collected were scored and analyzed. The
following are the results:
Table1: Descriptive statistics showing the frequency and percentage of research respondents’ socio-demographic
characteristics
N %
Gender Male 103 51.5
Female 97 48.5
Age Group Early Age group 100 50
Middle Age group 51 25.5
Late Age group 49 24.5
Religious Affiliation Christian 161 80.5
Muslim 38 19.5
Traditional Religion 1 .5
Table 1 shows the frequency distribution of research
participants. Male respondents and female
respondents made up 51.5% and 48.5% respectively.
50% of the Research Participants were in the age
category of early, 25.5% were in the age category of
middle while 24.5% were in the age category of late
adolescents. 80.5% of research participants are
Christians, 19.5 % are Muslims and a single
participant is a traditional worshipper.
Hypothesis One
Age of university students will have a significant
relationship with their academic performance.
Hypothesis one was tested with Pearson correlation,
the result was presented in Table 2
Table 2: Relationship between Age and Academic performance.
Mean Std. Deviation N R p
Age 19.89 2.019 200 -.03 >.05
Academic Performance 57.04 19.087 200
In Table 2, the result shows no significant
relationship between age and academic performance
r = -.03, p>.05. Therefore, hypothesis one is rejected
Hypothesis Two
Test anxiety will have a significant relationship with
Academic performance among university students.
Table 3: Relationship between Academic
Performance and Test Anxiety.
Mean Std. Deviation
N R p
Test Anxiety 38.44 9.613 200 -.144 <.05
Academic Performance
57.04 19.087 200
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
85
Table 3 shows that the correlation coefficient
between Academic performance and Test Anxiety is
significant. This shows that there is significant
relationship between Academic Performance and
Test Anxiety(r=.114 p<.05). Therefore hypothesis
two is accepted.
Hypothesis Three
Male university students will significantly have
higher academic performance than Female university
students.
Table 4: Difference between Male and female on
Academic performance
Variables Gender N Mean Std.
Deviation Df t P
Academic Performance
Male 103 56.37 20.504 198 -0.51
>.05
female 97 57.75 17.535
Table 4 shows no significant gender difference in
academic performance among university students t =
-0.51, df = 198, p>.05, therefore hypothesis three was
not supported.
Discussion
This study investigated how age and test anxiety
serve as correlates of academic performance.
Hypothesis one stated that age of university students
will have a significant relationship with academic
performance. Contrary to the hypothesis, this study
found out that age does not have a significant
relationship with academic performance. This may be
as a result of students having to come to view their
performance as only significant to meet basic needs
of their life in regardless of their age.Ebenuwa-Okoh
(2010) in his study also did not find significant
relationship with academic performance and age.
Abubakar&Oguguo (2011) also did similar studies of
finding relationship between age and academic
performance but they did not find a significant
relationship.
In assessing the relationship between test anxiety
and Academic performance, independent t-test
analysis showed that there is significant difference in
the mean scores of participants with low and high
test anxiety on academic performance. This study
also shows that there is a significant relationship
between test anxiety and academic performance.
Therefore hypothesis two is accepted. Although the
result shows a negative relationship between test
anxiety and academic performance which states that
the higher the test anxiety, the lower the academic
performance and also, the lower the test anxiety, the
higher the academic performance. The present
finding is in line with the study of Jerrell& Ronald
(2002) who found that test anxiety had a
negativerelationship on academic achievement for
high test-anxious over low testanxiousstudents. The
work of Anthony, Shyngle&Chidi (2017) and
Farhad&Naghmeh (2011) also confirmed the result
of this current study. These authors found in their
study that test anxiety had a negative impact on
academic performance. This finding can be further
explained that students who experience fear during a
test or examination will perform less in the test while
those students who do not experience fear or who
are less anxious will perform very well in their test or
examinations.
In assessing the relationship between gender and
academic performance, hypothesis three stated that
male university students will significantly have
higher academic performance than the female
university students. Contrary to the hypothesis, the
influence of gender on academic performance was
not significant, even though the female students had
higher mean score than the male, the difference in
score was not statistically significant. Therefore
there was no significant influence of gender on
academic performance.Ebenuwa-Okoh (2010) and
Abubakar&Oguguo(2011) and other authors also
found concluded based on their studies that gender
differences does not exist when the issue of academic
performance is on the focus.
Conclusion
Test anxiety manifest in serious psychological
behaviors such as palpitations, shortness of breath,
profuse sweating, gastric sensations and dizziness
and so on. The Spielberger (1980) Test Anxiety
Inventory (TAI) was used to collect the data for this
study which indicates how generally students feel
during tests. The instrument developed by
Spielberger has implications for teachers to know
how their students feel when taking test and can now
master the techniques of reducing test anxiety from
the students. The instrument discriminates students
with varying levels of test anxiety and will now be
easy for teachers to help the students to individually
overcome test anxiety.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
86
The instrument gives an opportunity to the user to
find out how much a student feel by each item of the
Test Anxiety Inventory which in turn creates an
appropriate treatment techniques to get rid of test
anxiety. For the fact that this instrument is reliable
and consistent in measuring test anxiety, it has
implications for anxiety clinicians because they can
use it to monitor each students test anxiety level. In
this study, a negative relationship was found to exist
between test anxiety and academic achievement of
students and that the higher the anxiety level, the
lower the academic achievement. The implication is
that the academic achievement of test anxious
students can be improved by helping them to reduce
their anxiety in the examination situation. However,
that test anxiety has been found to have negative
consequences onstudents’ academic performance
does not imply that all the students who do not
perform well intellectually are victims of debilitating
test anxiety, otherfactors such as low intelligence,
poor study habit could be responsible for poor
academic performance
Equally, this study has educational implication among
the curriculum planners who may entrench in the
curriculum other methods of testing that will be less
anxiety provoking than the prevalent methods of
testing observed in schools today. Summarily, there is
a general implication thatproper psychological
intervention and therapeutic strategies be used by
experts to address such problems among students.
Based on the findings of this research work, it can
thus be concluded that age and gender does not have
a significant relationship with academic performance
among university students. Test anxiety has a
significant inverse relationship with academic
performance.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this work,it is thus
recommended that future research can include more
schools instead of one institution that was used in the
current study. This will enable a larger sample size
and will strengthen the literature in this area.
Qualitative research in this regard might produce
more detailed results. More investigation is also
needed to ascertain the reasons behind the gender
difference in the mean scores and the non –
significant difference between male and female
students. For practice, it is recommended that all
helping professionals working in thesecondary
school and the university system such as counseling
psychologists, clinicalpsychologists, social personnel
and educationist should use appropriate methods
and technology to enhance their skills and toidentify
students suffering from test anxiety and help them
out of theproblem.These significant others should
also explore other situational effects such as school
climate and assessment ideology along with a larger
variety of test formats or assessment techniques. In
other words, the total school ecology should be taken
into account in understanding test anxiety.
References
Abubakar, R. B. &Oguguo, O. D. (2011). Age and
gender as predictors of academic achievement
of college mathematics and science students.
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of teaching, learning and change. International
association for teaching and learning.
Anthony, G. B, Shyngle K. B. &Chidi, V. O. (2017). Test
anxiety and academic performance among
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achievement motivation. The Spanish journalof
Psychology. Vol.20.
Barbara, J. L. & Davis (1999). Empirical Construction
and Validation of a sentence completion test for
hostility, anxiety and dependency, Journal of
Consulting and Clinical psychology, 39,
Cronbach, L.J .(1 980). Essentials of Psychological
Testing. (2nd ed.). New York: Harper.
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Farhad,G.D & Naghmeh B. (2011). Relationship
between test anxiety and academic
performance. Social and behavioural sciences.Vol. 15,
pages 3774 – 3778.
Farooqi, Y. N., Ghani, R. & Spielberger, C. D.(2012).
Gender differences in test anxiety and academic
performance of medical students. International
journal of psychology and behavioural sciences, 2,
38 – 43.
Jerrell, C.C. & Ronald E. J. (2002).Cognitive test
anxiety and academic performance.
Contemporary Educational Psychology. Vol. 27, issue
2, pages 270 - 295
Spielberger, C. D., &Vagg, P. R. (1995).Test anxiety:
Theory, assessment and treatment.
Washington D. C. Taylor & Francis
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Tobias, S. (1985a). A model for research on the effect
of anxiety on instrument. Educational
psychologist, 1(9), 120- 130.
Tobias, S. (1985b). Test anxiety interference
defective skills and cognitive capacity.
Educational Psychologist, 20,135-142.
Walter, P., (2002). Educational Psychology in the
classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology
(4th. Ed.). Henry clay Linagren.
Walsh, R.P, Engbreton, R.& O'Brien, B.A. (1988).
Anxiety and test-taking behaviour, Journal of
Counseling, psychology, l5, (6), 572-575.
Wigfield, A. (1994). Expectancy-Value theory of
achievement motivation: A developmental
perspective. Educational Psychology Review, 49-
78.
Williams J.E. (1991). Modeling test anxiety self-
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
88
SERVICE QUALITY FOR STUDENT DEVELOPMENT IN UNIVERSITIES IN KWARA STATE NIGERIA
Saheed OYENIRAN Department of Educational Management
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
The quality of service provided by universities is an important aspect of university management. This is because the quality of service provided by these institutions determine the extent to which the goal of higher education institutions would be achieved. This study is therefore carried out to examine the relationship between service quality and student development in universities in Kwara State. The study adopted a descriptive research of the survey type.A sample of 200 students and Lecturers were drawn from University of Ilorin, Kwara State University and Al-Hikma University representing federal, state and private university respectively. Two sets of instruments were used for data collection for this study. The first instrument was titled Service Quality Questionnaire (SQQ) and was designed based on SERVQUAL model while the second instrument was title Student Development Questionnaire (SDQ). Three research questions and five hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The research questions were answered using descriptive statistic while the hypotheses formulated were analysed using Pearson product-moment co-efficient at 0.05 level of significance.The finding of the study showed that service quality and student development was said to be moderate. The study further showed that there is significant relationship between service quality and student development. Based on the findings of this study, recommendations were made on the need to strengthen the SERVICOM unit of the universities for various department of the university to comply with the provision of quality service among others.
Keywords: Service quality; Quality assurance; Students development; Sustainable development
Introduction
Universities in Nigeria are the key agent in improving
sustainable development in the country. This means
that universities must ensure the sustainability of
whatever goals they are established to pursue. This is
because university role in this direction is theonly
way the objectives of Education for sustainable
development can be achieved.University is an
important aspect of any education system and the
roadmap to the development of any nation. The way
and manners universities are managed should be a
great concern to any serious government and society.
Therefore, all stakeholders must see to what is going
in the university in order to improve their service.
While universities are set up to develop student skills
and talents, the way this is carried out must be in
consonance with the best practices around the world.
The need for qualitative and increased access to
university education in Nigeria has brought about an
increase in the number of universities in Nigeria. This
geometrical increase in the number of universities
has call for the need for quality practices put in place
in the production of their outputs. In this context,
Green (2014) observed that higher education
institutions across the world have experienced the
introduction of processes for quality assurance. The
increasing competition among higher education
institutions to attract highly qualified students
toward achieving high academic profiles is forcing
them to pay more attention to service quality issues.
This makes it prudent to examine whether the quality
process has produced the enhancement of core
outputs (Green, 2014).
Furthermore, Đonlagić and Fazlić (2015) observed
that for higher education institutions, it is crucial to
apply the stakeholder approach to strategic
management due to the variety of stakeholders which
are important for internal and external evaluations,
quality assurance, study program development, etc.
This approach to strategic management is all about
understanding demands of stakeholders and
stakeholder’s relationships in order to achieve
institutional development objectives.The desire for
sustainable national development has drawn the
attention of stakeholders to the need forqualitative
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
89
university education. Higher education institutions
should ensure that all services encountered are
managed to enhance consumer perceived quality
(Legčević 2008). This is to examine the level of
quality service delivered by universities. Various
categories of stakeholders are involved in the higher
education system. However, for a higher education
institution it is important to identify its key
stakeholders, their needs, demands and interests.
University education is incessantly being sought after
by many admission seekers across the nation but
individuals has drawn attention of scholars to
examine the relationship between service quality and
student satisfaction inuniversities. It is against this
background that this study was carried out the
connection between service quality and student
development in universities in Kwara State.
Statement of the Problem
The role of service quality in higher education has
received increasing attention during the last two
decades (Legčević 2008). Also, there are few studies
conducted in Nigerian higher education institutions
on quality service.Iro-Idoro and Ayodele (2016)
examined Students Perception of Service Quality
encountered and their future Enrichment:
Implication for Academic Quality Assurance in
Nigeria Polytechnics. Muhammed (2016) also carried
out a study on Service Quality, Price and Student
Satisfaction in ModibboAdama University of
Technology, Yola. Adamawa State Nigeria. Usman and
Mukhtar (2016) examined analysis of service quality,
university image and student satisfaction on student
loyalty in higher education institution in Nigeria.
While all these studies examined service quality in
relation to student satisfaction, loyalty and university
image. The researcher view student development as
one of the ways to ensure sustainableuniversities
education in Nigeria. It is this lack of theoretical and
empirical evidences to justify this claim that inspired
the researcher to carry out this study.
Objective of the Study The major objective of this study is to examine the relationship between service quality and student development in universities in Kwara State. The specific objectives are as follows:
i. To examine the level of service quality
provided by universities in Kwara State.
ii. To examine the level of student development
in universities Kwara state.
Research Questions
The following questions were raised to guide this
study
i. What is the level of service quality in
universities in Kwara State?
ii. What is the level of student development in
universities in Kwara State?
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated to
provide direction to this study:
i. There is no significant relationship between
tangibles and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
ii. There is no significant relationship between
reliability and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
iii. There is no significant relationship between
responsiveness and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
iv. There is no significant relationship between
assurance and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
v. There is no significant relationship between
empathy and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
Review of Literature
Service Quality
Researchers have argued that quality is a difficult
concept to define.Therefore, attempts made by
scholars to define quality is based on their perception
of what they assume quality means. This is why
Parasuraman and Zeithaml (1985) describe quality
as an elusive and indistinct construct. Whatever
description we give to it all boils down to the
consumer of the service (e.g. his experience, his
expectations) and the long-term goal of the service
provider is to satisfy the consumer, strengthen
relations with the service provider and achieve
consumer loyalty.
Zeithmaml and Bitner (2003) defined service quality
as a reflection of the customer’s perception of specific
dimensions of services being provided by an
organisation. In the view of Parasuraman, Zeithmaml
and Berry (1988) seesservice quality as consumer
attitude showing his perception of the overall
superiority and excellence of a service provider.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
90
Service quality refers to the customer’s judgement
about a service overall performance or the
customer’s overall impression of the relative
weakness or supremacy of the organisation and its
services (Zeithaml 1988). The term service quality
according toĐonlagićand Fazlić (2015), can be
defined as the conformance of requirement, being fit
to use,or technical and functional aspects of quality
can be distinguished.
Grönroos (1984) observe that quality of service
consists of three key dimensions: functional,
technical and image and that the quality of service
depends on two variables: the expected and
perceived service. Functional quality of services is
assessed by customers' attitudes. In order to better
understand the meaning of the concept,Zeithaml and
Parasuraman (1985) proposed a model based on a
multiple-item scale for measuring service quality.
This is known as the SERVQUAL model. Zeithaml
and Parasuraman (1985) referred to this model as
the gap model. This is due to the fact the gap which is
identified between customer expectations and
customer perceptions needs to be closed in order to
offer excellent quality (Đonlagićand Fazlić, 2015).
Service Quality (Q) = Expectations (E) – Perceptions
(P)
According to Đonlagićand Fazlić (2015) the
SERVQUALmodel is premised on the view that
customers' assessment of service quality is
paramount. Major dimensions in the SERVQUAL
model for determining the gap between customer
expectations and perceptions are:
1. Tangibles: Appearance of physical facilities,
equipment, personnel, and communicate
2. Reliability: Ability to dependably and accurately
perform the promised service
3. Responsiveness: Willingness to help customers
and provide prompt service
4. Assurance: Knowledge and courtesy of
employees and their ability to convey trust &
confidence
5. Empathy: Caring, individualized attention that
the firm provides its customers (Green, 2014).
The notion of difference is the degree and direction of
discrepancy or gap between customer expectations
and perceptions of a service (Parasuraman et al.,
1985). The measurement of service quality has been
illustrated along a continuum ranging from ideal
quality to totally unacceptable quality with some
point along the continuum representing satisfactory
quality. The position of customer perceptions of
service quality on the continuum depends on the
nature of discrepancy between the expected service
and the service perceived by the customer. On one
hand, if expectations are greater than perceptions,
the perceived service quality is less than being
satisfactory and customer dissatisfaction is said to
occur. On the other hand, if expectations are less than
perceptions, perceived service quality is said to be
satisfactory and will tend toward ideal quality with
increased positive discrepancy between expected and
perceived service quality (Green, 2014).
In order to localise service quality in the context of
higher education, Nitecki and Hermon (2000) defined
service quality in relation to higher education
meeting or exceeding student expectations or as the
difference between student perception and
expectation of the service provided by higher
education institutions. It is a focused evaluation that
reflects the student perception of specific dimension
of service: reliability, responsiveness, assurance,
empathy and tangibles’ the other hand students’
satisfaction is more inclusive: it is influenced by
perception of product quality, service quality and
price as well as personal and situational factors. The
role of service quality in the universities has received
increasing attention in the past two decades and the
management of universities is ensuring that all
services provided to students are and well organised
to enhanced the student perceived quality service
delivery.
Student Development
Sustainable development is development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
(Brundtland, 1987) The goal of sustainable
development is to enable all people throughout the
world to satisfy theirbasic needs and enjoy a better
quality of life, without compromising the quality of
life of futuregenerations(Defra, 2005)Securing the
Future presents the goal of achieving a strong, health
and just society within environmental limits. This is
to be achieved through the means of a sustainable
economy, using sound science responsibly and the
promotion of good governance.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
91
Sustainable education requires a new approach to
knowledge acquisition and learning. This approach
is manifested in merging student experience inside
and outside the classroom, which eventually results
in shaping the21st century lifelong learner. The
student finds himself or herself in a journey of self-
development and growth throughout the course of
his or her study until graduation. At the time of
graduation, she is equipped with all what it takes to
be a successful career woman and a leader of change
in her society (Brown, 2009). In this regard,
universities need to develop student who are
capable of achieving the of education for sustainable
development.
This is why Quinlan (2011) observed that today’s
university students will be tomorrow’s doctors,
engineers, business managers teachers, faith leaders,
politicians, citizens, activists, parents and neighbours.
While they need to be able to demonstrate key skills
and knowledge to enact those roles effectively, they
must also demonstrate good character in carrying out
their responsibilities.The notion of holistic student
development encompasses academic learning and the
development of skills such as problem-solving and
analysis while simultaneously recognising other
aspects of students as people who are growing and
maturing affectively (emotionally) and morally.
Methodology
Research design for this study is a survey research of
correlation type. This is because the researcher
examines the relationship between service quality
and student development. A sample of 200 students
and Lecturers that were drawn from University of
Ilorin, Kwara State University and Al-Hikmah
University representing federal, state and private
university respectively.
Two sets instrument were used for data collection for
this study. The first instrument was titled Service
Quality Questionnaire (SQQ) and was designed based
on SERVQUAL model developed by Parasuramann et
al (1988) and adapted Muhammed (2016) and
Đonlagićand Fazlić, (2015) instrument to the current
situation. The instrument is a 25-items questionnaire
which was responded to by the students.Items 1-4 is
measuring tangibles, 5-9 is on reliability, 10-13
encompasses responsiveness, 14-19 measures
assurance while 20-25 measures Empathy. Students
were asked to respond to the instrument on a four
pointlikertscale (Strongly Agree = 4, Agree = 3,
Disagree = 2, strongly Disagree = 1). Lectures were
asked to respond to this instrument on a five
pointlikert scale (Excellent = 5, Very Good = 4, Good =
3, Moderate = 2, poor = 1). The second instrument is
a 20-items questionnaire titled Student Development
Questionnaire (SDQ) responded to by the lecturers.
In the instrument items 1-4 is on communication
skill, 5-8 is on analytical ability, 9-12 measures ICT
skills, 13-16 is on competence in chosen field while
items 17-20 measures decision making skills. The
reliability coefficients of the two instruments were
found to be .65 and .74 for SQQ and SDQ respectively.
Two research questions and five hypotheses were
formulated to guide this study. All the hypotheses
were tested at 0.05 level of significance. For the first
research question the decision is as follow: the mean
value between 1.00-2.00 regarded as low, 2.01-3.00
is moderate while 3.01-4.00 is high. The decision rule
for the second research question is that mean score
of 1-2.33 is low, 2.34-3.66 is moderate while 3.67-
5.00 is high.
Research questions were answered using descriptive
statistic while the hypotheses formulated were
analysed using Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
at 0.05 level of significance.
Analysisof Dataand Presentation of Results
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
92
Research Question 1: What is the level of service quality in Universities in Kwara State?
Table1: Level of Service Quality
S/N
Questionnaire Items
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Decision
Tangibles
1 The university has modern equipment for teaching and
learning process
2.92 .796 Moderate
2 Building and other physical facilities are visually appealing 3.27 .719 High
3 Lecturers and non-teaching staff in the university are neat in
their appearance
3.24 .837 High
4 Teaching materials are available and are up- to date 3.02 .865 High
Average 3.11 .804 High
Reliability
5 The university adhere strictly to its academic calendar 3.22 .863 High
6 When you have problem, the university show keen interest in
solving it
2.78 .874 Moderate
7 Lecturers respect lectures and exams schedules 3.15 .693 High
8 Courses are taught by highly knowledgeable lectures 3.09 .738 High
9 Records kept in the university are error free 2.83 .851 Moderate
Average 3.01 .801 High
Responsiveness
10 Inquiries, requests and claims of students are handled and
resolved timely and promptly.
2.82 .815 Moderate
11 Academic staff conducts themselves in students’ best interest. 2.92 .767 Moderate
12 Academic staff pays special attention and provides help to
students in resolving their problems.
2.88 .830 Moderate
13 Lecturers stick to their lecture time 3.00 .855 Moderate
Average 2.91 1.02 Moderate
Assurance
14 Academic staff has the necessary knowledge and skills, and
adequate communication skills.
3.09 .740 High
15 Quality of teaching process is at a high level. 3.01 .650 High
16 Conduct of staff fills students with confidence. 2.86 .788 Moderate
17 Academic staff provides professional answers to students’
questions.
2.94 .750 Moderate
18 The Lecturers/staff of the university do not indulge in corrupt
practices.
2.70 .878 Moderate
19 The school has a well-developed curriculum. 3.09 .934 High
Average 2.95 .790 Moderate
Empathy
20 Academic staff understands students’ needs. 2.86 .864 Moderate
21 Academic staff shows positive attitudes towards students. 2.82 .845 Moderate
22 Academic staff treats students equally and with respect. 2.66 .906 Moderate
23 Academic staff is available for consultations and is forthcoming
towards students.
2.84 .807 Moderate
24 The university values and acknowledges feedback from
students for improving processes.
2.86 .798 Moderate
25 Staff is polite, kind and professional in communication with
students.
2.80 .934 Moderate
Average 2.81 .860 Moderate
In table 2, item 2 which measures tangible obtained
the highest mean score while item 22 measuring
empathy obtained the lowest mean score. The table
also showed that 9 items (36%) of the total number
of the questionnaire items had mean value ranked
high while 16 items (64%) of the items were ranked
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
93
moderate. This implies that students generally
perceived the quality of the service provided by the
universities as moderate.
Research Question 2: What is the level of
Students’ developments in universities in Kwara
State?
Table2: Level of Students’ Development
A Communication Skill Mean Standard
Deviation
1 Speaking Skills 3.73 .802 High
2 Writing skills 3.64 .914 Moderate
3 Listening Skills 3.71 .903 High
4 Reading skills 3.69 .973 High
Average 3.69 .898 High
B Analytical Ability
5 Critical mind 3.36 1.02 Moderate
6 Diagnostic Mind 3.26 1.01 Moderate
7 Investigative Mind 3.45 .943 Moderate
8 Inquisitive Mind 3.29 .974 Moderate
Average 3.34 .987 Moderate
C ICT Skills
9 Ability to operate ICT gadgets 3.55 .985 Moderate
10 Ability to use ICT gadgets to solve simple
problems
3.43 .959 Moderate
11 Ability to use application packages that are
relevant to the job
3.39 .991 Moderate
12 Ability to use the internet 3.80 .986 Moderate
Average 3.54 .980 Moderate
D Competence in Chosen Field
13 Mastery of basic principles in the field of
specialization
3.54 .820 Moderate
14 Competence in effectively handling tasks that are
related to the chosen field
3.46 .874 Moderate
15 Ability to extend the knowledge of chose field to
solve problems in related field
3.49 .902 Moderate
16 Competence in handling equipment in carrying
out some tasks
3.38 1.01 Moderate
Average 3.48 .902 Moderate
E Decision-Making Skills
17 Critical analysis of situation before decisions are
taken
3.42 .910 Moderate
18 Recognizes decision requirements 3.40 .920 Moderate
19 Developing alternative decision 3.27 .908 Moderate
20 Selection of desired alternatives 3.36 .957 Moderate
Average 3.36 .924 Moderate
Table 2 showed that item 1 under communication
skill obtained the highest mean score of 3.73 while 6
measuring analytical ability had the lowest mean
score of 3.26. Table 2 also showed that three items
(15 %) were ranked high while 17 items (85%) of the
items were ranked moderate. This implies that
lecturers generally rate student development in the
universities as moderate.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
94
Hypothesis Testing Ho1: There is no significant relationship between
tangibles and students’ development in universities
in Kwara State.
Table 3: Tangible and Student Development
Variable N X SD Df Cal r-
value
P-value Decision
Tangible 176 3.11 .804
174 .65 .002 Ho1
Rejected
Student
Development
176 23.01 4.46
Table 3 shows the calculated p-value of .002 is less
than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that
there is no significant relationship between tangibles
and students’ development in universities in Kwara
State is rejected. The finding reveals that there was
significant relationship between tangibles and
students’ development in universities in Kwara State.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between
reliability and students’ development in universities
in Kwara State.
Table 4: Reliability and Student Development
Variable N X SD Df Cal r-
value
P-value Decision
Reliability 176 3.01 .801
174 .55 .024 Ho2
Rejected
Student
Development
176 23.01 4.46
Table 4 shows the calculated p-value of .024 is less
than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that
there is no significant relationship between reliability
and students’ development in universities in Kwara
State is rejected.
The finding reveals that there was significant
relationship between reliability and students’
development in universities in Kwara State.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between
assurance and students’ development in universities
in Kwara State.
Table 5: Reliability and Student Development
Variable N X SD Df Cal r-value
P-value Decision
Assurance 176 2.95 .790 174 .02 .094 Ho3 Not
Rejected Student
Development 176 23.01 4.46
Table 5 shows the calculated P-value of .02 is greater
than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that
there is no significant relationship between
assuranceand students’ development in universities
in Kwara State is not rejected. The finding reveals
that there was no significant relationship between
assurance and students’ development in universities
in Kwara State.
Ho4: There is no significant relationship between
responsiveness and students’ development in
universities in Kwara State.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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Table 6: Reliability and Student Development
Variable N X SD Df Cal r-
value
P-value Decision
Responsiveness 176 2.91 1.02
174 .52 .022 Ho4
Rejected
Student
Development
176 23.01 4.46
Table 6 shows the calculated p-value of .022 is less
than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that
there is no significant relationship between
responsivenessand students’ development in
universities in Kwara State is rejected. The finding
reveals that there was significant relationship
between responsiveness and students’ development
in universities in Kwara State.
Ho5: There is no significant relationship between
empathy and students’ development in universities in
Kwara State.
Table 7: Reliability and Student Development
Variable N X SD Df Cal r-
value
P-value Decision
Empathy 176 2.81 .860
174 .54 .006 Ho2
Rejected
Student
Development
176 23.01 4.46
Table 7 shows the calculated p-value of .006 is less
than the significance level (0.05) for 174 degrees of
freedom. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that
there is no significant relationship between
empathyand students’ development in universities in
Kwara State is rejected. The finding reveals that there
was significant relationship between empathy and
students’ development in universities in Kwara State.
Discussion
The results presented in table 1 showed that
equipment, building and other physical facilities,
teaching materials and the appearance of teaching
and non-teaching stall are all of high quality. The
universities ability to dependably and accurately
perform the promised service was high.The
willingness to help students and provide prompt
service was also moderate. Knowledge and courtesy
of employees and their ability to convey trust &
confidence and caring, individualized attention that
the university provides its customers were all
moderate. This implies that the student’s
expectations about the services provided by the
universities are moderate. However, their
expectation quality of physical facilities and
reliability are high. This result was in agreement with
the findings of Green (2016) and Đonlagić and Fazlić,
(2015) who also found that students expectations
about the quality of physical facilities in their
respective studies were high.
The findings also revealed that communication of
students was said to be high. Furthermore, their
speaking, listening and reading skills were said to be
high while their writing skills was said to be
moderate. In the same vein, their analytical skills, ICT
skills, competence in the chosen field and decision
skills were moderate. The implication of this is that
student development is moderate. This shows that
student development is a way by which education the
university can be sustained.
The result presented in table 3 showed that there is a
relationship between tangibles and students
development in universities Kwara State. This means
that provision of modern teaching equipment,
building and other physical facilities and teaching
materials can bring about student development. Also
the quality and appearance of academic and non-
academic can also influence student development.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
96
Table 4 also indicates that there is a relationship
between reliability and student development in
universities in Kwara State. This means that the
ability of the university to adhere strictly to its
academic calendar, showing keen interest in solving
student problem and keeping of up to date and error
free record have implication for student
development. In the same vein, lecturers respect for
lectures and examination schedules and the
university ability to appoint knowledgeable lecturers
to teach students will also bring about student
development.
The result presented in table 5 revealed that there is
no relationshipbetween assurance and student
development. Knowledge and courtesy of university
staff and their ability to convey trust and confidence
in student cannot enhance student development.
There is a relationship responsiveness and students
development in universities in Kwara State according
to the data presented in table 6. This means that
when student inquiries, request and claims are
handled and resolved promptly and timely and when
academic staff payspecial attention and provides
helps to student in resolving their problems would go
a long way in enhancing the development of the
students.Table 7 also indicated that there is a
relationship between empathy and student
development. This implies that if academic staff
understand students needs, show positive attitude
toward student, treat student equally with respect
and are available for consultation and forthcoming
with student will improve their development.
Furthermore, if university values and acknowledges
feedback from student for improving process and
that staff is kind polite and processional in
communication with student will also enhanced
student development.
Conclusion
Thisstudy concludes on the note that service quality
is an important factor that enhances student
development. This implies that the level of service
provided by the university impact on student
development. Therefore, one of the ways universities
can promote sustainable is improve on the quality of
the services they provide to the students.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made.
1. The willingness to help students and provide
prompt service by the universities needs to
be improved upon.
2. The universities should instil staff courtesy,
knowledge and ability to convey confidence
and trust in their students.
3. The universities should also improve the
servicom unit to make various departments
of the university comply with service quality.
References
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: APPLICATION AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Fasasi, Y. A. Department of Educational Management
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Email: fasasiadebunmi@gmail.com, yunusadeb@unilorin.edu.ng
Abstract
In Nigeria, socio-economic, political and religious crises seem to be on increase with attendant consequences on national development. In spite of the existing regulations, many people are involved in behavioural anomalies in their private and public affairs. These are posing challenges to the educational system whose main objective is to inculcate the right type of values and attitude into the citizens. Therefore, this paper discussed the legal framework for ensuring positive behaviour among stakeholders in the nation’s educational organisations. The paper posited that application of the law involved government officials, school administrators, teachers, students, parents, school proprietors and other stakeholders whose constitutional rights should be respected. It stated further that educational managers must understand the law for proper application and for sensitisation of the stakeholders on consequences of their actions. It therefore recommended that education law should be taught to all prospective teachers.
Keywords: Education law, Legal framework, Educational organizations, Constitution, Statute law, Common law.
Introduction
Nigeria as a nation entered the 21st century with
series of socio-economic, political and religious
challenges. There are manifestations of corrupt
practices in private and public lives of many citizens
to the extent that Nigeria is regarded as a front liner
among corrupt nations across the world. The
government made series of efforts towards crises
prevention and eradication of corrupt practices.
These include launching of War Against Indiscipline
(WAI) in 1984, and War Against Indiscipline and
Corruption (WAIC) in 1994. The government also
established the Independent Corrupt Practices and
other related offences Commission (ICPC) in 2000,
and Economic and Financial Crimes Commission
(EFCC) in 2003 (Fasasi, 2012). Although, WAI and
WAIC terminated after some years of
implementation, ICPC and EFCC are still functional
today as agencies for fighting corruption in the
country.
In spite of these efforts, the rate of crises and
corruption seem to be on increase in the country.
Many people engage in dishonesty, vandalism, abuse
of power, academic and financial fraud, bribery and
other forms of immoralities. These types of offences
have been trivialized as acts of indiscipline when they
are committed in schools. However, they eventually
translate into serious crimes in the larger society
(Noha, 2003; Olagboye, 2004). They, therefore, pose a
great threat to national development. Incidentally,
education which has been adopted as an instrument
for national development (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004) is completely engulfed in the ills of the
society. Corruption in form of bribe-giving, bribe-
taking, fraud, child abuse and other acts of
indiscipline is prevalent in the nook and crannies of
the education system.
The government (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013),
intends that education should develop individuals
into a morally sound, patriotic and effective citizen.
Education should also empower the citizens to live
and contribute positively to the society. These
laudable goals could be achieved if the citizens are
aware of their duties, obligations, rights and
responsibilities, and thus regulate their behaviour
accordingly. Knowledge of education law would
encourage positive behaviour among school-leavers
who would be in position to transform the society
and tailor it towards achieving developmental goals.
It is therefore imperative that educational managers
should be aware of the law guiding the behaviour of
personnel in their organizations. Educational
organizations include education ministries and their
parastatals, as well as educational institutions at
primary, secondary and tertiary levels (Fasasi, 2011).
The objective of this paper, therefore, is to examine the legal framework for education in Nigeria. The
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
99
paper also highlights the stakeholders who are involved in application of the law and its implications for management practices in education. Legal framework for education is a broad system of rules which are meant to regulate the activities of the government, personnel in educational institutions, ministries, boards and other stakeholders. It includes the federal constitution, acts, laws enacted by civilian government, decrees, edicts, by-laws, policies, legislations and other regulations on education.
Concepts in Education Law
Education law is an aspect of a nation’s regulation which is enacted in order to govern the activities of
stakeholders on all types of education at all levels. Thus, its concepts are derived from the legal system. There are statute and common laws. Statute laws are statutory or written laws. They include military decrees and edicts. They also include Acts of Parliament, State/Regional laws and Local Government Area by-laws of civilian government. Common laws are developed from customs, traditions and judicial decisions. They include civil and criminal laws. Civil laws are laws relating to family, commerce, lands, torts and contracts. Criminal laws are laws on crime against person, property and government. Statute and common laws have relevance in education and they are of different types as shown in figures i and ii.
Fig i: Aspects of Statute Law
Source: Adapted from Olagboye, A. A. (2004). pp. 142-145.
Decree: Education law made by military government
at federal level. Decree No 1 of 1974 established
National Universities Commission as a parastatal of
the Federal Ministry of Education.
Edict: Education law made by military government at
state level. Public Education Edict of 1970 by the
Government of East Central State of Nigeria and Edict
No 5 of 1984 which established Kwara State College
of Education with retrospective effect from 1974
when the College was established are examples.
Act: Education law made by civilian government through the National Assembly. Examples are the
Teachers Registration Council established by Act 31 of 1993, and Universal Basic Education Act of 2004.
Law: Education law passed by State House of Assembly. The Lagos State Government promulgated the Yoruba Language Preservation and Promotion law of 2018 which made Yoruba Language compulsory in all the State’s primary and secondary schools (Akinsanmi, 2018).
By-Law: Education law made at Local Government
level.
Statute law
Civilian Military
Decree Act of Parliament
Edict State Law
LGA by-law
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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Fig ii: Aspects of Common Law
Source: Adapted from Olagboye, A. A. (2004). pp. 142-145.
Family law: These are laws on family related issues
such as divorce, child adoption, child abuse and child
support payment.
Commercial law: Laws on purchase of facilities,
school business venture for internally generated
revenue.
Land law: Law on land ownership, use,
documentation and encroachment.
Law on tort: Law on injury or torture, assault,
seduction, negligence on part of staff and students.
Law on contracts: Laws on employer-employee
contract and job negotiation agreement.
Law on crime against property: Laws on arson, theft
and destruction of properties.
Law on crime against person: Laws on manslaughter,
murder.
Law on crime against government: Laws on rioting,
sedition and treason.
Other concepts in education law include:
Constitution: Fundamental rules of the nation which
spells out the powers and duties of the government
and duties and rights of the people. It is the source of
laws governing all affairs of the country including
education. The 1979 and 1999 Constitutions of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria are examples.
Ordinance: Education law made by Colonial
Government under the British Constitution. The first
education Ordinance was published in 1882 for
British West African Colonies of Lagos, Gold
Coast(Ghana), Sierra Leone and Gambia. There was
another Education Ordinance in 1887 for Colony and
Protectorate of Lagos.
Policy: An authoritative plan of actions on education
proposed or approved by the government. The first
national policy on education was published in1977
by the Federal Government. It has been revised five
times and its sixth edition was published in 2013. A
policy could be either be written on unwritten. It
could be made at any level of government and
educational institutions.
Code: Executive rules made in order to interpret and give effect to an existing written law on education.
Rule and Regulation: Education laws authorized to be made under the existing statute. Rules and regulations could be made at educational institutional levels for staff and students on dress code, class attendance, conduct of examinations and many other activities as contained in documents students’ manual, institutional handbooks and staff
Common law
Criminal Law Civil
Family Commercial Crime against
person
Crime against
Government
Land
Contract Crime against
Property
Tort
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conditions of service. Rules and regulations may also be unwritten.
Legal Framework for Education
Richard’s Constitution of 1946 divided Nigeria into
Eastern, Northern and Western regions. It provided a
central legislature in Lagos and a house of assembly
for each of the regions. As a follow-up, an educational
ordinance was enacted in 1948 to establish boards of
education for the centre and the three regions, among
others. The 1951 MacPherson Constitution granted
more autonomy to the regions (Olagboye, 2004). This
provided an initial structure for Nigerian education
system. Moreover, the Constitution of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria (1999) recognised Federal, State
and Local Governments. This provides the present
structure for formulation and application of laws in
the nation’s education system. At the federal level,
there is a Federal Ministry of Education. There is a
state ministry of education in each of the 36 states
and there is a local government education authority
in each of the 774 local government areas.
The Federal Government laws in the Constitution and
other enactments at federal level spell out the
activities of the citizens of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. The education law emanating from these
federal laws also controls the educational activities of
the citizens in the country (Figure iii). The education
laws guiding ministries of education are for Federal
and State Ministries of Education and Local
Government Education Authorities in the country.
Moreover, laws guiding federal, state and local
government educational parastatals are derived from
the education ministries. Tertiary, secondary,
primary and pre primary educational institutions
also derive their laws from their parastatals while
laws guiding classroom activities at all levels of
education are derived from their educational
institutions.
Figure iii: Flow of Education Law From Government to Educational Organisations.
Keys: MOE: Ministry of Education
LGEA: Local Government Education Authority
Source: Author’s Design
Federal Government Law Federal Republic of Nigeria
Education Law Federal Republic of Nigeria
Laws Guiding Ministries of
Education
Federal, State MOEs; LGEAs
Laws Guiding Parastatals Federal, State, Local
Government Parastatals
Laws Guiding Education
Institutions
Tertiary, Secondary, Primary,
Pre-Primary
Laws Guiding Classroom
Activities
Tertiary, Secondary, Primary,
Pre-Primary
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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In the Second Schedule part 1 item 60(e) of Exclusive
Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution, the Federal
Government has an exclusive power to prescribe
minimum standards of education at all levels (Table
1). This empowered the Federal Government to
provide education decrees, acts and policies which
constitute the basis for decision-making and
implementation on all aspects and levels of education
in Nigeria. For example, the Government
promulgated the Universal Basic Education Act in
2004, and Minimum Education Standard for
establishing pre-primary, primary, junior secondary
and senior secondary schools in 2005. The 2007 and
2015 editions of Benchmark Minimum Academic
Standard published by the National Universities
Commission are also examples of Federal
Government’s constitutional power on education.
In the Second Schedule, Part II items L 27 to 30 of the
Concurrent Legislative List of the 1999 Constitution,
Federal and State Governments have concurrent
legislative power on university, technological, post-
primary and professional education (Table 1). State
and Federal Governments are also empowered to
establish education agencies, boards and
commissions. The federal and state ministries of
education are saddled with planning and
administration for these institutions and parastatals.
In the Second Schedule part II item L 30, and in the
Fourth Schedule, item 2(a) of Concurrent Legislative
list, State and Local Governments have concurrent
legislative power to establish and maintain primary,
adult and vocational education and their parastatals
(Table 1).
Table 1: Government’s Legislative Power on Education
Level of Government Legislative Power
Examples
Federal Exclusive Prescription of minimum standard for all levels of education.
Federal and State of education
Concurrent Establishment and admi-nistration of tertiary, post -primary and profession-nal
State and Local Concurrent Establishment and adm-inistration primary, adult and education.
Source: Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Education laws are made at federal, state and local
government levels. The federal law covers the whole
country and is superior to state or local government
law. In all matters, state law should not contradict
federal law; neither should local government law
contradict state law. A law that is contradictory to the
one made at a higher level is null and void. In the
education system, the smallest unit is classroom. A
teacher has an authority to formulate rules and
regulations for smooth running of classroom
activities. These must be in conformity with school
rules and regulations. The school must also conform
to LGEA and state ministry of education rules which
must not be at variance with federal laws. The entire
education system operates under the Federal
Government. Its activities are regulated by the
Federal Government law. Hence, education law
should not be contradictory to any of the government
law.
Application of Education Law
Section 18 of the Nigerian Constitution (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1999 p.13), charged the
government with provision of education. It states
that ‘Government shall direct its policy towards
ensuring that there are equal and adequate
educational opportunities at all levels’. The
Government recognised the support of other
stakeholders in planning and administration of
education in the country (Federal Republic of Nigeria,
2004, 2013). Therefore, Government, personnel in
educational organisations (ministries, parastatals
and institutions), students and other stakeholders
have roles to play towards achievement of
educational objectives (Figure iv). They are all
involved in the application of education law.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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Figure iv: Implementation of Education Law
Source: Author’s Design
The government discharges its duties through the
personnel in the ministries of education. Sections 147
and 148 of the Constitution direct the Federal
Government to appoint an education minister for the
Federal Ministry of Education. Sections 192 and 193
of the Constitution also direct the state governor to
appoint an education commissioner for the state
ministry of education. Parastatals under the
education ministries are legally established to
facilitate achievement of educational objectives. They
include Universal Basic Education Commission, State
Universal Basic Education Board, National
Universities Commission and National Commission
for Colleges of Education, among others (Adeogun,
2002). The government and other stakeholders also
established educational institutions at pre primary,
primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Personnel in
the education ministries, parastatals and institutions
are employees of government. Their appointment
and conditions of service are guided by the education
law. Their heads must ensure compliance and proper
direction of efforts towards achievement of
educational objectives.
The government, in order to discharge its
constitutional role of providing education to the
citizens effectively, has many other roles to play. The
government is expected to ensure provision of
human, material and financial resources. Human
resources in education include teachers,
administrative staff and students. There are
conditions laid down in the education policy on
employment of teachers, administrative staff and
admission of students. A prospective teacher-
employee must be trained with minimum
qualification of Nigeria Certificate in Education
(NCE). He must also register with Teachers
Registration Council of Nigeria (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2013). Employment of an administrative
staff must also be guided by the law. It is a contract
between employer and employee and the contract
must be respected.
Moreover, the government is expected to provide
facilities in adequate quality and quantity for use in
the educational institutions. For instance, a piece of
land which can serve immediate and future needs of
a school would be required in a safe environment.
The land must be free from litigation, well
demarcated and fenced in order to prevent
encroachment. Classrooms, offices, libraries,
workshops, toilets, recreational facilities and other
structures must also be located in suitable sites
which would ensure effective teaching and learning.
In public and private educational institutions, head
teachers and other personnel have roles to play
towards smooth running and achievement of
educational objectives. They are in loco parentis and
they are expected to ensure an all-round
development of the students under their care
(Fayokun, 2006). They should therefore be familiar
with laws that are meant to guide students’
Government
s
Personnel in Educational
Ministries, Parastatals
(Board, Agencies, etc)
Ministries
Other
Stakeholders:
(Philanthropist,
Companies,
Religious
bodies,
Communities,
Parents and
Voluntary
organizations)
Personnel in Educational Institutions
Students
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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behaviour. For instance, law on tort is meant to
prevent torture, injury and assault on students. The
law is also to guide against corporal punishment.
However, many practices in the education system are
against the law. Ojoye (2016) reported that a school
proprietor defiled a four-year old nursery one girl in
his school. Jonathan (2018) also reported that a
teacher flogged a student to death in Zamfara State.
Another case was a school roof which collapsed and
killed a ten-year old pupil (Unigwe, 2015). These are
legal issues which can lead to imprisonment,
termination of appointment or any other stiffer
penalty. Constitutionally the parties concerned have
fundamental human rights to seek redress (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 1999).
Implications for Education Managers
Education managers are heads of education
ministries, parastatals and institutions at all levels.
Heads of units, departments and classrooms in these
organizations are also included as managers of their
various levels of education. They are expected to
have a thorough understanding of the education law
and the overall legal system of the nation. They are
also expected to allocate duties impartially and
recognize the rights of their subordinates in
accordance with the law. Application of the law is
impossible where understanding is lacking.
Moreover, formulation of the law and its
implementation is not an exclusive right of an
individual or a group. The government, the education
managers and their subordinates at all levels are
responsible for formulation and implementation.
Managers must ensure that their education law is in
line with the law of the country. They should be
aware that a law formulated at lower level of
education should complement and not contradict any
law at higher level in order to be valid. Therefore,
there is need for the managers to learn how to
formulate simple rules which will not contradict the
existing statute.
Education managers are to perform their functions
under the law. Planning of school activities,
organisation of educational resources, control
strategies for ensuring that performance does not
deviate from objective and maintenance of effective
leadership should be based on the law. Thus the
managers must be guided by the law and they should
encourage subordinates to be law abiding.
Finally, education managers should realise that the
organizations in which they are working are
established by the law. Code of ethics, policies,
guidelines and conditions of service in these
organisations must be made available, studied and
followed religiously. Managers and subordinates
must realise that there are consequences for their
actions. Thus, obedience and discipline are
imperative among the managers and their
subordinates.
Recommendations
It is recommended that education law should be
taught to all prospective teachers in all teacher
training institutions to facilitate understanding and
proper application. It is also recommended that
documents on education law, education policy and
the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
should be made available to staff and students in the
nation’s educational institutions. The government
should also provide an enabling environment,
authority and adequate facilities in order to enhance
application of the law and its compliance.
References
Adeogun, A. A. (2002). Educational agencies in
Nigeria. Lagos: Olatunji Publishing Press.
Akinsanmi, G. (2018). LASG: Yoruba now mandatory
for admission into tertiary institutions in
Lagos. Retrieved 20th February, 2018, from
www.thisdaylive.com
Fayokun, K. (2006). The ‘In Loco Parentis’ Doctrine
and school discipline. In J. B. Babalola, A. O.
Ayeni, S. O Adedeji, A. A. Sulaiman & M. O.
Arikewuyo (Eds.), Educational management:
Thoughts and practice. (pp. 308-319). Ibadan:
Codat publications.
Fasasi, Y. A. (2011). Managerial behaviour in
educational organization in Nigeria.
International Journal of Academic Research in
Business and Social Sciences. 1, (Special Issue),
14-23. Retrieved on 18th December, 2017 from
www.hrmars.com/journals
Fasasi, Y. A. (2012). Supervisors’ roles in promotion
of Islamic religious education for moral
development in Nigerian secondary schools.
Vocational Business Educator. 1(1), 117-123,
Published by Business Educators Association in
Vocational Education. Faculty of Education,
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
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Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria. Lagos: Federal
Government Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on
education. 4th Edition. Lagos: NERDC.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National policy on
education. 6th Edition. Lagos: NERDC.
Jonathan, Z. (2018). Teacher flogs student to death in
Zamfara. Retrieved on 22th February, 2018, from
https://punchng.com/teacher-flogs-student
Noha, A. O. K. (2003). Anti-corruption crusade in
secondary schools. Lagos State Post-Primary
Teaching Service Commission TESCOM NEWS.
Quarterly Publication of Lagos State Post-
Primary Teaching Services Commission.
Ojoye, T. (2016). How school proprietor raped me:
Girl, 4. Retrieved 15th November, 2017, from
http://punchng.com>how-school
Olagboye, A. A. (2004). Introduction to educational
management in Nigeria. Ibadan: Daily Graphics
(Nigeria) Ltd.
Unigwe, C. (2015). Tragic: School roof crashes killing
10-year old pupil. Retrieved 15th November,
2017, from https://www.thetrentonline.com
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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IMPACT OF PARENTAL SEPARATION ON SOCIAL ATTITUDE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IJEBU-ODE LOCAL GOVERNMENT, OGUN STATE
1Akinwunmi, F.S., 2Adeyanju H. I. and 3Yusuf-Babatunde A. M. 1Department of Educational Management,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. 2Department of Educational Management,
Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria.
3Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Ogun State College of Health Technology,
Ilese-Ijebu.Ogun State, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study examined the impact of parental separation on social attitude and academic performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local Government Area of Ogun State. The research design was descriptive survey. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The population for the study consisted of 15,500 students from 19 secondary schools in Ijebu-Ode local government from which two hundred and seventy (270) students were stratified based on sex, home background and family set-up from nine randomly selected secondary schools in the area of study. The instrument used for data collections were structural designed questionnaire tagged “Parental Separation on Social Attitudes and Academic Performance of Secondary School Students” (PSSAAPSSSQ) and scores of academic performance of students. The instruments was validated, pilot study carried out made use of Pearson Product Moment Correlation with coefficient of 0.79 to show the reliability of the instrument. Data collected were analysed making use of MANOVA and ANOVA statistical tools. Findings showed that there is significant impact of parental separation on social attitude, academic performance and combined variables of social attitude and academic performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local Government of Ogun State. A recommendation made among others was that Teachers, Social workers, Counselors should identify and counsel students from divorced families and separated parents should also be counseled in social needs of their children so that academic work will not suffer at school.
Key words: Parental separation, Social attitude, Academic performance, Students, Variables.
Introduction
Parents play significant roles in the educational
development of a child as they are the first point of
contact in a child’s life. Success or failure of a child
depend largely on the up-bringing of such a child
which is handled by the parents. Every parent will be
proud of a successful child while failure is frown at,
hence, the adage that, ‘failure is an orphan, success
has many parents’
Over the years, scholars have been trying to find out
the reason for the downward trends in the academic
performance of students. Daramola (2005) stated
that, the factors affecting a child’s educational
performance include the occupational status of the
parents, the attitude of parents to their children’s
education, and the value transmitted by the parents.
Obemeata and Daramola (1994) attributed it to the
students’ background, that is, the type of home
environment where the child is raised.
In all societies, throughout the world, parenting is a
complex activity that includes much specific behavior
that works individually and together to influence
child’s outcomes (Darling, 1993). The home is the
first social institution the child is exposed to in life, as
he grows older, he extends the social contacts to
other people within the neighborhood and beyond.
The parents play a very important and crucial role in
the education of their child. During this process, the
child, his home and the school constitute a part which
stands as a triangle. Whatever the child learns at
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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home as he find himself/herself in, motivates
him/her towards his education and this in return
contributes to the child’s success or failure in the
school and whether the child turn out to be a well
behaved child or not (Fraser, 2003).
Child
School Home
Source: The Researchers Findings (2018)
The above triangle shows the tripartite contribution
of the child, the school and home to either the success
or failure of a child.
According to Bamisaye (1998), the family is the
bedrock of attitude and value formation, both
positively and negatively. The family is a primary
socializing agent for the child both overtly and
covertly. The child first learns his social roles through
imitation of the older siblings and later, through
internalized patterns and principles of behavior in
the family. Bamisaye (1998), referred to the family as
the place where the child first learns the appropriate
behavior patterns, values, attitudes, norms and
folkways of the society. All these are known to
influence the socialization process in significant ways
resulting in different patterns of behavior and
consequently in their personality. The values and
attitudes, customs and traditions of the society are
taught to young children in the family.
This means that social behavior is learnt in the
family. Attitudes and values are easier learnt under in
a conducive family environment. It is therefore
within the family that the child gets prepared for the
outside world.
Attitude is concerned with an individual’s way of
feeling, thinking and behaving and this has serious
implications for the child, the parents, the immediate
social group and the society at large. In other words,
a person attitude is reflected through his/her
behaviour. Bandura (1977) identified the causes of
behaviour in terms of relationship with others being
external or internal. Internal causes are perceived to
be ones genetic background and personality traits,
while external causes are perceived to be related to
one’s physical environment and social setting.
Internal causes are supposed to represent factors
that are completely under the control of or within the
individual while the external causes are supposed to
be beyond the control or outside of the individual.
Tittley (1990) argued that the human dignity begins
in the home. The family is the breeding ground of all
interpersonal relationships, the basic sociology unit
where personal character is first molded and self-
identity first formed. Unfortunately, instability is
present in many homes today due to parental
separation which often affect the social attitudes of
the child. Children social stability could be largely
enhanced by the stability of the parents and siblings
in their immediate environment. In a stable,
supportive home, the child grows up to learn that the
world is a safe and predictable place where
competent, caring adults help to navigate challenges.
It should be noted that marital instability has much
story to tell in the lives of the adolescent because it
gives them room to be free when there is no one to
control them. Parental divorce or separation leads to
many changes in the development of the child.
Forman and Davies (2003) maintained that at
adolescence, the individual is getting developed
psychologically to cope and bear with stress and
tensions which they are faced with. They argued that
ability to bear with stress and tensions that the
adolescents are faced with posed a lot of pressure
their academics. A child biological temperament
plays a vital role in the eruption and resolution of
separation. The studies of Park and Kim (2001)
maintained that individuals are generally
predisposed to certain styles of social attitudes and
interaction. The study is to assess on the impact of
parental separation on social attitude of secondary
school students.
According to Ekundayo and Oyeniyi (2008) and
Adebule (2012), the society is battling with many
behavioural problems of the adolescent students,
which include truancy, disobedience, drug addiction,
smoking, flirting, stealing, armed robbery, violent
behaviour and demonstration, examination
malpractice, cultism and thuggery. Omotosho,
Adeniyi and Bada (2010) in addition to the above
mentioned, also viewed sex abuse, sex activities,
indiscriminate sex, homosexual (gay and lesbianism )
as part of behaviour problems prevalent among
Nigerian secondary school adolescent students.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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Adebowale (2006) in a study on the social behaviour
of adolescents as it affects their moral behavior
observed that the type of home which the adolescent
comes from, determine to a considerable extent, the
type of attitude which he will develop to exhibit. The
study revealed that the co-parental relationship of
mother and father provides children with a model of
adjusting, communicating, negotiating, and
compromising together.
Marital instability seems to have a long and lasting
impact on lives of any adolescent. The state of the
home or the marital status of adolescent parents
speaks volume about the life of the child. Separated
homes have been found as a crucial factor causing
anti-social problems among youths. Olusola (2008)
believed that the highest incidence of adolescents
whose parents are living separately may become
way-ward, unruly, or take to sexual misconduct as a
way of searching for affection which was lacking in
their unhappy parental home. Many researches
(Hayes, 1987; Miller & Webb, 1995) have shown that
immoral behavior are prevalent among adolescents
who are from unstable or separated family, with less
adequate parental training on their moral and social
attitudes.
Park and Kim (2003) argued that the mother
traditionally play substantial role in the care of the
family. The mothers’ care for them, listens to their
problems and provide solutions. Mothers are very
important in ensuring a happy childhood and
meaningfully adult life for their children. The parent
child relationship studies indicate that a father can
contribute uniquely to the development of the child
independently of the mother’s contribution.
However, when issues on factors such as emotional,
intelligence, self esteem, competence and confidence
come up, the father cannot be replaced easily by the
mother.
This study best fits on “Family Deficit Model”:
Hetherington and Kelly (2002) described family
deficit model as the ideal and normal family structure
of the nuclear or two-parent family. This model
upholds that single parent families tend to show
some negative influences on children since such
families are not nuclear in structure. The structure
plays down the effects that economic and other
background factors could have on academic
attainment of the learners (Abimbola, 2014). In the
view of Park and Kim (2003), family deficit model
assumes that single-parent households are deficient
in some critical ways for effective child training. This
could be so since there may not be any single parent
(father or mother) that can fully play the roles father
and mother play in the upbringing of the child in all
these areas such as housing, feeding, clothing, shelter
and education.
Statement of the Problem
Parental separation is an increasing social problem
that has become a topic for discussion in recent
times; it is traumatic for those who experience it.
Those affected may experience grief, embarrassment,
resentment, disappointment, intense anger and
divided loyalty with reluctant effect on academic
performance. Marriage is the bedrock of every
society which impacts every child to have high self-
esteem. It has been discovered that many people go
into marriage today without adequate preparation in
terms of growth and maturity to meet the challenges
of marital life. Hence, many marriages have been
known to end up in divorce. As soon as
divorce/separation occurs, the result can be on the
parents themselves, their children academic
performance and the entire society. Therefore,
divorce has become a subject of serious concern to
researchers at various levels. Researches have been
conducted on the issue of parental separation but this
research was carried out among secondary school
students in ijebu-ode Local Government of Ogun
State as it affect their academic perfomances.
Research Hypotheses
Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide
the study as stated below:
1. There is no significant impact of parental
separation on the combined variables of social
attitude and academic performance of secondary
school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun
State.
2. There is no significant impact of parental
separation on social attitude of secondary school
students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.
3. There is no significant impact of parental
separation on academic performance of secondary
school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun
State.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
109
Methodology
Descriptive research design of survey type was
adopted for this study. The design entails the
collection and use of data systematically from a given
population to describe certain characteristics
features of the population. The design is considered
appropriate for this study being that the work was
intended to collect data from small group with view
to describing the entire population vis–a–vis
determining the impact of parental separation on
social attitude and academic performance of
secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode Local
Government.
The target population of the study comprised junior
and senior secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode
local government, Ogun State, Nigeria. The
population of students in nineteen secondary schools
is 15,500 while the sample size for this study was 270
secondary school students. Nine schools were
randomly selected from the nine junior and senior
secondary schools in Ijebu-Ode Education Zone.
From each selected school, thirty students were
stratified and stratified sampling technique was used
to select five students from each class level (from J.S.S
1 to S.S.S 3). The sampling techniques ensured the
selection of students of different sexes, separated, un-
separated, home background.
A self-constructed questionnaire titled “Parental
Separation on Social Attitudes and Academic
Performance of Secondary School Students
Questionnaire (PSSAAPSSSQ) were administered to
collect data from the respondents for the study. The
instrument was divided into two sections, A and B.
Section A deals with the personal data of the
respondents like name of school, age, class, parental
status and sex, while Section B consisting of 30 items
solicited information on parental separation, social
attitudes and academic performance of the students.
The instrument was validated through constructive
suggestions by two experts from educational
management and evaluation.
To ensure the reliability of the instrument, a pilot
study was carried out. The questionnaire were
administered twice on students from schools that are
not part of sampled schools using Pearson Product
Moment correlation Statistical tool to find the
reliability and the score was 0.79. This value was
adjudged high and therefore, the instrument was
considered reliable and appropriate for this study.
The questionnaire were administered on the
respondents; responded to and collected
immediately on the same day. The data collected on
this study were analyzed using one-way multivariate
analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the hypothesis
one and a univariate ANOVAs to follow-up statistical
significant result to test hypotheses two and three at
0.05 level of significance.
Results
Hypothesis 1:
There is no significant impact of parental separation
on the combined variables of social attitude and
academic performance of secondary school students
in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.
Table 1: Multivariate tests showing the impact of parental separation on the combined variables of social attitude and academic performance of students Effect Value F Hypothesis df Error df Sig.
Intercept
Pillai's Trace .993 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Wilks' Lambda .007 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Hotelling's Trace 133.166 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000 Roy's Largest Root 133.166 17777.617b 2.000 267.000 .000
Ps
Pillai's Trace .567 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Wilks' Lambda .433 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Hotelling's Trace 1.308 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000 Roy's Largest Root 1.308 174.661b 2.000 267.000 .000
ps= parental separation
Table 1 shows the Wilks' Lambda value to the effect
of parental separation on students’ social attitude
and academic performance combined. The results
revealed that there was a statistically significant
difference between the two parental separation
status on the combined dependent variables, F(2,
267) = 174.661, p< .0005; Wilks' Λ = .433; partial η2 =
.567. Therefore the null hypothesis one which states
that there is no significant impact of parental
separation on the combined variables of social
attitude and academic performance of secondary
school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
110
State is rejected, thus the alternate hypothesis is
sustained.
Hypothesis 2:
There is no significant impact of parental separation
on social attitude of secondary school students in
Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.\
Table 2: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects showing the impact of parental separation on social attitude of
secondary school students
Source Dependent Variable Type III Sum
of Squares
Df Mean Square F Sig.
Intercept Social Attitude 229839.912 1 229839.912 14234.365 .000
Academic Performance 757912.000 1 757912.000 20669.696 .000
Ps Social Attitude 2687.023 1 2687.023 166.412 .000
Academic Performance 6467.733 1 6467.733 176.387 .000
Error Social Attitude 4327.351 268 16.147
Academic Performance 9826.967 268 36.668
a. R Squared = .383 (Adjusted R Squared = .381) b. R Squared = .397 (Adjusted R Squared = .395)
ps= parental separation
Table 2 shows the F-ratio and its significance results
for the impact of parental separation on social
attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode
local government secondary schools, Ogun State. The
results revealed that there was a statistically
significant difference in social attitude scores
between the students from different parental
separation status, F(1, 268) = 166.412, p< .0005;
partial η2 = .383. Therefore, the null hypothesis two
which states that there is no significant impact of
parental separation on social attitude of secondary
school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun
State is rejected, and the alternate hypothesis was
retained.
Hypothesis 3:
There is no significant impact of parental separation
on academic performance of secondary school
students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State.
Table 3: Tests of between-subjects effects showing the impact of parental separation on academic performance of
secondary school students
Source Dependent Variable
Type III Sum of Squares
Df Mean Square F Sig.
Intercept Social Attitude 229839.912 1 229839.912 14234.365 .000 Academic Performance
757912.000 1 757912.000 20669.696 .000
Ps Social Attitude 2687.023 1 2687.023 166.412 .000 Academic Performance
6467.733 1 6467.733 176.387 .000
Error Social Attitude 4327.351 268 16.147 Academic Performance
9826.967 268 36.668
a. R Squared = .383 (Adjusted R Squared = .381) b. R Squared = .397 (Adjusted R Squared = .395)
ps= parental separation
Table 3 shows the F-ratio and its significance results
for the impact of parental separation on academic
performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-
Ode local government secondary schools, Ogun State.
The results revealed that there was a statistically
significant difference in academic performance
scores between the students from different parental
separation status, F(1, 268) = 176.387, p< .0005;
partial η2 = .397. Therefore, the null hypothesis two
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
111
which states that there is no significant impact of
parental separation on academic performance of
secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode local
government, Ogun State was rejected, and the
alternate hypothesis was retained.
Discussion
The study was conducted to investigate the impact of
parental separation on social attitude and academic
performance of secondary school students in Ijebu-
Ode Local Government, Ogun State, Nigeria. The
results from the test of hypothesis one revealed that
there was significant impact of parental separation
on the combined variables of social attitude and
academic performance of secondary school students
in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun State. The
implication of this result is that there was a
significant difference in social attitudes and
relationships between students from separated
parent and those living with both parents. This
finding is in line with Salami (2008), who affirmed
that adolescents from broken homes are usually
associated with antisocial behaviour and poor
academic records. Studies confirmed that children of
separated parents are at an increased risk for the
development of psychological, behavioural, social and
academic problems. Also, Overland, Thotsen and
Storksen (2012) stated that divorce affects children in
a multitude of ways. “Ongoing conflict, blocked
communication and power imbalances between
parents are problematic for child and family
functioning”. In the same manner, Brown and Lin
(2012) concluded that children who experience their
parents going through a divorce are susceptible to
becoming depressed, being withdrawn, acting out,
and acting differently.It is well documented that
psychosocial stressors constitute a significant,
pervasive risk for children’s mental health problem.
Results from hypothesis two which states that there
is no significant impact of parental separation on
social attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-
Ode local government, Ogun State, however revealed
that parental separation has a significant impact on
social attitude of secondary school students in Ijebu-
Ode local government, Ogun State. The implication of
this result is that the difference in social attitude
between students from separated parent and those
living with both parents was significant. Students
from separated parents were rated lower on their
social attitude compared to non-separated parents.
Separated home is characterized with abnormal
personality and mental adjustment and posed a real
danger to emotionally personality and mental
adjustment of young adolescents. Salami, (2008)
study corroborates this with the view that the actions
of the parents affect the children all throughout their
childhood, and eventually may overlap into their
adulthood. “It is well documented that parental
divorce is associated with multiple problems for
youth that extend into adulthood, including
internalizing and externalizing problems,
interpersonal difficulties, poor physical health, and
substance abuse”. And also Van-Dolen, Weinberg and
Ma (2013) study also affirms that, “experiencing
parental separation during childhood is associated
with increased likelihood of being subject to child
abuse and/or witnessing violence”. When parents go
through a divorce, the children can become witness
to what it brings about in their parents, and
sometimes even unknowingly get in the middle of it.
Results from the analysis of hypothesis three which
states that there is no significant impact of parental
separation on academic performance of secondary
school students in Ijebu-Ode local government, Ogun
State, however revealed that parental separation has
a significant impact on academic performance of
secondary school students in Ijebu-Ode local
government, Ogun State. The implication of this
result is that the difference in academic performance
between students from separated parent and those
living with both parents was significant. Separated
home has been identified as one of the great factors
affecting students’ academic performance which
engendered intellectual stimulations causing
students to perform poorly in schools. This finding
conforms with that of Borgers and Van (1996), who
concluded that educational outcomes of children
living with a single mother were generally poorer
than those of children living with two parents
although fairly small in the magnitude. Also
Hetherington and Elmore (2003), stated that children
of separated parents are at risk of lower academic
performance than their peers from non-divorced
families. Angel-Castillo and Torres-Herrera (2008)
support this finding and viewed it from the
perspective of school dropout. School dropout rates
for Hispanic students were almost doubled in
students from single-parent families or blended
families as compared to students from two-parent
families.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
112
Conclusion
On the basis of the findings of this study, it is
concluded that parental separation has impact on
both the social attitudes and academic performance
of students combined. Considering the impact of
parental separation on social attitude, two-parenting
offers moral development that incorporates
punishment and consequences to the violation of
moral upbringing of a child in the society. This
emphasizes the social behaviours of secondary school
adolescents in homes where parents live together to
differ from the social attitudes of those students from
separated parents. The effect of parental separation
on academic performance is the resultant impact to
the underlying reason why students in seperated
homes lack the ability to concentrate in class;
declining attendance and willingness to participate in
class indicate students are having difficult time
adjusting to a transition in family dynamics.
Therefore, there is a connecting fibre established for
parental separation to have positive or negative
impacts on social attitudes and academic
performance of secondary school students.
Recommendations
Considering the impact of parental separation on
social attitude and academic performance of
secondary school students, the following
recommendations are made:
1. Counselors, psychologists, social workers and teachers should identify students from divorced families and counsel them on the need for positive social attitude with their mates and separated parents should also be counseled on the need for reconciliation and harmonious living to improve social needs of their children so that their academic work will not suffer in school.
2. There is need for marriage counseling in schools
for parents, this can come up during the Parents
and Teachers Association (PTA) meeting to
enlightening the parents on the evil effects of
parental separation on children’s social
interaction and academic performance This will
reduce divorce or separation rates among
couples and encourage them to have enough
time for each other and make love and
understanding the corner stone of their
marriage. For instance, there should be effective
communication among couples since
communication serves as the blood of any
relationship.
3. Enlightenment programmes should be
organized for the students also on the evil effect
of parental separation on students’ academic
performance. Pre-marital pregnancy and forced
marriages should be discouraged by organizing
family life education, seminars, games etc in the
schools, churches and communities as much as
possible since these situations often result in
high state of marriage disruption.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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APPRAISAL OF PUBLIC SCHOOL REFORMS IN OSUN STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS,
2011-2015
Yusuf, M. A. Department of Educational Management
Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife
Abstract
This study identified the reforms in the Education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015. Descriptive survey research design was used for the study as at the time of this study. The population for the study consisted of 5,878 secondary school teachers in Osun State. The sample comprised 156 teachers selected using multistage sampling technique. One research question was raised and answered in the study. An Instrument tagged “Public School Education Reform Questionnaire (PSERQ)” was used to elicit information from 156 respondents selected from three senatorial districts in Osun State. The instrument used was validated by given the experts in educational Management and Test and Measurement in Obafemi Awolowo University. Based on their recommendations and suggestions, the instrument was restructured to meet face, content and construct validity. The reliability of the instrument was also ensured through test-retest method and a reliability coefficient of 0 .87 was obtained which was considered high enough for reliability. The results showed that reforms introduced in education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015 are: merging of schools, introduction of new subjects, introduction of I PAD (opo-imo), introduction of same school uniform, reclassification of schools and introduction of O meal. It was therefore recommended that government should have education summit before introducing new policy into the system, this will allow all the stake holder to contribute and be aware of the new policy.
Keywords: Public School, Education Reform, Merging of Schools, Same School Uniform, Reclassification of School
Introduction
It is worthy to emphasise that education is a means
by which the society ensures its stability. It is through
education system that young members of the society
are taught the expected behaviour of the society.
Through education, individuals acquire useable and
socially acceptable vocational skills with which one
can be productive, which ensures individual and
group survival. The importance of education as
described above justifies the recognition given to it
by the Federal Government of Nigeria as stated in the
National Policy on education that “….the Federal
Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an
instrument par excellence for effecting national
growth and development (Federal Government of
Nigeria, FGN. 2014).
The place of secondary education in achieving the
general objectives of education in Nigeria cannot be
underestimated as it is the transitional level of
education from childhood to adulthood. The major
aim of secondary education in Nigeria as stated in the
National Policy on Education, section 221(a) are two-
fold; preparation for useful living within the society
and preparation for higher education (FGN, 2014). If
these aims are going to be achieved there is a need to
give the students right type of education and training
which will help them to be self-reliant especially for
the benefit of those who may not be able to proceed
beyond this level of education and prepare those who
are moving ahead for the future challenges, hence the
introduction of new subjects into the curriculum such
as; Animal Husbandry; Catering Crafts; Carpentry,
Electrical Electronics and so on.; by the reform
programme.
Education is the bedrock of development as stated by
the Federal Government of Nigeria (2014) in the
National Policy on Education. Before the public
school reforms in Osun State, the structure of
education being operated in the State was the 6-3-3-4
system which was introduced by the military
government of General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida.
The public schools in the state prior the reforms
embarked on by Osun State government in 2011
particularly the Senior Secondary School level of
education was faced with lots of challenges such as
inadequate manpower, inadequate infrastructure,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
115
inadequate funding, mass failure in public
examinations such as senior secondary school leaving
certificate examination, Joint Admission and
Matriculation Examination (JAMB) and so on (Osun
Defender, 2016).
The 9-3-4 system of education was designed in
conformity with the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). The 9-3-4 system was designed to give
children the opportunity to have access to
uninterrupted primary education of six years and
three years junior secondary school education. Here,
the promotion is to be automatic and it is to be
determined by continuous assessment and it is to be
made free and compulsory for every Nigerian Child.
Therefore, the Universal Basic Education Commission
law section 15 defines Universal Basic Education as
early childhood care and education.
Secondary education in Nigeria is to be three years of
Junior Secondary School and three years in senior
secondary school. Junior secondary school is free and
compulsory. This policy is to be implemented by all
tiers of government. It is important to state that
education is on the concurrent list of the constitution
of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. So both the central
and the state government have the right to establish
and be responsible for funding of secondary schools.
Also prior to these reforms, there were many
secondary schools that were situated in unconducive
environments. There were lots of factors that were
disrupting teaching and learning in some of these
schools, some of them which were established years
ago have now fallen within noisy area, even in market
places, while many of them are no more secure as the
fences were already either pulled down or not even
fenced at all, many structures are already dilapidated
and furniture for both teachers and students use are
no more in place. Because of this, the reform
introduced the merger of schools as solution to these
problems. However, this study appraised the reforms
put in place by Osun State government in 2011 to
2015.
In Osun State, it has been observed that the general
performance of students in public examinations such
as Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE),
National Board on Technical Education Examination
(NABTEB), and so on seems to be poor. The reform
introduced some measures to improve the students’
academic performances, such as the introduction of
the “Tablet of knowledge” (Opon Imo), recruitment of
more teachers, and so on. It was also observed that
the students were wearing tattered uniform to school
and the government felt that it was not proper.
Consequent upon this, the reform introduced same
school uniform for all secondary school students in
the state at a reduced price.
As a result of school reforms in Osun State, which led
to the re-classification and merging of schools,
introduction of same school uniform and
introduction of the tablet of knowledge (Opon Imo).
Some concerned educationists have questioned the
workability of such reforms. The reform caused a lot
of uproar among students, teachers and parents. In
fact on the 5th of February 2014 students of Baptist
High School Iwo protested by wearing chorister’s
garments and other clothing to school protesting the
merging of a Muslim school with the school. This
disrupted school programmes in the town for weeks.
Also, students in other parts of the State protested
against the merger of schools. In such towns and
cities where students protested include Ikire, Ikirun,
Ejigbo and Osogbo, schools were closed down for
months which had effect on the administration and
academic performance of students.
Another challenge identified was the burden of
buying new school uniforms by the parents after the
first set donated by the government had been weak
and torn. It was even discovered that the cost of this
uniform is higher than the amount of the old one.
Also, this uniform is not even readily available in the
market, some parents have to travel to the garment
factory in Osogbo established by the State
government before they could buy this uniform. So
many students resulted into wearing either the old
uniforms or just any clothes to school.
Also, the merging of same sex and faith schools with
others generated a lot of controversy among the
people. Many old student’s associations and the
original founders of some schools vehemently
opposed this aspect of the school reform as the
merging led to outright extinction of some schools or
alteration of the philosophy and visions of the
founder. For instance, Fakunle Comprehensive High
School, Osogbo was closed and the students were
taken to another site with new name such as
Salvation Army High School, Oke Fia, Osogbo. Many
High Schools were changed into middle schools as a
result of reclassification of school. Schools were
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
116
reclassified as Elementary, Middle and High schools.
Merging of school is the combination of two or more
schools to become one. It means collapsing of two or
more schools with one another to become one.
Merging of school is not new in the educational
system of the world. Because of decrease in birth
rates in Singapore for instance schools were merged
(Kenneth and Kelly, 2016). Also, in China primary
schools were merged in the rural part of the country.
“The primary schools were heterogeneous, reporting
different levels of enrolment, facilities and teaching
staff. For example it was reported that primary
schools in some villages in one province had less than
ten students whereas other primary schools in the
same area of the same province had more than 200
students (Wenjin, 2012).
Considered the biggest controversy is the alleged
introduction of “Ifa” as a subject of study in public
schools. The controversy is heightened as the tablet
of knowledge (Opon Imo) which came pre-loaded
with learning materials, textbooks, Bible, Quran and
Ifa. This made some religious leaders and other stake
holder in the state condemned the newly introduced
curriculum and publicly condemned the inclusion of
“Ifa” into the secondary school curriculum.
In fact, the challenges of public school reforms in
Osun State can be categorized into political,
economic, religion and social. Political challenges
have to do with the criticisms from the opposition
political parties and political opponents of the
Government of the day. The opposition party
vehemently condemned all aspects of the reform
accusing the Government of not doing the right thing,
right from the convening of the summit that
recommended most aspects of the reforms. The
religion aspect of these challenges is the stand of both
Christian and Muslim leaders on the merger of
schools and the alleged introduction of Ifa as a school
subject, for instance, the Osun State Chapter of the
Christian Association of Nigeria (OSCAN) argued that
it was not properly consulted before decisions were
made in respect of the school reforming, Osun State
Chapter of the Christian Association of Nigeria
(OSCAN) stated that the association was not against
any new educational policy being put in place by
either the Federal or the State Government but were
vehemently kick against any educational programme
that will obliterate the mission schools and affect the
tenets of faith particularly in the state.
Economically, the government have not been able to
properly fund the schools as a result of the paucity of
fund. Many school building projects embarked on by
the State Government are yet to be completed three
years since commencement, schools are lacking
instructional materials, since the government have
not been able to release grants and subventions to
the head of these schools. Many parents cannot even
afford the cost of new uniforms for their children and
wards, students whom schools were merged have to
trek kilometres to and from school every day since
most of their parents cannot afford the cost of
transportation.
Another challenge of education reforms is egocentric
which serves as motivation for protest. Egocentrism
on the part of some educationists that believe they
know all about educational operations, such
challenge as identified by the Punch Newspaper is
one posed by two retired directors of education
Lagos State Ministry of Education, Mrs Awoyinfa and
Mrs Amosin they stated that “… for schools to be
functional, the classrooms must be well developed,
teachers must be well trained and paid, quality
materials and conducive environment must be in
place to boost learning and improve students’
performance.
Nigeria has witnessed several reforms in her school
system. Ejieh (2014) stated that the education reform
in Nigeria is dated back to the pre-independence era.
At the introduction of Western system of education,
the sector was being controlled by the missionaries,
but with the amalgamation of Southern and Northern
protectorates in 1914, an ordinance was introduced
in 1916 that gave the British colonialist mandate to
participate in the funding and control of schools.
According to Bello (2008), “education reforms
emanate from the basic conviction that considerable
progress can be made in a nation by its people
through careful engineering of the educational
process”. It is against this statement that agitations
for more change and improvement on school and
education continued. This quest for change made the
British administration in Nigeria to change the
educational system in operation in 1954 from 5-4-3
system (i.e. 5 years for primary, four years for Higher
School Certificate and three years university
education) by reducing the number of years the
pupils were spending in both primary and secondary
schools.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
117
Over the years researchers have directed their
attention into other aspects of education, but this
research appraised the public school reforms in Osun
State secondary schools from 2011 to 2015.
Statement of the Problem
Reforms in the education industry are inevitable in
dynamic societies. As a result of this, Osun State
government has introduced a set of reforms into the
education sector between 2011 and 2015 particularly
in the secondary school. The impact of these reforms
on the parents, teachers’ effectiveness, and
availability of human and material resources are yet
to attract any formal appraisal. Since the introduction
of these reforms, a lot of heat have been generated
from members of public which nearly grounded the
educational system in the State. Various religious
organizations and students protested against certain
aspects of the reforms, thus generating series of
crises in the public school system. There is a need
therefore to appraise these reforms, hence this study.
Research Question
i. What are the reforms in the Education system of
Osun State from 2011 to 2015?
Methodology
Descriptive research of the survey type was used for
the study. The population for the study comprised 5,
878 teachers of public secondary schools teachers of
public secondary schools in Osun State 2014/2015
academic session. The targeted population were
teachers of public secondary schools in Osun State.
The sample size consisted of 156 teachers from 12
schools selected for the study. The sampling
technique adopted was multi-stage sampling
procedure. Four Local Government Areas were
selected from each of the three senatorial districts in
the State using simple random sampling techniques.
One secondary school was selected from each of the
12 Local Government Areas which will make 12
schools. Thirteen (13) teachers were selected from
each of the schools using simple random sampling
technique. One research instrument was used to
collect data for the study, namely: Public School
Education Reform Questionnaire (PSERQ) The PSERQ
elicited information from the teachers on changes
brought about in the secondary schools in Osun state.
Section A contained five items on personal
information of teachers. Section B was used for
collecting information from the teachers about the
reforms brought about by Government in the public
secondary schools in Osun State from 2011 to 2015.
The questionnaire was on four points Likert scale
ranging from 4 points for strongly agreed, 3 points
for agreed, 2 points for strongly disagree and 1 point
for disagree.
To ascertain the validity of the instrument, the draft
of the questionnaire were subjected to vetting by the
experts in the Department of Educational
Management and Test and Measurement, whose
comments and suggestions were later incorporated
before administration. To ensure reliability of the
instrument, test-retest method was used. A pilot
study was conducted by the researcher on two
occasions in close succession of two weeks on
selected respondents from schools who are not part
of the sampled used in the study. The two set of
responses scores were analysed using Pearson
Product Moment Correlation, the coefficient of .87
was obtained which was considered high enough for
reliability. The instrument was administered by the
researcher with the help of research assistants, who
were teachers in the selected secondary schools. The
copies of questionnaire were collected immediately
after completion, and a total of 156 copies of
questionnaire administered by the researcher were
collected and found useful for the analysis of this
study. The descriptive statistics of frequency counts
and percentage was used to answer the research
question raised.
Results
Research Question 1: What are the reforms in the
education system of Osun State from 2011 to 2015?
Table 1: Teachers’ responses to reforms in the education system
Public School Reforms A D Total
(f) (%) (f) (%) (f) (%)
Merging of schools is part of the public school reforms in
Osun State 131 84 25 16 156 100
The introduction of tablet of knowledge (Opon Imo) is one
of the reforms brought into public schools in Osun state 106 67.9 50 32.1 156 100
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
118
The introduction of same school uniforms 98 62.8 58 37.2 156 100
With the reclassification of public schools a reform was
brought into public schools in the state 89 57 67 43 156 100
Introduction of the new subjects into the curriculum 108 69.2 48 30.8 156 100
Introduction of O meal programme is a reform in the
public school of Osun State 88 56.4 68 43.6 156 100
Average 103 66.2 53 33.8 156 100
Table 1 shows teachers’ responses to the reforms in
the education system of Osun State. The responses of
teachers in Table 1 were collapsed together such that
Agreed and Strongly Agreed became “Agreed” while
Disagreed and Strongly Disagreed form “Disagreed”.
The data shows that, respondents indicated different
views of responses to item one 84% respondents
agreed, while 16% disagreed that merging of schools
is a part of the reforms introduced into the public
secondary school system of Osun State between 2011
and 2015. The implication of this is that the merging
of schools is the major reform programme within the
period of discussion (2011 to 2015). On the
introduction of new subjects into the curriculum
69.2% of the respondents agreed that the
introduction of new subjects is one of the reforms
introduced into the public secondary schools, while
30.8% disagreed. This simply implied that the
introduction of new subjects into the curriculum is
one of the reforms introduced into public secondary
schools between the period of 2011 and 2015. The
introduction of same school uniforms has 62.2% of
the respondents that agreed, while 37.2% disagreed
that the introduction of same school uniform is not a
part of the reforms introduced into the public school
system in Osun State, this implies that the
introduction of same school uniform is one of the
reforms introduced into the public secondary school
system in Osun State. On the question that with the
reclassification of public schools a reform was
brought into public schools in the state, 56.4% of the
respondents agreed, while 43.6% disagreed, this
implies that the reclassification of school is one of the
reforms introduced to public secondary school
programmes in Osun State between 2011 and 2015.
On whether the introduction of tablet of knowledge
(Opon Imo) is one of the reforms brought into public
schools in Osun State between 2011 and 2015, 67.9%
of the respondents agreed, while 32.1% disagreed, so
the result indicate that introduction of tablet of
knowledge (Opon Imo) is one of the reforms
introduced within the period under discussion. On
the introduction of O meal programme 56.4% of the
respondents agreed, while 43.6% disagreed, this
implies that the introduction of O meal is also one of
the reforms introduced within the period (2011 to
2015).
Discussion
The finding of the research indicated that the Osun
State Government introduced some reforms into the
public secondary school system in the state between
2011 and 2015. However, merging of schools was
majorly identified as the reform that was introduced
with 83.9% of the respondents agreed. Merging of
school is the combination of two or more schools to
become one. It means collapsing of two or more
schools with one another to become one. Merging of
school is not new in the educational system of the
world. Because of decrease in birth rates in Singapore
for instance schools were merged (Kenneth and
Kelly, 2016). Also, in China primary schools were
merged in the rural part of the country. “The primary
schools were heterogeneous, reporting different
levels of enrolment, facilities and teaching staff. For
example it was reported that primary schools in
some villages in one province had less than ten
students whereas other primary schools in the same
area of the same province had more than 200
students (Wenjin, 2012). So, the introduction of
merging of schools in Osun State is not new to
education system. Also, introduction of “I pad” (Opon
Imo) was identified as a reform introduced to the
public secondary education system in Osun State
with 67.9% of the respondents agreed. “Opon Imo” is
the name given to the “I pad” distributed to the
students of public secondary schools in Osun State.
This “I pad” is preloaded with all instructional
materials needed for the secondary school level of
education. This is in line with the opinion of Merriam
(2007) that learning acquisition in technology helps
to increase the students’ self-confidence and self-
esteem. By using technology to teach students, they
also learn about technology itself. This technology
supported education systems cost efficient, which is
especially meaningful in countries with poor
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
119
infrastructure (Oliveira, 1989). Another reform
identified by this research work is the introduction of
same school uniform with 62.8% of the respondent
agreed. However, one of the main advantage of
school uniform is the reality that every students look
the same. Students who don’t have enough means to
buy expensive and fashionable cloths can surely
benefit from this. On the reclassification of schools
57% of the respondents agreed that reclassification
of schools is one of the reforms introduced within the
period of 2011 to 2015 while 42.9% disagreed that
reclassification of schools is a part of reform. This is
in line with the report of Buffalo news as regards the
reclassification of four public schools in Buffalo
which had fallen from being schools in good standing
which reclassification made to become “focus
schools” (Buffalo News 2015). The introduction of
new subjects into the public secondary school
reforms also has 69.2% agreed and 31.8%, this shows
that higher percentage of the respondent agreed that
introduction of new subject is one of the reforms
introduced into the public secondary school system
by Osun State Government between 2011 and 2015.
This is supported by the Hong Kong government
curriculum reform in 2013. In Hong Kong subjects
like Chinese History, Economics, Ethics and Religious
Studies, Geography and Travel and Hospitality
Studies were introduced into secondary school
curriculum (Hong Kong Education Bureau 2014).
Also the introduction of new subjects is in line with
the provision of the Nigeria National Policy on
Education which has as one of its goal the building of
a great and dynamic economy (FGN 2014). The new
subjects introduced include catering crafts, civic
education and animal husbandry. The National
Policy on Education recognizes “Education in Nigeria
as an instrument “par excellence” for effecting
national development” (FGN 2014).
This implies that the reform programme made the
state government to provide materials resources for
the students. This finding is in line with the efforts of
government at all levels and private donors to make
teaching and learning environment more conducive,
for instance the MTN Foundation in Nigeria has being
donating furniture and other learning materials to
schools across the country. Some of these schools
include Vetland Senior Grammar School, Ifako-Ijaye,
Lagos State, Idia College, Benin City, Government
College, Umuahia, Government Pilot Secondary
School, Daura, Christ School Ado-Ekiti and so on
(MTN Foundations 2016). Also, Nicole (2014) opined
that there is no material more important in an
inclusive classroom than tables and chairs. Also the
finding is supported by Nedburn (2013) who opined
that tablet computers is expected to significantly
reduce the amount of money parent usually spend on
the purchase of textbooks at the beginning of term in
Jamaica. He further stated that the computer tablets
should do so considerably because the basic text can
be downloaded on the tablets, and with proper
protection of copyright, this should mean that there
would be much less need for printed copies.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded
that the reforms introduced into Osun State
Secondary School system from 2011 to 2015 were
merging of school, introduction of the tablet of
Knowledge (Opon Imo, I Pad), introduction of same
school uniforms, reclassification of public schools,
introduction of new subjects into the curriculum and
introduction of O meal programme.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made to improve on the
reform programmes and correct some anomalies
brought into the public secondary schools in Osun
State, the government should always be conscious of
the implication of her policies and position on schools
and the multiplier effects of such policies. The review
of secondary education curriculum in Nigeria should
be a regular exercise, education summit should come
first before the reforms to intimate the stake holder
about the new reforms about to put in place. It should
be ensured that schools built were securely and
properly fenced with modern facilities and have a lay
down rules and regulations on maintenance of the
building and facilities.
The wearing of same school uniform by the students
of public secondary schools in Osun State should be
modified in a way that it will be easier to differentiate
students of each secondary school across the state.
To achieve this, badges can be introduced; skirts and
trousers of each of the schools can also be
differentiated by using different colours. As this will
help the parents in identifying the school mates of
their children which will help in making sure that the
students stay in their schools and afford the parents
opportunity to be able to monitor their children
movement in and out of school. Students are found of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
120
roaming around the towns and cities during the
school hours and with the same set of uniform with
nothing to differentiate their schools a student can
even travel from one town to another.
The Principals and other stakeholders in public
schools should ensure protection and preservation of
the I pad (Opo Imo) by conveying interactive
meetings with teachers, students and parents. On
reclassification of schools, the government should
ensure proper supervision of schools to meet the
objectives of the reclassifications. However, all hand
must be on deck to improve the standard of
secondary education, since the place of secondary
school cannot be rubbished as the bridge between
primary and tertiary education.
References
Bello, U. G. (2008). Educational Reforms in Nigeria:
Successive Years of Inconsistencies and
Confusions, Gusau Educational Development
Association (GEDA) Interactive Session.
Ejieh, M. U. (2014), Lecture Notes on Education Law
for Postgraduate Students, Department of
Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2014). National
Policy on Education, Lagos: NERDC Press.
Hong Kong (2014). Hong Kong 2013 School
Curriculum Reform. Hong Kong 2014. Retrieved
on 15th of June 2017 from: www.Hong
Kongeducationbureau.google.com
Ipa (2016). The Impact of Distributing School
Uniforms on Children’s Education in Kenya
Kenneth, L. and Kelly, N. (2016). 22 Secondary
Schools to Merge Over Next 2 Years Due to
Falling Demand. Channel News Asia Mediacorp
Pte Ltd. Updated March 2016, free – in google
play.
Merriam, S. (2007). Introductory Computer Science
for Children and Adult Beginners. Abuja Aflon
Limited.
MTN (2015). MTN Foundation Restructured School
Connect from MTN. www.mtnfoundation.
goggle.com Retrieved on 14th of July 2017.
Nedbhurn, (2016). Tablets should Reduce School
Expenses. The Cleaner Newspaper. May 6, 2016.
Nicole (2014). 10 Items that can Make Your Class
More Inclusive. Retrieved on 13th of July 2017
from: www.google.nicole.erddics.com
Oliveria, J. (1989). Computer Education in Developing
Countries: Facing Hard Choices. Education and
Computing, 9(2), 301–311.
Osun Defeder (2016) the official website of the state
of osun. www.osun.gov.ng Retrieved on 23 June,
2017.
Wenjin L. (2012). Decline of Primary Schools in Rural
China: Causes and Consequences. A Paper
Released by China Policy Institute on December
3rd, 2012. Retrieved on 13th of July 2017 from:
blogs.nothing-ham.ac.uk/chinapolicyinstitute.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
121
MEETING THE CHALLENGES OF HEADSHIP IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Okotoni Comfort Abosede Department of Educational Management,
Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Nigeria
Abstract
Human and material resources have been major contributory factors to administrative effectiveness in organisations and specifically in educational organisations globally. The government as the major custodian of education in the country has her role to play in bringing about the realisation of education objectives. This major role however has not been left to the government alone to shoulder, as made known in the call for active participation of other stakeholders as spelt out in the National Policy on Education. However, despite the various contributions, gaps still need be filled to make ends meet in the administration of schools. This paper therefore investigated challenges facing headship effectiveness in primary schools in Osun State, Nigeria.It discussedthe ingenuity of headteachers in circumventingthe challenges to effective management of the primary schools in the study area. The descriptive survey research was used for the study. The population comprised 1,205headteachers in Osun State. Using simple random sampling technique, two senatorial districts were selected from the three districts in the State, and twenty schools from each of the selected Senatorial Districts of the Stateas the sample. Frequencies, Percentages and Standard deviations were employed in the analysis. The study concluded that; effective administration of schools in the study area was hampered by inadequate parental cooperation in provision of facilities, and students’ disciplinary problems. These areas need be addressed to mitigate the challenges of primary school administration in Osun State.
Keywords: Headship, Primary Schools, Challenges, Administrative Effectiveness
Introduction
Education remains the most viable instrument for
development of not only individuals, but the society
as a whole. It is akey index of development in all
ramifications- economic, social and political among
others.Primary school education occupies a very
critical and pivotal place in the educational system of
any country, Nigeria inclusive. It is acknowledged as
the key to the success or failure of the whole system
since the rest of the education is built upon it. Its
success or failure depends largely on the
effectiveness of the academic and administrative
leadership of the schools, which is anchored by the
headship. To this end, leadership competence, skills,
capability and styles of the headship to overcome
challenges become paramount.
Leadership is an important factor in any organisation,
suffice it to say it is essential for organizational
success. The importance of headship of schools
cannot be overemphasised, as therein lies the engine
in directing the affairs of the group positively and
purposively in goals attainment.The headship in
primary schools becomes the more important, owing
to the position occupied by primary education.
Primary education with reference to the National
Policy on Education is the education given in
institutions for children of age 6 to 11 plus. The role
of the head teacher in providing and maintaining an
enabling environment for the learner to start
rightthrough the experience of good pre-school and
primary education therefore becomes crucial. This
becomes important realising the fact that the
headteacher has to work with human and material
resources, which may not always be adequate in
supply. Among the goals of primary education are to
mould the character and develop sound attitude and
morals in the child; develop in the child the ability to
adapt to the child’s changing environment; give the
child opportunities for developing manipulative skills
that will enable the child function effectively in the
society within the limits of the child’s capacity among
others.
The role of primary school head teachers as the
leader in bringing the aforementioned goals,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
122
therefore, is unparalleled. According to House et al,
cited by Sharma, Sadana andKaur, (2013)leadership
is the ‘ability of an individual to influence, motivate,
and enable others to contribute towards the
effectiveness and success of the organisation.’ It
should be realised therefore, that leadership is the
behaviour exhibited by an individual to influence
others to achieve specific objectives in given
organisational situations.
Head teachers are saddled with the responsibility of
managing academic activities as well as
theadministration and supervision of instruction and
welfare of the school generally. The duties of
instructional supervision, welfare of staff and
students, maintenance of the school plant, liaison
between the government and the school, and
maintaining good school-community relations among
others, call for superlative leadership. The enormity
of school leadership was comprehensively articulated
by Lloyd (1981):
Working with a diverse public is tough work.
Supervisory personnel face daily pummelling
from all directions, yet they still need to
retain composure, perspective and openness
of disposition. They must have the energy
and the intelligence to meet their daily
encounters with individuals and groups of
all kinds. Facing pressure is their way of life.
They must accept the pressures and lead the
educational arenas under their jurisdiction.
They must be able to distinguish truly
critical issues from the many routine
ones.They must attack problems, define
them and solve them. They must be forward
positive movers who enjoy working through
the dynamics of human relations in tackling
educational tasks. They must be dedicated to
improving the instruction of boys and girls
in their respective schools or school districts.
In the performance of these roles of headship and
ensuring the smooth running of the school, various
challenges are confronted. Some of these are
enumerated and discussed below:
Challenges of Headship in Primary Schools
These challenges are categorised into two in this
study, namely: Humanrelated challenges and
Material-related challenges.
Human-related
Changes in value system- This has to do with
apparent loss or change in societal values, such as
moral, character and integrity in most public schools.
There are core religious and culture values that are
no longer taught or emphasised in schools. Daily,
teachers and head teachers in particular are
confronted with moral issues in schools.Teachers in
order to cope with economic and social challenges
have resorted to moonlighting while students are
unattended to. Cases have been reported of
embezzlement of school funds, illegal collection of
fees, and molesting of female students by male
teachers. Not only these, there have been lapses in
the discipline of students in response to current
dictates of education laws, whereby teachers have
withdrawn from exercising active discipline of pupils.
The action of parents who have gone to the extent of
challenging teachers and schools’ authorities in the
law court over disciplinary and related issues did not
help the schools and by implication the head
teachers.
Often too, needs arise for school leaders to reconcile
globally accepted values with local values and vice-
versa. The school administrator needs to be
conversant with the rules and limits of authority,
especially in a global society that is constantly on the
beck and call of the law to take its toll in getting even
with authorities where injustice and unfairness are
suspected (Okotoni, 2015).
The head teacher’s major leadership role is in
teamwork with the members of staff. The leadership
functions become impaired by the difficult attitudesof
some staff members. This can be displayed in non-
compliance with given instructions, and could be
traceable to the idea of ‘who knows who’ in the
ministry/affiliated organizations among others. Laws
are often times flagrantly flouted by some staff. Since
there is a limit to the extent of discipline that could be
meted out to the staff by the heads, and at the other
end are employers- the ‘godfathers’ of such staff
members, it becomes a problem to exercise control.
Level of Dedication of Staff-The level of dedication
of a number of staff is dwindling as a result of several
factors such as poor incentives, inadequate
motivation among others, which have dampened staff
morale. In order to make the objectives and goals of
education realisable, dedication is required, but
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
123
unfortunately, the financial and social pressures on
the staff have made many to look for ways of making
ends meet at the expenseof their duties. This is a big
challenge to effective administration of primary
education.
Attitude of Parents- Some parents have little or no
value for the education of their children/wards. This
is displayed in nonchalant attitude of parents to the
development of their children and the school as
manifested the non-payment of PTA levies and some
other charges. It should however be noted that the
running grants from the government in many
instances are inadequate for the schools.
Students’ Attitude- Thedetached posture of pupils to
their studies is another obstacle. This has created
loop holes for examination malpractices with its
negative consequences on academic pursuits and the
society. Not only this, some pupils’ problems are as a
result of their home background (broken homes).
Such pupils have become stumbling blocks to the
smooth running of the schools. They are often
truants, drug addicts, bullies, and very disobedient to
authority. They show and show bad examples to
other pupils.
Government’s Political Stance- The government’s
political stance on educational issues affects
leadership role functions of the heads. For example,
some parents are unwilling to contribute financially
to the education of their children on the basis that the
government has pronounced free education.
Poor Societal Regard for Teachers-There is a
general disregard of the society for teachers.
Teachers are often looked down upon by the society.
The reasons are not farfetched;teachers are
associated with low pay and the accompanying low
social status. The multiplier effect is seen in the
attitude of teachers and head teachers to their duties.
Community’s Lukewarm Attitude- There is a
general apathy on the part of some segments of the
society especially places like Northern Nigeria, where
religion and cultural factors have inhibited active
interest in education. The attitude goes from being
lukewarm to outright opposition to western
education. Such go all out to forestall education in the
area. Certainly such group of people will not
cooperate with the head teachers and schools in their
communities. According to UNESCO (2015), 45% of
Nigeria children aged 6-11 do not attend any primary
school with Northern Nigeria recording the lowest
attendance rate in the country. Furthermore, one out
of every five Nigerian children arereported out of
school (Abdulmalik, 2013). Nigeria holds the world
record of having the highest number of her young
people out of school (All Global Monitoring Report,
2013).
Headship Tasks
Headship tasks include; curriculum and instruction;
staff and student management; communication with
schools board/related agencies, and implementation
of policies; school ventures management as well as
establishment and maintenance of school-community
relations.Many headteachers lack adequate training
in leadership/management. The lapses are
sometimes displayed in conservative attitudesand
inability to influence appropriately. This may not be
unconnected with inadequate experience as there is
hardly training and certification for the role, To
corroborate this, headteachers in Kenya are usually
appointed from among the classroom teachers… and
who have no training at all in school administration
(Mosiori&Thinguri, 2015). This appointment style
may cut across nations. The task of headship is
onerous, as may be observed from the observation
below.
Over the years as a reporter, I have never
seen a good school with a poor principal, or
a poor school with a good principal. I have
seen unsuccessful schools turned around
into successful ones and regrettably
outstanding schools slide rapidly into
decline. In each case the rise or fall could
readily be traced to the quality of the
principal (Lipham, 1981).
These equally apply to the head teachers. In essence
the leader is tagged either for the success or failure of
the school. The headship tasks, therefore, should not
be taken lightly by the school head.
Material-related
Inadequate funding
Education in the country, as in most African countries
is inadequately funded and a far cry from the 26%
annual budget recommended by UNESCO. This has
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
124
become a limiting factor to the provision of
amenities, facilities and equipment towards the
realisation of the goals of primary education as well
as the welfare of the staff.
Non-conducive Teaching/learning Environment
The teaching/learning environments in many schools
are not very friendly. Basic learning equipment are
virtually absent in these schools coupled with poor
environments that are usually not conducive for
learning. In some schools, students take their lessons
under the trees and some of those that stay in the
classrooms, squat, use their laps as tables and make
do with odd structures for seats. In extreme cases,
classes get postponed indefinitely during bad
weather when schools can no longer hold classes
outside (Okotoni, 2012).
Inadequate Physical Facilities
Vital facilities and equipment that that are needed are
lacking in many schools. Many classroom blocks are
dilapidated, while the staffrooms are not conducive
for the staff. The furniture and conveniences are
nothing to write home about in many instances.
Other Challenges
There are some other challenges confronting the
school heads; some of these are; daily meetings
which entail spending much time on administrative
matters, culminating into distractions from
educational activities- the core of their duties (Bolam,
Dunning &Karstanje, 2000); unannounced change of
school programmes that hinder teaching and
learning; modern technological challenges.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to investigate human
and material-related challenges of headship
effectiveness in primary schools in Osun State and
ways of mitigating the challenges confronting
effective running of the schools. To this effect the
following research questions were raised:
1. What are the human and material-related
challenges confronting headteachers in Osun
State primary schools?
2. What are the levels of cooperation of teachers
and parents towards administrative effectiveness
in the schools?
3. What are the factors limiting headship
effectiveness in the study area?
4. What are the measures put in place by the
headteachers in surmounting the challenges?
Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was used for
the study. The population was made up of the
headteachers in primary schools in Osun State,
Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was used
in selecting two of the three Senatorial Districts and
20 schools from each of the two districts. Forty
schools and consequently the purposive selection of
their headteachers comprised the sample. A self-
designed questionnaire was the main instrument for
collecting data for the study. The instrument was
validated to ensure its content was suitable for
eliciting the desired data. A reliability index of 0.084
was obtained for the instrument using Pearson
Product Moment correlation. A return rate of 95%
was obtained as 38 of the head teachers responded to
the questionnaire.
Results
Research Question One: What are the human and
material-related challenges confronting headteachers
in the study area?
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
125
Table 1: Human and material-related challenges confronting headteachers in the study area
S/N ITEMS S A A D SD F % F % F % F %
1 Staff members are adequate in number for subject area needs
7 18.4 12 31.6 14 36.8 5 13.2
2 Staff members are educationally qualified for teaching subject area
18 47.4 18 47.4 2 5.3 0 0.0
3 Staff members are dedicated to their duties 20 52.6 18 47.4 0 0.0 0 0.0 4 Teachers have been cooperative with one another in
achieving school goals 24 63.2 13 34.2 0 0.0 1 2.6
5 Staff members have been cooperative in achieving academic goals of the school
14 36.8 10 26.3 9 23.7 5 13.2
6 Staff members have been willing in achieving extra-curricular goals of the school
6 15.8 26 68.4 6 15.8 0 0.0
7 There are many students’ behavioural problems in this school
10 26.3 19 50 8 21.1 1 2.6
8 Many students’ disciplinary problems emanate from their homes
10 26.3 25 65.8 2 5.3 1 2.6
9 Students are involved in drugs and drug related problems in this school
4 10.5 5 13.2 18 47.4 11 28.9
10 Cultism has been reported among students in this school
2 5.3 9 23.7 13 34.2 14 36.8
11 Students manifest aggressive behaviours in my school e.g. fighting and bullying
4 10.5 16 42.1 15 39.5 3 7.9
12 Many students are irregular and not punctual in/to school in my school
4 10.5 18 47.4 13 34.2 3 7.9
13 Government’s funding policies affect my schools administration positively
7 18.4 17 44.7 6 15.8 8 21.1
14 Government’s policies on PTA participation affect my schools administration positively
8 21.1 17 44.7 6 15.8 7 18.4
15 I do set goals for staff members for achieving school objectives
9 23.7 25 65.8 1 2.6 3 7.9
16 The welfare of staff is adequately taken care of in my school
8 21.1 21 55.3 7 18.4 2 5.3
17 My school’s environment is conducive for teaching and learning
13 34.2 16 42.1 6 15.8 3 7.9
18 There are dilapidated buildings in my school 14 36.8 7 18.4 10 26.3 7 18.4
19 Staff rooms are convenient for the teachers 7 18.4 12 31.6 18 47.4 1 2.6
20 The smooth running of the school is hampered by funding
7 18.4 20 52.6 4 10.5 7 18.4
21 Classrooms in my school are adequate 14 36.8 16 42.1 5 13.2 3 7.9
22 There are adequate stationery for teaching and administrative purposes.
2 5.3 2 5.3 20 52.6 14 36.8
23 Laboratory equipment and reagents are adequate 8 21.1 10 26.3 11 28.9 9 23.7
24 Sports equipment are adequate 1 2.6 3 7.9 15 39.5 19 50
25 The library in this school is adequately stocked with books, magazines and periodicals
1 2.6 1 2.6 14 36.8 22 57.9
26 I have undergone a course/on –the – job training on leadership
10 26.3 22 57.9 5 13.2 1 2.6
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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From Table 1, it can be observed that among the
human related challenges identified by the
headteachers in the study area, staff members not
being adequate in number for subject area needswas
affirmed (19, (50%). Students’ behavioural problems
in the schools were indicated by (29, 76%) in the
strongly agree/agreeresponse.Some of the
behavioural problems were as shown in the Table.
These hindered effective leadership in the schools.
Among the material related challenges faced by
headteachers in the study areaare; inadequate
stationery, sports equipment, inadequately stocked
libraries, and dilapidated buildings. Furthermore, the
smooth running of the schools is hampered by
funding.
Research Question Two: What are the levels of
cooperation of teachers and parents towards
administrative effectiveness of headteachers in the
study area?
Table 2: Ratings of areas of cooperation of teachers, parents and studentsto effective schooladministration by
headteachers
S/N Items Very High High Low Very Low
F % F % F % F % 1 PTA levies payment 0 0.0 6 15.8 18 47.4 14 36.8
2 Provision of facilities for teaching and learning 3 7.9 10 26.3 16 42.1 9 23.7
3 Provision of study materials for their children/ wards 0 0.0 10 26.3 16 42.1 12 31.6
4 Compliance of staff to given instruction 4 10.5 27 71.1 4 10.5 3 7.9
5 Obedience of school staff to rules and regulations 21 55.3 16 42.1 0 0.0 1 2.6
6 Dedication of staff to their duties 27 71.1 8 21.1 1 2.6 2 5.3
7 Teachers’ punctuality to school 30 78.9 7 18.4 0 0.0 1 2.6
8 Attitude of students to studies 1 2.6 11 28.9 19 50 7 18.4
9 Examination malpractice of students 0 0.0 4 10.5 13 34.2 21 55.3
From Table 2, The PTA was rated low in the payment
of school fees and provision of teaching and learning
materials for the schools/ their children and wards.
However, teachers’ cooperation with school
administration in the various schools was high, as
manifested in punctuality to school (37, 97.3%) and
obedience to rules and regulations (37, 97.3%), and
dedication to their duties (35, 92.1%).Attitude of
students to studies was found to be low, examination
malpractice was also shown to be low (4, 10.5%).
Qualitative Analysis
Research Question Three: What are the factors
limiting headship effectiveness in the study area?
The following were identified as the major limiting
factor by each head teacher to his/her effectiveness.
Table 3: Limiting factors to headship effectiveness in
the study area
S/N Variable Frequency Percentage 1. Inadequate funding 14 36.8 2. Inadequate
instructional materials supply
3 7.9
3. Inadequate number of teachers
3 7.9
4. Inadequate cooperation of teachers
2 5.3
5. Parents’ attitude 3 7.9 6. Government policies 4 10.5 7. Lateness and
irregularity in salary payment
7 18.4
8. Government limitations in headship exercise of authority and power
2 5.3
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
127
Inadequate funding was identified as the most
limiting factor (37%)by the head teachers, followed
by lateness and irregularity in salary payment
(18.4%)
Research Question Four: What are the measures
put in place by the headteachers to surmount the
identified challenges?
From the qualitative analysis of headteachers
responses to the open-ended questions, measures put
in place to ensure their effectiveness include the
following:
Table 4: Measures to ensure leadership effectiveness
S/N Variable Frequently used/%
Occasionally
Used/%
Never used/%
1. Organising of meetings for parents as well as organizing of open day
6 (15.8) 28 (73.7) 4 (10.5)
2. Organizing of PTA meetings 31 (81.6) 7 (18.4) 0 (0)
3. Soliciting for funds from the community 9 (23.7) 13 (34.2) 16 (42.1)
4. Discipline of pupils in school 29 (76.3) 9 (23.7) 0 (0)
5. Encouraging parents to provide learning materials for their children/wards
38 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0)
6. Updating parents on school activities/challenges 31(81.6) 7 (18.4) 0 (0)
7. Adoption of democratic leadership style 14 (36.8) 15 (39.5) 9 (23.7)
8. Putting in place students' representative councils 12 (31.6) 19 (50) 7 (18.4)
9. Encouraging effective teaching 38 (100) 0 (0) 0 (0)
10. Firmness in enforcement of school rules and regulation 33 (86.8) 5 (13.2) 0 (0)
11. Involvement of parents in pupils work 9 (23.7) 21 (55.3) 8 (21.1)
12. Regular taking of class attendance 35 (92.1) 3 (7.9) 0 (0)
13. Regular meetings with students/teachers 6 (15.8) 17 (44.7) 15 (39.5)
14. Adequate monitoring of school activities 37 (97.4) 1 (2.6) 0 (0)
15. Offering counseling services to students 4 (10.5) 15 (39.5) 19 (50)
Discussion
The study showed inadequacy in the number of staff
in meeting subject area needs, inadequacy of
instructional materials and stationery as the major
material needs.Staff qualification and dedication of to
duty were positively assessed. Parents had low level
of cooperation towards administrative effectiveness
of the headteachers as manifested in levies payment
and provision of facilities. This aspect of parental
cooperation is not limited to Nigeria, the cost of
construction and maintenance of school facilities was
left to parents under the cost-sharing policy of 1980s
to 2002 in Kenya (Mosiori&Thinguri, 2015).
Transparency in handling the financial matters of a
school will go a long way in motivating them to
contribute actively to the success of the schools.
Regular PTA meetings will help in clarifying
misconceptions in ideas and opinions.
The pupils posed other challenges to administrative
effectiveness through behavioural problems as;
irregularity in attendance and punctuality to school;
aggressive behaviour; drug related issuesand cultism.
No matter the frequency from the responses, such
actions are least expected from the primary level of
education. They remain gangrenes that could leaven
the whole lump over time. It is not surprising that
facilities have been found to influence student
attendance. In a study of 139 Milwaukee public
schools, it was found that when controlled for
socioeconomic status, students’ attendance and
achievement were positively correlated to facility
quality (Lewis, 2001). Therefore more efforts need be
exerted by head teachers in soliciting funds for their
schools to solve quite a number of problems.
Discipline problems will be reduced if students find
school enjoyable and interesting. For instance, when
teachers at Wilson Elementary School in North
Carolina changed their instructional practices to
accommodate a variety of learning styles, discipline
problems decreased dramatically (Gaustad, n.d.).The
teaching styles of the teachers could be looked into,
and appropriate changes made in accordance with
the learning styles of the pupils.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
128
The material related challenges were apparent in
inadequacy of instructional materials for teaching
and learning, stationery for administrative purposes,
as well as inadequacy of library materials. The level
of cooperation of parents with school administration
in the study area was found to be low, as manifested
in low level of levies payment and provision of study
materials for their children and wards. However the
staff were recognised to be cooperative in the
achievement of school objectives through compliance
with given instructions, obedience to rules and
regulations, and dedication to duties.
In all, the factors limiting headship effectiveness in
the study area were inadequate funding, followed by
lateness and irregularity in the payment of staff
salaries. The attitude of parents featured prominently
and constituted the most stress causing group of
stakeholders for the head teachers, government
policies that affect PTA participation negatively and
the attitude of students to studies which was
poor.Quite a number of measures however were put
in place to checkmate lapses as reported in the study.
Conclusion
The study concluded that parents’ low level of
cooperation in payment of levies and provision of
facilities to enhance teaching and learning as well as
students’ disciplinary problems negatively affected
effective administration of the primary schools in the
study area.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made:
Parents should be enlightened on the goals of the
school. Policies and programmes put in place for
achieving the goals should be spelt out to them. As
much as possible parents should be carried along in
the school running, and be intimated with the
progress and challenges of the school. This can be
achieved through regular meetings with the
parents.It should be realised that the best possible
programme for pupils in any school can be
accomplished only with the support and help of
understanding parents. Headteachers need to work
closely with the parents in giving and receiving
feedback on the students/wards reports and
progress, school programmes and activities. Regular
educative programmes in forms of seminars and talks
should be offered to pupils to keep them regularly
informed of school policies, rules and regulations.
In terms of government’s political stance, the school
heads may not be in much control of this factor, but
through School Heads’ Associations, and other
appropriate bodies, their feelings may be
communicated to the government as they relate to
the clarification of terms and policies that may affect
school running.
Headteachers should take time to understand the
forces operating on the stakeholders in the education
sector which influence their behaviour and
motivation.The knowledge of this could be used to
induce them to act in the desired way. This should be
used to motivate them towards contribution to the
achievement of school goals. Through the
participatory approach, it is believed that the
interests of the individuals and the organisation will
be adequately taken care of.
Other human-related problems could be tackled by
applying the following methods:
The schoolheadsshould attend leadership training
and development courses- this will enable themto
know and to be able to apply current methods in
educational management.
Material-related problems could be in forms of
physical materials or finances. The financial
problems to some extent could be solved by having a
viable PTA that could handle some projects for the
school. Closely linked to this is the assistance of the
alumni and philanthropists who could donate
physical materials and cash generously.Schools could
embark on some money yielding ventures to sponsor
some projects and meet school needs.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
129
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
130
COGNITIVE RESTRUCTURING, PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGIES AND POOR STUDY HABIT AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
Olowolabi Segun
Department of Guidance and Counselling Faculty of Education
AdekunleAjasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria
Abstract
The recurring problem of low academic achievement among secondary school students has been attributed to many factors among which is poor study habits. The study investigated the effects of cognitive restructuring and problem-solving strategies in the treatment of poor study habits among secondary school students in Ondo State. The study adapted quasi experimental pre-test, post-test control group research design. One hundred and twenty subjects (120) were selected through purposive and stratified random sampling techniques from three secondary schools. One school was selected from each of the three senatorial districts in Ondo State. Samples were assigned to three groups: cognitive restructuring, problem–solving and control groups. Each group consisted of forty subjects. Instrument used for the study was Study Habit Inventory (SHI) adapted from Bakare’s Study Habit Inventory (1977). Three hypotheses were tested at 0.05 alpha level. Data collected were analyzed using analyses of co-variance (ANCOVA). Results of the study revealed that there was significant difference in the study habit of experimental group and control group. The treatment strategies: Cognitive Restructuring and Problem-Solving techniques assisted in improving study habits of the respondents. It also revealed that there was no significant difference in study habit of male and female students exposed to the treatment strategies. Based on the findings, it was concluded that application of Cognitive Restructuring and Problem-solving Strategies are capable of ameliorating poor study habits of secondary school students. Therefore, it was recommended that Teachers, Counsellors, Psychologists, and other stakeholders in education need to embark upon administering cognitive restructuring and problem-solving strategies by training and retraining of stakeholders on the two strategies so as to improve study habits and good academic performance among students.
Keywords: Cognitive restructuring, problem-solving strategy, poor study habit, reading culture.
Introduction
The problem of low academic achievement and
increasing rate of examination malpractices over the
years has indeed become a matter of concern to many
stakeholders in education. A lot of reasons might be
responsible for this ugly trend which include poor
study habits, inability to properly plan and organize
time for study, poor note taking and ineffective
methods of preparing and taking examinations.
Others may be low motivation, lack of information
and interest, dislike for certain teachers and learning
environment, and poor reading habits.
It appears the performance of students in both public
and private examinations is declining, effort by the
government to improve on the performance of
students seems not to have yielded the desired result.
This had brought decline in the performance of
students and has reached an alarming rate as
reflected in the released West African Examination
Council (WAEC) examination result (2014) as
reported in Tribune News Paper of Tuesday 30th
September 2014. Less than 20% of the candidate who
sat for the West African Examination Council (WAEC)
examination scored Credit and above in core subjects
(Mathematics and English Language).
This seeming poor performance and mass failure in
examinations, according to Hussain (2006), is
attributed to students’ poor study habits. Azeez
(2009) in his study found that poor study habits
ranked highest when compared with other factors
responsible for poor academic performance among
students. Similarly, a pilot-study conducted by Anwar
(2014) to investigate the degree of relationship
betweenstudy habits and academic achievement of
senior secondary school students of Lucknow city
ofU.P. (India) found that the academic achievement of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
131
the students having good and poorstudy habits
differed significantly in favour of those who has good
study habits. It also revealed that significant number
of students expressed concern on how to plan and
organize time for study, note taking techniques,
learning and remembering strategies, use of library,
preparing and taking examination and how to curb
excessive examination anxiety.
To improve the situation, scholars and researchers
have made numerous suggestions and
recommendations, while some recommended proper
funding, effective supervision of the system (Jackson,
Johnson and Persico, 2015). Others suggested
guidance and counseling technique Omoegun, (2010).
The suggestions given by these scholars therefore
offer a big challenge to counselors and the
professionals in general on how best to tackle the
problems and difficulties associated with study
habits and by extension mass failure and examination
malpractices. It is against this background that this
study attempts to investigate the effects of some
counselling techniques on study habits among
Nigerian students, on the premise that probably this
may serve as solution to remediating mass failure
and examination malpractices.
Study habit according to Mendezabal (2013), is the
degree to which the student engages in regular acts
of studying that are characterized by appropriate
studying routines (e.g. reviews of material, frequency
of studying sessions, and so on.) occurring in an
environment that is conducive for learning. The
concept of study habit comprises of study attitude,
study method and study skill (Roya & Murthy,
2016).Study, when directed to schoolwork is defined
as a chain of systematic behavior pattern acquired
and specifically diverted towards the acquisition of
knowledge with a view to passing examinations and
getting better grades.
Study skills contribute to better learning and
educational achievements. It has been proven that
gender is an important variable in studies concerning
students learning. With the aim to recognize the
differences in studying habits & skills between male
and female students.
There have been a lot of literatures on how to make
students form good study habits. According to Fadun
(2005), students should develop study habit skills;
which could help the students to develop confidence
in his self-worth to attack any assignment no matter
how tough. They help students to control the study
area, develop the necessary courage that requires
active recitation, and review even before the crucial
examinations (Bulama, 2001).
According to Omoegun (2012) the general
understanding in Nigeria these days is that most
people no longer read at all. They do not consider
reading as an important aspect of life. These days,
students prefer to watch movies and home videos.
The introduction of internet technology has not
helped the matter. Instead of reading, most students
spend hours browsing at the cyber cafe, some of them
work overnight at the cafe. This singular act is
reducing the reading culture and study habit. The
situation needs drastic action to arrest the decline in
reading culture which hinders the effective
achievement of the aims and objectives of education.
Mbanefo (2000), observed the following behavioral
problems that are existing in both secondary and
post-secondary institutions: examination
malpractice, insubordination, moral decadence,
stealing, rioting, drug abuse, cultism, rape and
alcoholism. Prominent among these behavioral
problems is examination malpractice otherwise
referred to as cheating in an examination because it
reduces good study habit and makes the students
grow lazy in academic work. Adeyemo (2003),
further explained that the situation is so bad that
many Nigerians and interested stakeholders
including employers of labour have lost confidence in
the value of examination and their results. It may
appear that the society is not doing enough to deter
cheating in the educational institutions. The cost
involved in curbing the practice and to restore
stakeholders’ confidence in these examinations is
huge. Examination malpractice is an acts or actions
that are wrong which are carried out by individuals
or groups with the deliberate intention to cheat or
unfairly gain advantage in an examination.
(Arogunyo, 2007)
It appears that the methods used are becoming
sophisticated with the emergence of electronic
calculator, pocket word processor, and mobile
telephone. Kumar (2002), said that, it seems
everyone is involved in this practice, students,
teachers, who leak out question papers to favour
students, invigilators who are paid to allow cheating
in the hall, or parents/guardians who either give out
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
132
huge sums of money to their children and wards to
purchase questions papers or hire tout to write
public examination for their children/wards.Fajonyo
(2004), investigated the effects of gender on study
habits of students and the study revealed that there
was no significant difference in the study habits of
male and female students.
According to Chineka and Shannon (2006) “if I call
any of the girls that I’m friends with”, said Corey
Conerly at Jackson State, a freshman from Brooklyn,
N.Y., nine out of 10 times, they will be in the library or
with a group of friends doing classwork or studying.
And when it comes to reading books for class, you
will find more guys asking girls about the given
reading assignment and what it was about.
Cognitive modeling is a procedure in which
counselors show people what to say to themselves
while performing a task. Cognitive modeling can be
used with self-instructional training. These
procedures have been used for children who have
attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, for
controlling anger and hostility, students with
learning disabilities. However, cognitive modeling
with self-guiding verbalization could be used to teach
anger control skills.
Systematic desensitization is one of a variety of
methods used to break down neurotics’ anxiety
response habits in piecemeal fashion. After a
physiological state inhibiting anxiety has been
induced in the patient by means of muscle relaxation,
the patient is exposed to a weak anxiety – arousing
stimulus for a few seconds. If the exposure is
repeated the stimulus progressively loses its ability
to evoke anxiety.
According to Lydon, Healy & O. Callaghan (2015)
desensitization has been used to treat various kinds
of phobias as well as anxiety related to public
speaking. Desensitization is the superior treatment
for phobias and is most appropriate when a client has
the capability or the skills to handle a situation or
perform an activity but avoids the situation or
performs less than adequate because of anxiety. If a
person avoids a situation because of skill deficits,
then desensitization will be inappropriate and
inefficient (Lydon et al, 2015).
The employment of psychological intervention has
been attested to as being a veritable tool to use,
unfortunately, this has been inactive in Nigerian
secondary schools. Among many treatment strategies
which can be used to assist learners who perform
poorly in their studies, especially in English language,
the researcher has identified two strategies, namely
cognitive restructuring (CR) and problem-solving
(PS) to be used to ameliorate the problem. The skills
arising from these two treatments have been noted to
be effective in improving academic performance. To
the knowledge of the researcher, students in our
secondary schools in Ondo State are not equipped
with the learning skills emanating from these two
strategies.
It is clear that lack of cognitive restructuring and a
problem-solving skill required for productive
learning and studying among secondary school
student are a serious problem. The manifestation of
poor approach to studying interferes with the
acquisition of acquiring information/knowledge,
ability to be assertive, development of high self-
esteem, high self-concept, high level of motivation
and psychological adjustment (Roya and Murphy,
2016). To ameliorate the undesirable effects of this
behaviour, this study sets out to employ cognitive
restructuring and problem-solving techniques in
improving the poor study habits among secondary
school students.
Cognitive restructuring and problem-solving
strategies are therapies which emphasize behavioral
change. Both are therapeutic methods developed to
modify learning behaviors. Cognitive restructuring is
an approach, which was developed by Ellis (1996). As
a psychoanalyst, Ellis argued that, the primary causes
of human distress are not unconscious impulses. On
the contrary, Ellis maintained that certain core
irrational ideas are at the root of most of human
misery. The underlying assumption of this theory is
that, a man feels and acts according to his thought.
That is, as you think, so shall you feel and act. This
fact is clearly illustrated in Ellis’ A-B-C’s paradigm. A
basic premise of Cognitive Restructuring therapy is
that, feel and behave and the impact they have on
others. Cognitive restructuring technique has been
clearly shown to be effective in behavior modification
as an active and direct teaching to dispute and
restructure irrational thoughts and beliefs. Its
efficacy in improving self-esteem and positive change
within learners is evident from the review of
literature
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
133
Cognitive restructuring has its roots in the
elimination of distorted or invalid inferences,
disputing irrational thoughts or beliefs. Examples of
researchers that have used cognitive restructuring
and problem-solving were:Nwaneri (2001) who used
the two strategies to improve organizational climate
behaviour for creativity and innovation among
middle managers. Arogunyo (2007) established the
effect of assertiveness training and cognitive
restructuring on student’s academic self-concept and
attitude towards examination malpractice. Tayo-
Olajubutu (2011) investigated the effect of cognitive
restructuring and self-management strategies on the
discrimination against the girl-child in Ondo State.
The finding of the study confirmed that both
treatment strategies were effective in moderating
and stabilizing family discriminatory behaviour.
Another technique of learning which this study
considered is problem-solving. The propagators of
this theory D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) defined the
technique as “a behavioral process, whether overt or
cognitive in nature, which makes available a variety
of potentially effective response alternatives for
dealing with the problematic situation and increases
the probability of selecting the most effective
response as a cognitive activity aimed at changing a
problem from a given state to the goal state. It refers
to directed cognitive processing. Problem-solving is
directed because the problem solver is motivated by
a desire to achieve a goal; it is cognitive because it
occurs within the problem solver and can only be
inferred from the problem solver’s actions. Problem-
solving is a process because information is
manipulated or operated upon within the problem
solver. The general goals in all problem-solving
training, however, is not to provide individuals with
specific solutions to specific problematic situations,
but rather to provide a general coping strategy, so
that they may be in a better position to deal more
effectively with a wide variety of situational
problems. D’Zurilla and Goldfried (1971) stated that
the inability to arrive at an adequate solution in a
problematic situation, may not only serve to upset us,
but may have some negative consequences that will
only create further problems in future.
Rohtak, R. (2015) defined problem solving as the
framework or pattern within which creative thinking
and reasoning take place. It is also a process of
eliminating the discrepancy between the actual and
desired situation (Khan, Hafeez, & Saeed(2012).
Areas where problem solving have been used are:
Orimogunje (2003) who examined the relative
effectiveness of problem- solving and lecture method
on secondary students’ achievement in Chemistry but
the problem-solving strategy assisted students to
think logically and finding solutions to problems.
Olorunfemi (2008) investigated the effectiveness of
self-management and problem-solving strategies in
the improvement of students with poor academic
performance, the result showed that the treatment
strategies were effective in improving academic
performance. Oliha (2014) investigated differential
effectiveness of contingency management and
cognitive restructuring in the reduction of truancy
among secondary school adolescents. The results
obtained indicated significant differences in truant
behaviour of students exposed to treatment
strategies than those in control group. Also,
significant difference existed in truancy treatment
between students exposed to contingency
management strategy and those exposed to cognitive
restructuring.
According to Ahmad (2014) when it comes to study
habits, approach and skills or studying there are
some differences between male and female students.
However, more studies are needed to correlate
different factors with academic achievements of
medical students.
Hypotheses
1. There is no significant difference in the study
habits of students exposed to cognitive
restructuring and problem-solving strategies and
those in the control group.
2. There is no significant difference in the study
habit of male and female students exposed to
cognitive restructuring strategy.
3. There is no significant difference in the study
habit of male and female students exposed to
problem solving strategy.
Methodology
The study employed a quasi-experimental pretest,
post-test, control-group research design to
investigate the effect of the independent variables
(Cognitive restructuring and Problem Solving
strategies) on the dependent variable (Poor Study
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
134
Habits). The population of this study consisted of the
entire senior secondary school students in Ondo
State. The sample for the study consisted of one
hundred and twenty (120) students from three
secondary schools in the state.
The sample was selected using multi- stage sampling
technique. The local government, schools, and
subjects were selected using stratified and simple
random techniques.
The instrument used for this research was Study
Habits Inventory (SHI) adapted from Bakare (1977).
This was used as pretest and post-test for students’
study habits.The study habits Inventory (SHI)
consisted of two sections. Section A consisted of
items that sought information on the personal data of
the respondents (class, age, sex and school) while
Section B contained 45 items measuring various
dimensions of study habit.
The test experts from the Department of Guidance
and Counselling agreed that the instrument had face
validity. For the content validity, the test experts
studied the item and they all agreed that the items
are adequate in measuring the various dimensions of
students’ study habits.
To establish the reliability of this scale, a Cronbach
Alpha Internal Consistent Reliability was employed.
The 45 item-test was administered on some selected
subjects outside the sample group. The value of
coefficient obtained from the test was 0.76. This
coefficient represented a relatively high degree of
stability and suggested that the scale is a relatively
stable instrument; thus, confirming the reliability of
the instrument.
The instrument for data collection was administered
on the subjects in their various schools with the help
of a research assistant, and some of the school
counselors. The subjects in the experimental group
were exposed to the two treatment packages while
those in the control group were not.
The data collected were analyzed using analyses of
co-variance (ANCOVA).
Results and Discussion
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference in the study habits
of students exposed to cognitive restructuring,
problem solving strategies and those in the control
group.
In order to test the hypothesis, Scores on study habits
of students in the cognitive restructuring, problem
solving and control group were computed and
compared for statistical significance using Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level. The result is
presented in Table 1.
Table 1: ANCOVA showing study habits of students
in the cognitive restructuring, problem-solving and
control groups Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable
Corrected
Model
10698.665 3 3566.222 39.477 0.000 2.68
Covariate
(Pretest)
473.548 1 473.548 5.242 0.024 3.92
Group 9952.950 2 4976.475 55.088* 0.000 3.07
Error 10479.127 116 90.337
Corrected
Total
21177.792 119
Total 2011653.000 120 *P<0.05
Table 1 showed that Fcalculated(55.088) was greater than Ftable(3.07) at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was significant difference in the study habits of students exposed to cognitive restructuring, problem solving strategies and those in the control group.
To locate the sources of pairwise significant difference among the treatment groups, ScheffePosthoc Test was used. The result is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: ScheffePosthoc analysis of students’ study
habits by treatment Groups Problem-
Solving Cognitive Restructuring
Control N Mean
Problem-Solving
* * 40 131.92
Cognitive Restructuring
* 40 138.20
Control 40 116.25
*Mean difference is significant at 0.05 level
Table 2 revealed that there was significant difference
between the study habits of students exposed to
problem-solving and cognitive restructuring at 0.05
level of significance. Similarly, the mean difference
between the study habits of subjects in problem-
solving and control, cognitive restructuring and
control was statistically significant at 0.05 level in
each case.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
135
Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) was used to
determine the effect of the strategies on the study
habits of the clients. The result is presented in Table
3.
Table 3: Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA)
showing the effect of counseling strategies on study
habits of students Grand Mean = 128.79
Variable
+Category
N Unadjusted
Devn’
Eta2 Adjusted for
Independent
+ Covariate
Beta
Problem-
Solving
40 3.13
.51
2.63
.19
Cognitive
Restructuring
40 9.41 9.59
Control 40 -12.54 -12.22
Multiple R .188
Multiple R2
.035
The result in Table 3 showed that students exposed
cognitive restructuring had the highest adjusted
mean score of 138.38 (128.79+9.59) on study habits.
This was closely followed by those in the problem-
solving group; 131.42 (128.79+2.63) while the
subjects in the control group had the least adjusted
mean score of 116.57 (128.79+(-12.22). This implies
that the use of problem-solving and cognitive
restructuring strategies would enhance students’
study habits. The treatment accounted for about 51%
(Eta2 = 0.51) of the observed variance in students’
study habits.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the study habits
of male and female students exposed to cognitive
restructuring strategy.
Mean scores of male and female students on study
habits were computed and subsequently compared
the statistical significance using Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance.
The result is shown in Table 4.
Table 4: ANCOVA showing study habits of subjects in
cognitive restructuring group by gender Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable
Corrected
Model
192.991 2 96.496 1.169 0.322 3.23
Covariate
(Pretest)
178.591 1 178.591 2.164 0.150 4.08
Gender 25.660 1 25.660 0.311 0.580 4.08
Error 3053.409 37 82.525
Corrected
Total
3246.400 39
Total 767216.00 40
P>0.05
Table 4 reveals that there was no significant
difference in the study habits of male and female
students exposed to cognitive restructuring strategy
(F = 0.311, P>0.05). The null hypothesis was
accepted. Therefore, there was no significant
difference in the study habits of male and female
students exposed to cognitive restructuring strategy.
Hypothesis 3
There is no significant difference in the study habits
of male and female students exposed to problem
solving strategy
In testing the hypothesis, mean scores of male and
female students on study habits exposed to problem-
solving strategies were obtained and subjected to
statistical analysis involving Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The result is
presented in Table 5.
Table 5: ANCOVA showing study habits of problem-
solving group by gender Source SS Df MS Fcal P Ftable
Corrected
Model
189.233 2 94.617 0.986 0.383 3.23
Covariate
(Pretest)
0.008 1 0.008 0.000 0.993 4.08
Gender 187.750 1 187.750 1.956 0.170 4.08
Error 3551.542 37 95.988
Corrected
Total
3740.775 39
Total 699909.000 40
P>0.05
The ANCOVA result in Table 5 revealed that
Fcalculated(1.956) was less than Ftabulated(4.08) at 0.05
level of significance. The null hypothesis was
accepted. This implies that there was no significant
difference in the study habits of male and female
students exposed to problem-solving strategy.
Discussion of findings
The study showed that there was a significant
difference between subjects treated with cognitive
restructuring and problem-solving strategies and
those in the control group. The result from
hypothesis one to a large extent suggest that Study
habits can be deliberately improved in students with
cognitive restructuring and problem-solving
techniques. The finding supported the study of
Kaczkurkin and Foa (2015) which found out that
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
136
cognitive behavior therapy appears to be efficacious
and effective in the treatment of anxiety disorder.
Moreover, the results were specifically in line with
the studies which showed that creative behaviour can
be improved through such techniques as cognitive
restructuring. The study also revealed that there is no
significance difference in the Study Habit of male and
female subjects exposed to cognitive restructuring
strategy. This implies that the hypothesis was upheld.
The result shows that male in the treated group were
not significantly different with their female
counterparts. This result is very much in agreement
with the research findings of Fajonyomi (2004) who
posits that, there is no significant difference in the
Study Habit of male and female subjects. The result
may be explained in terms of the coping components
of the therapy which provided equal opportunities to
identify and eradicate faulty thoughts and irrational
beliefs about Study Habit irrespective of sex. Ahmad
(2014) studied the differences in the study habits
between male and female Medical students of King
Abdulaziz University, and concluded that there are
some differences between male and female students
in study habits. However, the differences are not
many.The study also revealed that there is no
significance difference between male and female
subjects exposed to problem-solving strategy. This
means that the hypothesis was upheld. In other
words, it can be established that the treatment was
equally effective on the recipients irrespective of sex.
This result confirms the research findings of
Fajonyomi (2004) that when given equal treatment
the effects on both male and female are not different.
This study does not support the findings of Chineka
and Shannan (2006) who found that female students
really study more than male students. The study
revealed that both male and female study hard to
enhance academic performance. This is inconsistent
with a recent nationwide survey that found
differences between male and female students in
study habits.
Conclusion
From the findings of this study, the following
conclusions have been drawn; There was a significant
difference between the subjects exposed to problem-
solving and cognitive restructuring techniques and
the control group in their Study Habit. Thus, the
treatment strategies were effective ways of
improving Study Habit of students. The findings in
the study have been able to prove that there is no
significant difference between male and female
subjects exposed to cognitive restructuring and
Problem solving strategies.
Generally, this conclusion drawn from the findings of
the study indicated that both cognitive restructuring
and problem-solving techniques are effective
strategies which can be utilized by school
administrators and counselors not only to enhance
students study habits but also to improve students’
academic performance.
Recommendation
Based on the findings and conclusions of this study,
the following recommendations were made;
1. There is need for guidance counselors to be
provided in all schools so that they can use their
different strategies in solving students’ problems.
2. There is need for the Government to embark on
enlightenment campaign on how to improve the
reading culture of students.
3. Practicing guidance counselors are enjoined to
use appropriate counseling techniques such as
cognitive restructuring and problem-solving
strategies in solving the problems of their clients.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
139
INTERNALLY GENERATED REVENUE AND SCHOOL DEVELOPMENT IN IBADAN NORTH EAST LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREA, OYO STATE
1Isiaka, B. A., 2Uthman, R.O. and 3Zubair, O. M. 1,2&3Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between internally generated revenue and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government. Five hypotheses were formulated and used to guide the study.The research was a descriptive survey. Simple random sampling technique was used to select the respondents for this study. Researchers’ self-designed questionnaire titled “Internally Generated Revenue and School Development Questionnaire (IGRSDQ) was used for data collection which was validated by three experts in the Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMC) was used for testing all the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The study found that there was a significant relationship between internally generated revenue and school development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State. There was also a significant relationship between Parent–Teacher-Association Levy and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State as well as between Old Student Association Contribution and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State; and also between Community Donation and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State as well as Extra Lesson Fee and School Development of secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area of Oyo State.Based on these findings, it was recommended that available internally generated revenue should be utilized for expansion of school programmes. This could be from school farms, poultry, school shops, extra mural lessons from where additional funds could be generated to make the provision and maintenance possible and easy.
Keywords: Internally generated revenue, school development, school growth and structure
Introduction
Education is an indispensable tool for personal and
social development. Many countries in the world
view education as a good investment for national
development because it is expected to produce the
required quantity and quality of human resources for
economic growth using the right mix of inputs.
Secondary level of education started in Nigeria as far
back as 1859 with the founding of Church Missionary
Society (C.M.S.) Grammar School in Lagos and the
establishment of secondary schools in other parts of
the country including Abeokuta, Calabar, Ibadan,
Ijebu-Ode, and Ondo. Secondary schools, like any
other organization receive inputs from its
environment, convert or process it and afterwards,
discharge the output to the environment from where
the input is obtained. Secondary education has been a
level of education that is germane in preparing
individual for useful living within the society. It is the
transition level of education between the primary
and tertiary educational system. Amongst the
objectives of this level of education as stated by
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009) is to provide all
the school leavers equal opportunity for higher
education and diversify the curriculum to cater for
different talents, opportunities and future roles.
Resources allotted for secondary education service
delivery hinges on adequacy or otherwise of fund.
According to Abdulyaqin and Durosaro (2017),
opined that the seeming revenue monopoly by the
government has led to serious underfunding of
secondary schools in Nigeria today which has led to
low productivity of educational products in spite of
the high amount of money vested on education. On
this note, Oladimeji (2017) observed that secondary
school students are still facing challenges of mass
failure, inadequate facilities, inadequate instructional
materials, indiscipline among students and
examination malpractice which are caused majorly
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
140
by inadequate funding of educational system. The
system wastage experienced reveals that the
objectives of secondary education have not been fully
met because students‟ desire for achievement and
transition to tertiary institutions has become very
low recently. Analysis of 2017 West Africa School
Certificate Examination (WASCE) results revealed
that only 26.01 percent of these students passed with
the National minimum requirement of five (5) credits
including English Language and Mathematics (WAEC,
2017). Adeoye (1983) also envisaged the
aforementioned when he lamented on the outcry by
parents and the media over the decline in standards
of operation of our educational system, the quality of
studentsperformance in West Africa School
Certificate Examination (WASCE) and their
subsequent inability to secure gainful
employment/admission at the completion of their
secondary school career despite the huge inputs into
the system by various stakeholders. Since
expenditure on education is largely regarded as an
investment, there is need for continuous appraisal of
public secondary schools so as to ensure both cost
effectiveness and prudence, which seem appropriate
just as we have in the commercial and industrial
sectors become very low recently.
Ogundele (2001) noted that the contribution of well-
meaning individuals through various sources will be
used for both capital and recurrent expenses. The
scholar also stated that funds that are generated
internally will be used to provide and maintain the
available instructional facilities such as buildings,
instructional facilities, recreational facilities record
keeping and technical equipment without necessarily
depending on the government grants. Oparinde
(2013) also identified the major sources of funds like
tuition fees, examination fee, sales of services, public
private partnership, non-governmental agencies
intervention like State Education Sector Project
(SESP). The author observed that the schools
managers do complain that the generated funds and
the government grants are not adequate to embark
on the provision and maintenance of the necessary
school plants. Oyedeji (2013) noted that the
availability of quality school resourcesis the potent
indicator for measuring the quality of education
provided by the school system. The author observed
that the quality infrastructure provided in the school
system will reduce the problems of overcrowded
class room, aid expansion of educational programmes
engender, high parental patronage to the schools and
enhance teachers’ job effectiveness. The author
therefore called for prudence and honesty in the
utilization of the internally generated revenue for the
provision of the necessary instructional facilities in
the schools so as to enhance quality secondary
education programme.In order to improve the school
facilities in the school system, Bello (2013) identified
the need for public private partnership initiative in
the financing of education in Nigeria. The author
noted that the intervention of the public private
partnership will go a long way in the provision of
necessary infrastructural facilities and effective
academic goals achievement of Nigerian education
institutions will be enhanced.
Erhagbe (2014) stated that internally generated
revenue is the creation of “tangible” and “intangible”
funds within the confines of one’s entity. It is a
combination of all non-governmental monetary
accruals to the institution and may involve diverse
strategies. This means that the funds used in
effectively transforming the institution’s landscape
were not borrowed or realized through direct
source.Sources of generating internal revenue in
schools are proceeds from school activities, industrial
organization, philanthropist, community donations,
old students association contribution, parent
teachers association levy, school fees and extra
lesson.
Statement of the Problem
Education is one of the systems that require proper
funding for its functioning. Undoubtedly, the financial
challenges facing secondary schools have negative
effect on school development. The government as
well as the societal expectation on the school
development is very high because it has a positive
impact on the society. However, education is social
responsibility that everyone should enjoy as a
member of the society and for the fact that
government alone cannot soldier all the
responsibilities of educational provision in Nigeria
and that it had to be paid for by all and sundry. There
is therefore the need for generating revenue
internally for the provision and maintenance of
school facilities for enriching staff welfare and for
improving students’ academic performance in order
to complement government’s efforts in the provision
of education to her citizens. It is assumed that if the
problem of funding is resolved, most of the
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
141
educational problems will be solved or reduced.
Therefore, it has become necessary to find out if
there is any relationship between internally
generated revenue and school development. Many
researches and researchers have explained internally
generated revenue and school effectiveness within
different locales and institutions in Nigeria. Ogundele
& Morounfoye (2013) noted that the infrastructure
facilities provision is very expensive to purchase. The
stakeholders, principals and parents should therefore
assist the schools in making provision and help in the
maintenance of effective school facilities in order to
ensure administrative effectiveness of the school.
Atolagbe (2006), Ogundele (2001) &Oparinde (2013)
all agreed that the available funds sourced for in the
school are grossly inadequate for secondary schools
facilities provision and maintenance.
The researchers observed that no research work on
internally generated revenue and school
development has been carried out in Ibadan North
East Local Government, Oyo State and this is the gap
the researchers intend to fill.
Purpose of the study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate
internally generated revenue and school
development in public secondary schools in Ibadan
North East Local Government. Specifically, the
purposes are to:
i. investigate the relationship between IGR and
secondary school development in Ibadan North
East Local Government Area.
ii. investigate the relationship between community
donations and school development
iii. examine the relationship between Parent
Teacher Association Levy and school
development
iv. assess the relationship between Old Students
AssociationContributionand school development
v. assess the relationship between extra lesson fee
and school development
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been formulated in
the study:
Thereis no significant relationship between internally
generated revenue and public secondary schools
development in Ibadan North East Local Government
i. There is no significant relationship between
Parent Teachers Association Levy and school
development in public secondary schools in
Ibadan North East Local Government.
ii. There is no significant relationship between Old
Students Association Contribution and school
development in public secondary schools in
Ibadan North East Local Government Area.
iii. There is no significant relationship between
Community Donations and school development in
public secondary schools in Ibadan North East
Local Government area.
iv. There is no significant relationship between extra
lesson fee and school development in public
secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local
Government Area?
Methodology
A descriptive research design of correlation survey
type was used for this study.Therefore,the population
of this study consisted the principal officers of all 34
public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local
Government which will be limited to Principal, Vice
Principal (Admin) and School Bursar (School
Accountant). Simple random sampling technique was
used to select 30 public secondary school out of the
whole population.
Researchers’ self-designed questionnaire titled
“Internally Generated Revenue and School
Development Questionnaire” (IGRSDQ) was used for
data collection in this study. Questionnaire allows the
researcher to collect required information quickly
and cheaply from a large number of people at a point
time. The instrument elicited information on the
internally generated revenue and school
development. A four point Likert rating scale of
Strongly Agree (SA) = 4, Agree (A) = 3, Disagree = 2
and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 was used. Likert scale
technique enables the respondents to indicate the
degree of their beliefs in a given statement.
In order to ascertain the validity of the instrument for
the study, three drafted copies of the instrument
were given to three experts in the Department of
Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
Universityof Ilorin. Their comments, recommen-
dations and suggestions were carefully used to
improve the quality of the instrument.Reliability of
an instrument refers to the extent to which an
instrument gives consistent results on the aspect at
which it tests. In order to determine the reliability of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
142
this instrument, the researcher used a split-half
method. Ten copies of questionnaire were
administered to people that share similar
characteristics with therespondents of the study. The
value obtained which was .73 determined the level of
reliability of the instrument.
Results
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between
internally generated revenue and school
development in Ibadan North East Local Government
Area secondary schools.
Table 1: Internally Generated Revenue and School
Development
Table 1 shows the relationship between Internally
Generated Revenue and school development. The
table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.743
while the critical r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated
r-value of 0.743 is greater than the table value of
0.205 at degree of freedom of 88 and alpha level of
0.05. The null hypothesis which stated that there is
no significant relationship between parent teacher
association levy and school development is hereby
rejected. This implies that there was a significant
relationship between Internally Generated Revenue
and school development.
Hypothesis 2
There is no any significant relationship between Parent
Teachers Association Levy and school development in
public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local
Government?
Table 2: Parent Teacher Association Levy and School
Development
Table 2 shows the relationship between Parent
Teacher Association Levy and school development.
The table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.743
while the critical r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated
r-value of 0.743 is greater than the table value of
0.205 at degree of freedom of 88 and alpha level of
0.05. The null hypothesis which stated that there is
no significant relationship between parent teacher
association levy and school development is hereby
rejected. This implies that there was a significant
relationship between Parent Teacher Association
Levy and school development.
Hypothesis 3
There is no any significant relationship between Old
Students Association Contribution and school
development in public secondary schools in Ibadan
North East Local Government Area.
Table 3: Old Students Association Contribution and
School Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value
Decision
Old Students 90 10.533 4.160 88 0.667 0.205
Rejected
Association
Contribution
School 90 40.722 9.554
Development
Table 3 shows the relationship between Old Students
Association Contribution and school development.
The table revealed that the calculated r-value is 0.667
while the critical r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated
r-value of 0.667 is greater than the table value of
0.205 at degree of freedom of 88 and alpha level of
0.05. The null hypothesis which stated that there is
no significant relationship between old student
association contribution and school development is
hereby rejected. This implies that there was a
significant relationship between Parent Teacher
Association Levy and school development.
Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value
Decision
Internally
generated
revenue 90 33.278 5.145 88 0.743 0.205
Rejected
School 90 45.722 9.754
Development
Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value
Decision
Parent 90 12.278 3.145 88 0.743 0.205
Rejected
Teacher
Association
School 90 40.722 9.554
Development
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
143
Hypothesis 4
There is no any significant relationship between Community Donations and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government area.
Table 4: Community Donation and School
Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value
Decision
Community 90 9.766 3.547 88 0.695 0.205
Rejected
Donation
School 90 40.722 9.554
Development
Table 4 shows the relationship between community
donation and school development. The table revealed
that the calculated r-value is 0.695 while the critical
r-value is 0.205. Since the calculated r-value of 0.695
is greater than the table value of 0.205 at degree of
freedom of 88 and alpha level of 0.05. The null
hypothesis which stated that there is no significant
relationship between community donation and
school development is hereby rejected. This implies
that there was a significant relationship between
community donation and school development.
Hypothesis 5
There is no any significant relationship between extra lesson fee and school development in public secondary schools in Ibadan North East Local Government Area.
Table 5: Extra Lesson Fee and School Development Variable N Mean SD DF Cal. Value P. Value
Decision
Extra Lesson 90 8.144 3.220 88 0.615 0.205
Rejected
Fee
School 90 40.722 9.554
Development
Table 5 shows the relationship between extra lesson
fee and school development. The table revealed that
the calculated r-value is 0.615 while the critical r-
value is 0.205. Since the calculated r-value of 0.615 is
greater than the table value of 0.205 at degree of
freedom of 88 and alpha level of 0.05. The null
hypothesis which stated that there is no significant
relationship between extra lesson fee and school
development is hereby rejected. This implies that
there was a significant relationship between extra
lesson fee and school development.
Discussion of the Findings
Finding from the study revealed that there was a
significant relationship between internally generated
revenue and school development in Ibadan North
East Local Government Area secondary schools. The
findings is in line with Ogundele (2001) who said that
funds that are generated internally will be used to
provide and maintain the available instructional
facilities such as buildings, instructional materials,
recreational facilities and technical equipment.
The study also revealed that there was a significant
relationship between parent teacher association levy
and school development in Ibadan North East Local
Government Area Secondary Schools. This
contributes the view of Igwe (1999) who stated that
parent mandatorily pay levies agreed by the
association for their wards attendance in a particular
schools. PTA helps inthe development of school by
meaningfully contributing to building of classrooms,
hostels library and many other activities.
The study further revealed that there was a
significant relationship between Old Students
Association contribution and school development in
Ibadan North East Local Government Area Secondary
Schools. The implication of this is that old students in
partnership with the school management team can
assist in the development of both human and
material resources in the school. The Old Students
Association meets from time to time, organize and
facilitate workshop and seminars using their
connections. They sometimes build new classrooms
or renovate the existing school buildings.
Furthermore, the study revealed that there was a
significant relationship between community donation
and school development in Ibadan North East Local
Government Area Secondary Schools. This implies
that the community where the school is located can
provide fund for schools to purchase physical
facilities such as classrooms, laboratories and
material for the use of school.
In addition, the study revealed that there was a significant relationship between extra lesson fee and school development in Ibadan North East Local Government Area Secondary Schools. This implies that fund generated from extra lessons can be used to equip the school laboratories and repair equipment and furniture. It can also be used to renovate old school buildings.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
144
Conclusion
The study emphasized on internally generated
revenue and school development in Ibadan North
East Local Government Area secondary schools of
Oyo State. The finding of the study is that revenue
generated internally in secondary school has a
significant relationship with school development.
This study has confirmed the fact that adequate
realization and utilization of fund generated
internally in secondary school will have great impact
on developing school physical facilities. The result of
the study established the fact that the school that
generated fund internally and utilizes it effectively
would have good physical facilities in the school.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made based on
the findings and conclusion of the study.
Available internally generated revenue should be
utilized for expansion of school programmes
such as school farms, poultry, school shops and
extra mural lessons andadditional funds from
these sources could make the provision and
maintenance possible and easy.
School administrators should explore all
revenues through collaboration/partnership
with the philanthropists and Parents Teachers
Association.
There should be capacity building for the training
of stakeholders in the financial management of
the schools. The principal, the vice principal,
bursar and teachers that are dealing with all the
financial matters of the school should be
adequately trained on alternate sources of
funding through seminars, conferences and
workshops.
The ministry of education should provide
adequate financial supervision on all the revenue
generated to provide transparency, honesty and
prudency in the management of those revenue
that are generated internally.
References
Abdulyaqin, A.T. & Durosaro D. O. (2017).
Educational financing. In R. O. Olubor, A. Y.
Abdulkareem, A. T. Alabi & F. Adeyanju (eds.).
Educational management: New perspective.
Lagos: Amifitop Books.
Adeoye, S. (1983).Some aspects of school
management. Ibadan: Board Publishers Ltd.
Atolagbe, A. A. (2006). Funding and educational
facilities of secondary schools in Kwara
State.Unpublished M.Ed.dissertation, University
of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Bello, O. T. (2013). Funding and teachers
effectiveness of Kwara State private secondary
schools. Journal of Vocation of Educational
Technology 8(1 45-52)
Erahgbe, E. (2014). University education financing in
Nigeria: Using Oshodin’s strategy to convert
intangible totangible development. In E. O.
Ojeme, & L. I. Salami (Eds.), Transformational
Leadership in the Universityof Benin.A
publication of the Faculty of Education,
University of Benin, Benin City.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009). National Policy of
Education, Abuja: NERDC
Igwe, L. E. B. (1999). Fundamentals of School
Community Relations Management: Political and
Legal Dimensions. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique
Publishers.
Johnson, W. (2011). Principles of environmental
management. London: Routledge.
Ogundele, M. O. & Morounfoye, S. A. (2013).
Infrastructure facilities development and
administrative effectiveness of Kwara State.
African Journal of Higher Education
Developmental Study 1(1) 32-14.
Ogundele, M. O. (2001). Utilization of internally
generated funds for secondary school plants
development in Offa Local Government Area,
Kwara State. Unpublished M. Ed. Dissertation of
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Oparinde, R. O. (2013). Internally generated revenue,
school plant development and internal efficiency
on Colleges of Education in South Western
Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, University of
Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria.
Oyedeji, N. B. (2013). Management: Principles and
Practices. Lagos: ARAS Press.
www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2017/11/02/waec-
releases-novdec-2017-gce-results
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
145
THE INFLUENCE OF RELIGIOUS BELIEF ON THE PERCEPTION OF YOUTHS’ VOTER EDUCATION AND
ATTITUDE TOWARDS VOTING IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA.
Yemi-Fadipe B. O. Department Of Social Science Education, Ekiti State University,
Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.
Abstract
The study examined the influence of religious belief on the perception of youths’ voter education and voting in southwest, Nigeria. It investigated the level of voting behaviour of youths and also explored the level of voter education among the youths in Southwest Nigeria. The study adopted descriptive research design of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all undergraduates in public Universities in Southwest Nigeria. The sample comprised 2400 undergraduates in the selected Universities in Southwest Nigeria using multi stage sampling procedure.. A self designed instrument was used for data collection. The reliability of the instrument was determined using test-retest method and a reliability coefficient of 0.86 was obtained. Data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The research questions were answered using frequency counts, percentage scores, mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses were analysed by using 2-way Analyses of Variance, multiple regression and Pearson Product Correlation. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between youths perception of voter education and their attitudes towards voting. In addition, Religious belief has no influence on the perception of youths attitude towards voting. The study therefore recommended that government should organize voter education programme on media such as television, radio, newpaper and magazine for the youth to enlighten them on voting exercise. National Orientation Agency (NOA) should organize seminars to enlighten youths of different religious groups such as Christianity, Islamic and traditional religions on voter education and the right attitude to voting so as to eradicate religious maginalisation, exploration, protest, inequality and allow cooperation among different religious groups in Southwest Nigeria.
Key words: Voter education, Attitudes, Youths, Religious belief, Voting behaviour.
Introduction
In a democratic society and for a successful election
to take place, youths must know their rights and
responsibilities, knowledgeable and well informed on
how to cast ballots to choose the representatives of
their choice. This appears to be possible through
voter education. According to Awoyele - Kehinde
(2012) voter education is essentially to ensure that
voters can effectively exercise their political will
through electoral process.
Youths require adequate voter education to know the
values and importance of democracy and these
values can easily be transformed to their daily
activities. In the assertion of Oyatomi (2009), the goal
of voter education is to make information available
and accessible to all constituents and campaigns
should seek to achieve universal coverage of
electorates. This effectively requires reaching out to
disadvantaged groups as well as mainstream voters.
It appears that society in general face the problem of
voter education and this has constituted a lot of
problems among the youths in participating in voting
processes in the country. In Nigeria today, it seems
that the youths are now used as tools to foment
trouble most especially on campuses to distabilise
the peace of their institutions as well as the society at
large. They are even used by politicians as thugs
during the electoral process. The negative attitude of
these youths manifests in behaviours like thuggery,
assassination, protest, indolence, intolerance, assault,
defacing of posters, chanting of slogans, threat and
apathy. These acts are considered to jeopardise
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
146
national development as well as the credibility of the
electioneering processes. This could be attributed to
lack of basic knowledge, as well as inability to
demonstrate some capacities which involve
intelligence and self control.
Through voter education, youths of different social
groups are expected to know the values, attitudes
and importance of democracy that will make them
more enlightened about national integration,
common good and the due process of political
process as well as reduce the high rate of conflicts
among the social groups of youths in which religious
belief is inclusive. Religious belief could be a
determinant of voting behaviour. Southwest Nigeria
practiced three major religions which are
Christainity, Islam and African traditional religions.
These religions especially, christainity and Islam,
have much influence on every policy decisions of the
various levels of government. This is therefore
reflected in the voting behaviour which tends to be
influenced by various religious sects of the
electorates. Isiramen (2010) asserted that voter
education programme enlighten youths to know their
rights and responsibilities to make choice of their
own and also have equal chance of electing their
leaders during voting exercise.
According to Sani (2011) the attitude of youths from
some religious sects scares them from voting. For
instance some muslim such as pudah do not take part
in voting exercise because of the Nigerian voting
procedure that is against their religion. Alamu (2009)
reported that many of the christain clergymen do not
partake in voting exercise, because they believe that
sacred people are to be seclusive and that politicians
are full of deceit while politics is seen as dirty game.
They also claim that it involves bloodletting and have
phobia for voting which also result in lack of
knowledge and information about voter education. In
the assertion of Isiramen (2010) it was revealed that
youths use sectional loyalty to vote based on their
religion. They assume that where majority of certain
ethnic groups are, such ethnic groups belong to a
specific religious group and it also influences their
voting behaviour.
Agwu (2015) posited that loyalty to religion is often
more important than loyalty to the state among the
youths during political process, becomes obvious at
every count of events. It is observed that politicians
do not down play this as significant in the body polity
of Southwest Nigeria. For instance General
Mohamadu Buhari during the 2015 general elections
in Nigeria remarked that the event of election is
purely a political matter and should not in any way
be turned into ethnic, religious or regional issue. In
the assertion of Ajayi and Fashagba (2014)
Southwest Nigeria youths are fond of violence during
electoral process on religious ground by supporting
people who are not of the same religion. They are of
opinion that religion is a means of identifying the
imperfections of a plural society and suggesting
remedies to remove or solve the problems of
equality, marginalization, exploration, internal
colonization and the misused of majority in
democracy and national government in a prejudicial
manner. This will help the youths to better
understand the increasing diversity, including
religion to be better prepared to live in a peaceful,
productive manner with the differing cultural and
religious values in Southwest, Nigeria.
In the observation of Fox and Sandlar (2008) there is
need for an adequate and succinct definition of the
role of religion in the state politics of the country.
Religious leaders among the youths need to be
constitutionally accorded due respect and assigned
official responsibilities in order to give them a sense
of belonging in Nigeria. It is when these clergies begin
to have a consciousness of being state leaders and not
outcast in the society that they would be able to
sincerely work for the interest of the nation, there by
involving in voting exercise. They would also be able
to control their followers towards voting behaviours
and caution them against the act of violence. They
will also have a sense of pride and become less
dependent and attached to selfish politicians who
buy their interest with money and materials. Kukah
(2007) opined that youths voting behaviour are
influenced by various religious sects they belong to as
they assume that certain groups are christains, while
others ethnic group are muslims.
Statement of the problem
In any democratic system, youths as citizens
discharge their duties, responsibilities and rights by
partaking in voting exercise. It appears that Nigerian
youths are ignorant of these through their attitude
during political processes. Some of the youths
allegedly refused to vote. This seems to be the result
of their lack of basic knowledge, inability to
demonstrate some capacities which involve
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
147
intelligence and self control during electioneering
process. The youths’ attitude seems to be
characterized by thuggery, bitterness, apathy,
assassination, protest and indolence. Hence, the
ingredients of democracy may not have been able to
thrive after many years of political independence in
Southwest, Nigeria. Some of the youths, owing to
ignorance, vote along religion, ethnicity, and party
identification in which these attitudes have no
reference to rationality. Youths seem to be used as
political touts to foment trouble during political
process, this result in occurrence leads to the
emergence of unpopular candidates who are not
responsible, responsive, accountable, transparent
and accountable to the yearnings and aspiration of
the people. Lack of voter education of the youths
could have make them to have negative attitude
towards voting such as voter apathy, political
violence and political silence.
Therefore, this study investigated the influence of
religious belief on youths voter education and their
attitude towards of voting behaviour in southwest,
Nigeria.
Purpose of study
The study examined the influence of religious belief
on youths voter education and their attitude as
correlates of voting behaviour in Southwest, Nigeria.
It investigated the level of youths voting behaviour in
Southwest Nigeria. It also explored the level of of
voter education among the youths in Southwest
Nigeria.
Research questions
The following research questions have been raised in
the study:
1 . What is the level of youths voting behaviour in
Southwest, Nigeria?
2. What is the level of voter education among the
youths in Southwest, Nigeria?
3. What is the attitude of youths towards voting in
Southwest, Nigeria?
Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses have been
formulated in the study:
1. Religious belief has no significant influence on the
perception of youths voter education and towards
voting.
2. Religious belief has no significant influence on the
perception of youths attitude and towards voting.
Research method
The study employed the descriptive research design
of the survey type. The population of the study
comprised all undergraduates in public Universities
in Southwest, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 2400
undergraduates in selected universities in Southwest,
Nigeria using multistage technique. In stage one,
three states such as Ekiti, Ondo and Lagos states were
selected using simple random sampling technique. In
Stage two, two universities were selected in each
state chosen, (one federal University and one state
University) using simple random sampling technique.
In Stage three, 400 undergraduates of the voting age
in 300 level and above were selected in each
University, making the total of 800 undergraduates in
in each state making the total of 2400
undergraduates in the Universities chosen in the
three states selected using purposive sampling
technique. A self- designed questionnaire was used
for data collection. The questionnaire was face,
content and construct validated. The instrument was
subjected to construct validity by administrated it
alongside similar standardised pre-existing
instruments constructed on 30 undergraduates in a
University that was not part of the sample for this
study. The reliability of the instrument was
determined by using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Analysis and the co-efficient of 0.86 was
obtained which was found to be very reliable. Data
collected were analysed by using descriptive and
inferential statistics. Research questions were
answered by using frequency counts and percentage.
Hypotheses one was tested by using Pearson Product
Moment Correlation, hypotheses two and three were
tested by using Analysis of Variance.
Results
Research Question 1: What is the level of
youths’ voting behaviour in Southwest Nigeria?
In answering the question, respondents’ scores in
frequency counts, percentages, mean and standard
deviation were calculated. To determine the level of
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
148
youths’ voting behaviour (low, moderate and high),
the low level of youths’ voting behaviour was
determined by subtracting the standard deviation
from the mean score (67.43 – 6.59 = 60.84). The
moderate level was determined by the mean score
(67.43) while the high level was determined by
adding the mean score and standard deviation (67.43
+ 6.59 = 74.02). Therefore, low level of youths’ voting
behaviour starts from 25.0 to 60.84, the moderate
level start from 60.85 to 74.01 and the high level
from 74.02 – 100.0. The level of youths’ voting
behaviour is presented in table 1.
Table 1: Level of Youths’ Voting Behaviour
Levels of youths’
voting behaviour
Frequency Percentage
Low (25.0 – 60.84) 549 22.9
Moderate (60.85 –
74.01)
1803 75.1
High (74.02 – 100.0) 48 2.0
Total 2400 100
Table 1 revealed the levels of youths’ voting
behaviour. The result showed that out of 2400
respondents, 549 representing 22.9 percent of the
respondents agreed that the level of youths’ voting
behaviour is low. Those who agreed that youths’
voting behaviour is at moderate level were 1803
representing 75.1 percent while 48 representing 2.0
percent agreed that youths’ voting behaviour is high.
This showed the level of youths’ voting behaviour
was moderate.
Research question 2: What is the level of voter
education among the youths in Southwest
Nigeria?
In answering the question, the mean score,
percentage and frequency count were used to
illustrate the responses to items 1 - 25 in section B of
the questionnaire. To determine the level of voter
education in Southwest, Nigeria (Low, Moderate and
High), the low level of voter education was
determined by subtracting the standard deviation
score from the mean score (81.14 – 9.61 = 79.53).
The moderate level of voter education was
determined by the mean score of the responses on
youth voter education (89.14) while the high level of
voter education was determined by adding the mean
score and the standard deviation score of the
responses on youths’ voter education (89.14 + 9.61 =
98.75). Therefore, low level of voter education starts
from 25 – 79.53; the moderate level starts from 79.54
– 98.74 and the high level of voter education is from
98.75 – 100.
Table 2: Level of Voter Education in Southwestern
Nigeria
Level Frequency Percentage
Low (25 – 79.53) 168 7.00
Moderate (79.54
– 98.74)
453 18.88
High (98.75 –
100)
1779 74.12
Total 2400 100
Table 2 revealed the levels of voter education. The
result showed that out of 2400 sampled students,
168 representing 7 per cent had low level. Those who
had moderate level were 453 representing 18.88 per
cent while those with high level were 1779
representing 74.12 percent. This showed that the
level of voter education was very high.
Research question 3: What is the attitude of
youths towards voting in Southwest, Nigeria?
In analysing the question, the mean scores,
percentage and frequency count were used to
illustrate the responses to items 1 – 25 in section C of
the questionnaire. The attitude of youths towards
voting in Southwest, Nigeria (negative and positive),
were determined as follows: The positive and
negative attitudes of youths towards voting were
determined by the mean score. The positive attitude
fell above the mean score (65.06) while the negative
attitude of youths towards voting fell below the mean
score (65.06). Therefore, negative attitude of youths
towards voting starts from 25.00 – 65.05 while the
positive attitude of youths towards voting is from
65.06 – 100
Table 3: Youths’ Attitude Towards Voting in
Southwest, Nigeria
Attitude Frequency Percentage Negative (25.00 – 65.05)
467 19.46
Positive (65.06 – 100)
1933 80.54
Total 2400 100
Table 3 revealed the attitude of youths’ towards
voting. The result revealed that out of 2400 sampled
students, 467 representing 19.46 percent had
negative attitude towards voting. Those who had
positive attitude towards voting were 1933
representing 80.54 percent. This showed that most
youths have positive attitude towards voting.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
149
Testing of hypotheses Hypothesis 1: Religious belief has no significant
influence on the perception of youths’ voter
education and towards voting.
Table 4: 2-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Influence of Religious Belief on the perception of Youths’ Voter
Education
Source
Type III Sum of
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 213824.839a 11 19438.622 6160.393 .000
Intercept 2383124.288 1 2383124.288 755248.138 .000
Level 57774.061 2 28887.030 9154.737 .000
Religion 19.098 3 6.366 2.017 .109
Level * Religion 72.728 6 12.121 3.841 .001
Error 7535.140 2388 3.155
Total 1.929E7 2400
Corrected Total 221359.980 2399
a. R Squared = .966 (Adjusted R Squared = .966)
From Table 4, the F-cal value of 3.841 is significant at
0.05 level of significant because the P value of
0.01<0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected,
showing that religious belief has significant influence
on the perception of youths’ voter education.
Hypothesis 2: Religious belief has no significant
influence on the perception of youths’ attitude and
towards voting.
Table 5: 2-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for Influence of Religious Belief on the perception of Youths’ Attitude
and towards Voting
Source
Type III Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 182687.977a 7 26098.282 3187.244 .000
Intercept 1476054.813 1 1476054.813 180262.711 .000
Attitude 51553.373 1 51553.373 6295.939 .000
Religion 38.658 3 12.886 1.574 .194
Attitude * Religion 28.407 3 9.469 1.156 .325
Error 19586.542 2392 8.188
Total 1.036E7 2400
Corrected Total 202274.518 2399
a. R Squared = .903 (Adjusted R Squared = .903)
From Table 5, the F-cal value of 1.156 is not
significant at 0.05 level of significant because the P
value of 0.325>0.05. Hence, the null hypothesis is not
rejected; showing that religious belief has no
significant influence on the perception of youths’
attitude and towards voting. This implies that
religion belief does not contribute to the perception
of youth attitude and towards voting.
Discussion
The study revealed that the level of youths voting
behaviour is moderate. This contradicted the opinion
of Kukah (2007) that youths voting behaviour are
influenced by various religious sects they belong to as
they assume that certain groups are Christians, while
others ethnic group are muslims. It also revealed that
the level of youths’ voter education in Southwestern
Nigeria is high. This also supported the assertion of
Isiramen (2005) that voter education programme
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
150
enlighten youths to know their rights and
responsibilities to make choice of their own and also
have equal chance of electing their leaders during
voting exercise. Moreover, youths’ attitude towards
voting in Southwestern Nigeria is positive. This
contradicted the assertion of Ajayi and Fashagba
(2014) that Southwest, Nigeria youths are found of
violence during electoral process on religious ground
by suppressing people who are not of the same
religion.
The study also revealed that most youths have
positive perception of attitude towards voting while
few had negative perception of attitude towards
voting.
Hassan (2011) therefore suggested that for Nigeria to
achieve good governance and sustain it, citizens must
possess skills, values and manifest the appropriate
behaviour which entails good governance. They
should have voter education, knowledge, voter
disposition and voting skills.
The finding also revealed that religious belief has
significant influence on the perception of youths’
voter education while it has no influence on the
perception of youths’ attitude towards voting in
Southwest, Nigeria. In the view on the perception of
youths’ voter education, political terrain has often
been exploited by politician with appeals to
extraneous sentiments. Religion also plays important
role in mobilisation of youths and eliminate their
unethical attitudes towards voting such as
corruption, embezzlement, assassination, forgery,
cheating, while violence in the name of religion is
centralised to political issue in Nigeria. Sani (2011),
Alamu (2010), and Ajayi and Fashagba (2014) all
agreed that religious belief has significant influence
on the perception of youths’ voter education.
The findings also revealed that religious belief has no
influence on the perception of youths’ attitude
towards voting. This agreed with the view of Fox and
Sandlar (2003) and Isiramen (2010). Agwu (2015)
observed that loyalty to religion is often more
important than loyalty to state among Nigerians
while the significant role religion plays in Nigeria
politics becomes obvious at every count of events the
more reason why major state actors do not down
play it as insignificant in the body polity of Nigeria.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The perception of youths voter education and
attitude towards voting are related. Voter education
promotes peaceful and happy community, social
response-bilities, reduction in poverty high sense of
cooperation and justice within the political system.
The level of youth voting behaviour was also
moderate. Religious belief has influence on the
perception of youths’ voter education as well as the
perception of youths attitude towards voting. Many
of the youths vote base on religion line which has no
reference to rationality.
In view of the implications of the finding of this study,
it is recommended that
The government should organize voter
educational programme in the media, such as
radio, television and newspaper to educate
youths who have not got the opportunity to be
involved in the voter education programme on
voting exercise. These youths will be
knowledgeable on due process and electoral
credibility during political processes.
The National Orientation Agency (NOA) should
organise seminars to enlighten youths of
different religious groups on voter education and
the right attitude to voting so as to eradicate
religious marginalisation, exploitation, rebellion,
protest, in equality and allow cooperation among
different religious groups in Southwest, Nigeria.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
151
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among the Yoruba. The Archival platform
Retrieved 12 June 2011 from http://www
archival platform.org/blog/entry/folk/origin.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
152
EMPOWERING YOUTHS FOR SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT THROUGH CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN
HOME ECONOMICS
Onyeizu, R. Home Economics Department
School of Vocational and Technical Education, FCT College of Education, Zuba-Abuja.
Abstract
This paper focuses on the career opportunities available in home economics as a veritable tool in empowering youths for social and economic development. It sees the career in home economics as the type geared towards producing self employed and reliant youths. The concept of home economic and the various career opportunities embedded in the course were clarified. The clarification cut across the way the youths can use these skills to empower themselves for both social and economic development of family, community and the entire nation. It was however recommended (among other things) that youths must be encouraged to actively take part in any meaningful skill acquisition programme made available in their community in order to be well equipped for both white collar jobs and self development.
Key words: Home economics, Careers, Youth, Empowerment, Social development and Economic development.
Introduction
The challenges of a changing world can only be met
by programmes that are skill- oriented. Home
economics programme is one of such programmes
that offer several opportunities and privileges that
have stood the test of time. Home economics,
domestic science, or home science is a field of study
that deals with the management of the home and
community. Home economics is that body of subject
matter which has to do with the application of the
natural and social sciences and arts to the problems
of the home and the problems growing out of homes
and their interrelationships.
It is the field of knowledge, primarily concerned with
strengthening family life through: educating the
individual for family living; improving the services
and goods used by families, conducting research to
discover the changing needs of individuals and
families and the means of satisfying these needs,
furthering community, national, and world conditions
favourable to family living"(Quigley, 1974).
Home Economics deals with the relationship between
individuals, families, communities, and the
environment in which they live. Anyakoha & Eluwa
(2014) defined home economics education as a broad
field of study that is primarily concerned with the
improvement of welfare of individuals and families.
Okeke&Anyakoha (2009) opined that home
economics education is concerned with
strengthening and enriching family life through
educating the individual for family living. Home
economics has made life meaningful to many and still
contributing to make life more fulfilled and relevant
in a changing world by providing job opportunities in
different areas of human endeavour.
Home economics education provides the individual
with the basic strategies to overcome poverty by
acquiring adequate skills that will make them self
reliant. It provides adequate skills and knowledge for
the young and old who are interested in self
employment. For developing countries like Nigeria
and the rest of the region, home economics education
makes significant contribution towards family life
and stability
Home economics exposes students to the
fundamental principles of budgeting and financial
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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management, home and resource management,
health and nutrition to name a few, it made
significant strides in educating our people about
preparing foods within budget and eating a balanced
diet. The subject area provides the knowledge, skills
and attitude needed for healthy family life and
community living, which are regarded as integral for
national development. To date, home economics
remains true to its basic mission to "improve
individual and family life amidst changing social,
political, economic and physical conditions" (Gabriel,
1998)
Gabriel (1998) further pointed out that home
economics education has matured into a range of
offerings which include: home ecology, human and
consumer sciences, family resource management,
clothing and textiles, home management, food safety,
family life, food and nutrition.
I strongly believe that home economics has an
extremely important place in our educational system
today. No other academic discipline incorporates in
its curriculum as many pertinent life skills that will
help students succeed independent of their chosen
career paths. Home economics has a lot of benefits
and the knowledge obtained through this programme
will prove valuable throughout one’s lifespan. The
most important aspect of a home economics
education is that students not only learn about
subject matter that has relevance to their present
lives, but will constantly be of use as they continue to
grow.
Home economics education empowers people
through the various career opportunities and makes
them skilful and confidence to shape a more stable
and peaceful future. It is thus the key to building
greener societies. It goes beyond promoting skills for
self employability. It empowers young people and
adults to develop skills for work and life. It also
ensures that all workers are able to play appropriate
roles, both in the workplace and the broader
community, by contributing to environment,
economic and social sustainability. Home economics
is needed more especially in our world today where
there is rapidly increasing consumer debt, poverty,
hunger, unemployment, individual nutrition
concerns, obesity, diet-related illness, ever changing
family dynamics and roles. It does all these through
the various career opportunities embedded in the
course, which youths can use to develop themselves
and the society where they live. Payal (2014) posited
that Social development means investing in people. It
requires the removal of barriers so that all citizens
can journey toward their dreams with confidence and
dignity. It is about refusing to accept that people who
live in poverty will always be poor. It is about helping
people so they can move forward on their path to
self-sufficiency. Social development is about
improving the well-being of every individual in
society so they can reach their full potential. The
success of society is linked to the well-being of each
and every citizen.
To reduce poverty we need to take a social
development approach and invest in our people. By
investing in people we can reduce poverty. We need
to go beyond looking at government to find ways to
develop our most valuable resource, our people. We
need to share responsibility with community
organizations, businesses, universities and
municipalities in the task of improving the well-being
of all. While Economic development is the
development of economic wealth of countries or
regions for the well-being of their inhabitants. (Payal,
2014). The term economic development on the other
hand, implies much more. It is the process by which a
nation improves the economic, political, and social
wellbeing of its people.
Having looked at the meaning of these terms, it is
certain the home economics as a course goes a long
way in helping its graduates to develop both socially
and economically for the well being of themselves
and the society where they live.
Need for youth empowerment and government
efforts so far
As Nigeria policy makers increasingly recognize the
role of entrepreneurship skills development as a
veritable tool in stimulating economic growth and
development, skills- based subjects have been
introduced into all levels of educational system. The
goal being the development of functional skills that
would make youths self-reliant and sufficient in
fighting unemployment and poverty, thereby
contributing to economic and social growth and
development. Sadly, the present economic recession
in Nigeria, has ushered in a worrisome trend among
Nigerian youths, as youth unemployment and
underemployment rates act to jeopardize social
inclusion, cohesion and stability in our state, where
youth militancy, gun violence caused by the
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
154
proliferation of arms, kidnapping, robbery, and other
social vices have continued to increase each day.
These challenges calls for an examination of the kind
of skills to equip the youths so as to be self reliant
and to contribute meaningfully to the development of
the nation, although Government and its agencies has
made a lot of efforts towards youths empowerment,
among the efforts made were:
National Directorate of Employment (NDE) was
established by the National Directorate of
Employment Act 1989 and charged with
responsibility of tackling all problems of
unemployment in the country.
National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP):
NAPEP was established in 2001 by the Federal
Government of Nigeria. It is responsible for
coordinating and monitoring all poverty eradication
activities in Nigeria. Skill acquisition and vocational
training centres at various states and local
government across the nation. Youth empowerment
focused on creating greater community change that
relies on the development of individual capacity and
ability. Youth Empowerment involves: helping youth
identify, utilize and maximise their potentials,
helping the youth to develop confidence and self-
identity, encouraging youth to grow together in
accountability and finally imbibing in them, the
eagerness to create a change. When the youths are
empowered, they make positive great change in the
society since they make up large amount of
population of any country and are also seen as the
future leaders in the society. Hubert (2011) stated
that there are whole lots of benefit derived from
empowering the youths. Some of these benefits are:
- Youth empowerment facilitates good leadership and
entrepreneurship.
- Youth empowerment is key to attaining meaningful
development.
- It makes the youth to be financially independent.
- The acquisition of those skills helps the youth to be
morally and ethically upright and sound.
- Exposure to peers who are positive role models and
who have shown resilience in the face of adversity.
- Developing positive coping skills and problem
solving skills.
- Helping young people identify their strengths and
personal potential.
- Increasing confidence and developing a sense of
personal agency to influence own future
Empowering youth through career opportunities
in home economics:
Home Economists are concerned with the
empowerment and well-being of individuals, families
and communities, and facilitating the development of
attributes for lifelong learning for paid, unpaid and
voluntary work, and living situations so that more
young people and adults have opportunities to
develop the skills they need for work and life.
(Foster& Black, 2010). Skills acquisition is very
necessary and urgent in our present day
administration, and home economics offers a lot of
these skills through the various career opportunities
which helps the youths to be self reliant, self
employed, while also equipping them with the ability
to be employed and to continue learning and be able
to adjust to changes in the life and workplace, society
and career. Youths can develop themselves through
any of these career skills in home economics so as to
improve the standard of living and also to bring a
positive change in the economic and social well being
of individuals, community and the entire nation as
well.Thus it enables them to fulfil their role as agents
of development, good governance, social inclusion,
tolerance and peace. For those youths who are
graduates and unemployed, they can attain seminars
and workshops that are organized by the home
economist and gain the knowledge so as to equip
them skilfully with knowledge and develop on it
towards self employment, thus influencing current
and future social and economic conditions and
opportunities of the country. The following are the
career opportunities in home economics as stated by
Agwaraonye (2013).
A. Careers in Foods and Nutrition
1. Dietetics: A dietician works in hospitals, helping
with diets for the treatment and prevention of
diseases.
2. Nutrition: A nutritionist can work in a health
department, schools, hospitals and industries.
He/she helps people improve their nutritional
habits and status, so as to keep them in good
health.
3. Food service: People in this career can work as
catering managers, supervisors, stewards, etc.
depending on their qualifications. They work in
hotels, hospitals, schools, airlines, etc.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
155
4. Catering: A caterer cooks for people in boarding
schools, hospitals, hotels, offices etc.
5. Hotel Management: This involves running a hotel
as a business. It is also called institution
management.
6. Teaching: Teachers in this area, teach foods and
nutrition.
7. Research: Researchers here, work on foods and
nutrition problems. They discover new ways of
planning and cooking foods etc.
8. Food technology: A food technologist applies the
principles of foods, science and engineering in the
development, production, processing, packaging
and distribution of foods.
B. Careers in Clothing and Textiles
1. Designing: Persons in this career create new
designs for garments (fashion). They are also
designers for fabrics/ textiles, and designers for
clothing accessories. They are Fashion designers.
2. Pattern illustration: The pattern illustrator
develops paper patterns for sale.
3. Beauty care and hairdressing: Beauticians and hair
dressers run salons where they take care of
people’s hair and perform other beauty
treatments.
4. Dressmaking/ tailoring: Dressmakers and tailors
sew garments for people.
5. Dry cleaning and laundering: The dry- cleaners and
launderers dry-clean and launder clothing
articles for people.
6. Modelling: A model works in fashion industries.
He/she wears newly designed dress styles for
people to see and buy.
7. Fashion merchandising: People in this career,
select, buy and sell textiles apparels and other
clothing accessories.
8. Weaving: Weavers construct fibres and yarns into
fabrics or textiles.
9. Fabric Dyeing: People in this career do tie-dyeing
and batik to produce “Adire” and other locally
dyed materials.
10. Teaching: Teachers in this area teach clothing and
textiles.
11. Research: Researchers in this area work on
clothing and textiles.
C. Careers in Home Management, Family Living
and Child Development.
1. Interior decoration/ designing: People in this area
plan and decorate interiors of homes, hotels
hospitals, offices, etc.
2. Institutional Housekeeping: This involves working
in schools, hostels, hospitals and other
institutions as house-keepers.
3. Advertising and promoting: People in this area
work as promoters in industries that manufacture
household equipment, furniture, health and
grooming products, food textiles etc. They tell
people about new products and convince them to
buy. They require special training on the products
they promote.
4. Baby-sitting: A baby sitter can be employed by
parents to care for their children in their absence.
This is an entry-level job.
5. Child care: People in this area work in child-care
centres. These centres are where parents bring
their children for care while they are busy.
6. Social welfare work: People in this career provide
help to troubled individuals and families. They
require higher education.
7. Teaching: Teachers in this area teach home
management, family living and child development,
in schools and colleges.
8. Research: Researchers here work on problems
relating to home management, family living and
child development.
Other Careers include:
1. Home-making: The home-maker manages family
members and the home. He/she maintains a
satisfying setting for family living.
2. Home Economics Extension: Extension agents run
out-of-school-educational programmes for men
and women. Their programmes include foods,
nutrition, child care, home management, clothing
and textiles, etc.
3. Journalism: Home Economists can work for
newspapers, journals, magazines, television and
radio. They are often in-charge of food, clothing,
consumer education and other areas relating to
Home Economics.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
156
4. Home Economics Creates learning pathways
providing vocational and learning pathways for
future nutritionists, dieticians, policy advisers,
medical professionals, early childhood educators,
home economics teachers, university lecturers,
food technologists, food writers, food stylists,
health practitioners, researchers, food product
developers, chefs, hotel management, and sports
nutritionists.
Conclusion
Youths unemployment poses a great danger to any
country, since youths of today are expected to take
over and become leaders of tomorrow in order to
fulfil their role as agents of development, good
governance, social inclusion, tolerance and peace.
This paper therefore has enumerated the career
opportunities in home economics and has also tried
to look at the importance of the career opportunities
in home economics as a veritable tool in addressing
challenges of youth unemployment. The paper
concluded that if the youth are engaged actively in
various career opportunities in home economics
through studying the course, or attending seminars
or workshops organised by professionals of this
department, they will definitely contribute
meaningfully to the economic and social development
of the country, and address their aspirations and
challenges, and fulfil the potential and capacity, thus
influence current and future social and economic
conditions and opportunities. Indeed skills,
Knowledge and education are key factors to the full
and effective participation of youth in the processes
of social, economic and political development.
Recommendations
Based on the foregoing, the following
recommendations were made:
Skills acquisition centres should be established
in every primary and secondary school for the
further development of entrepreneurship skills
in all students, also knowledgeable staff should
be employed to handle the training.
Parents and wards should encourage their
female as well as male children to study home
economics, since the course is very lucrative
and highly skill oriented.
Adequate resources, both human and material
should be provided in home economics
departments at all levels of education for
effective learning of entrepreneurship skills.
Up to date training and retraining should be
provided for teachers and support staff in home
economics and other areas of entrepreneurship
education by government and other
organisations concerned.
Government agencies, the organized private
sector, multinational corporations, public
spirited individuals and non-governmental
organizations must collaborate and adopt
comprehensive strategies that would lead to the
acquisition of appropriate entrepreneurship
skills that are likely to stimulate economic and
social growth.
Youth must be encouraged to actively take part
in any meaningful careers or skill acquisition
made available in their community in order to
be well equipped for both white collar jobs and
self development.
Young people both male and female should be
encouraged to study Home Economics since the
course is very lucrative and highly skill oriented.
Reference:
Agwaraonye (2013) home economics and national
development retrieved from https://www.
wvuphisigs. com on the 16th October, 2017
Anyakoha, E. U. & Eluwa, A M. (2014), Home
management for Schools and colleges awka feb
African pubishers.
Foster, C.& Black, D(2010). Guide to support Home
economics teachers retrieved from
monitoring .onecolo.com >home_economics and
ccea.org.uk>home_ec>ks3_llw_zest on the 17th
of cotober, 2017.
Gabriel, F. (1998). The role and contribution of home
economics to national development. The U.P.
Home Economics Journal. 25(25-33).
Hubert, A. (2011) empowering people driving
change, social innovation in the European union.
Report on the Bureau of European Policy
Advisers, © European Communities, 2011
Reproduction is authorised provided the source
is acknowledged. Printed in France
Nnadi, F.N., Chikaire, J., Atoma, C.N., Egwuonwu, H.A.,
& Echetama, J.A. (2012) Rural Youth
Empowerment: A Panacea to Rural Urban Drift.
A Case Study of Ethiope-east Area of Delta
State Science Journal Publication 109, 9
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Okeke, A. & Anyakoha, E.U. (2009) Strategies for the
Improvement of apprenticeship training in
dressmaking: Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis.
Department of Vocational Teacher Education,
Enugu State University of Nigeria Nsukka,
Enugu.
Payal, G. (2014) Module -4 Socio-economic
development and empowerment Publishing Co,
New York.
Quigley, E E (1974) Introduction to Home Economics,
2nd ed, Macmillan Retrieved from
www.academia.edu.MODULE_-4_socio on the
12th of cotober,2017
Youth and Education retrieved from
http://undesadspd.org/Youth.aspx
facebook.com/
UN4Youthtwitter.com/UN4Youth
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
158
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS IN LAGOS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS,
NIGERIA
Kolawole A. O.
Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper examined the relationship between classroom management and school connectedness in Lagos State Secondary Schools, Nigeria. A descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The population comprised all the public secondary schools in the state. The study involved 1000 students randomly selected from 100 secondary schools. A self- designed questionnaire titled ‘Classroom Management and School Connectedness’ (CMSC) was used for data collection. The instrument was validated by research experts in Educational Management and Tests and Measurements in Ekiti State University – Ado-Ekiti. The internal consistency of the instrument was established through test re-test method and a reliability co-efficient of 0.79 was obtained. Data were collected and analysed using frequency counts and percentage scores. The findings showed that teachers had knowledge of the topics taught in class. Teachers used interactive activities such as group discussions, experiential activities such as role playing to engage students in learning and to make students personalise information. Teachers were flexible with instructional strategies. There were large class sizes which did not allow for teachers individualized assistance and the students’ motivation was considered inadequate. Based on the findings, it was recommended that class size should be manageable and the arrangement should allow for free movement and teachers individualized assistance. Students’ academic accomplishment should be well displayed and rewarded to allow for high school connectedness.
Keywords: Classroom Management, School Connectedness, Experiential Activities, Motivation, Class Size.
Introduction
One of the aims and objectives of the school system is
to ensure effective teaching-learning process. To
accomplish this objective, classroom management
cannot be neglected. Increasing evidence shows that
when adolescents feel cared for by people in their
school and feel like a part of their school, they are
more likely to concentrate in the classroom to
achieve academic excellence. However, it appears as
if specific strategies to increase school connectedness
have not been studied.
According to Ajayi (2010), it becomes imperative for
teachers to be well equipped with appropriate
strategies for managing the classroom to guarantee
effective learning. Classroom management refers to
the wide variety of skills and techniques that teachers
use to keep students organised, orderly, focused,
attentive on task and academically productive during
a class (Blum & Rinehart, 1997). Classroom
management includes routines, rules and
consequences. Wentzel (2004) and Schapps (2003)
opined that classroom management is the term
educators use to describe methods of preventing
misbehaviour and dealing with it if it arises. In other
words, it is the technique teachers use to maintain
control in the classroom.
School connectedness is the belief by students that
adults in the school care about their learning as well
as about them as individuals (Blum,2005). In
education, students engagement has to do with the
degree of attention, curiosity, interest, optimism, and
passion that students show when they are learning or
being taught which extends to the level of motivation
they have to learn and progress in their education.
According to National Research Council and Institute
for Medicine (2004), students’ feelings of being
connected to school seem to be influenced by some
factors such as adult support, peer group,
commitment to education and school environment.
Mafumo (2013) emphasized that teachers can
dedicate their time, interest, attention and emotional
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
159
support to students. To engage students in the
classroom, teachers prepare lessons that keep
students active during the learning process. The
quality of teachers is very important in classroom
management and school connectedness.
Ajayi (2010) suggested some strategies for successful
classroom management, such as good knowledge of
the learners, good mastery of the subject matter, use
of appropriate methods of instruction, use of
appropriate method of motivation, discipline,
provision of instructional materials, conducive
physical environment, welfare of the students,
welfare of the teachers and manageable class size.
Alonge (2014) explained that some factors can lead
to poor classroom management such as professional
incompetence of teachers, undue familiarity of
teachers and students, moral laxity of teachers, which
prevent them from being role models to students,
lack of effective communication and interaction
between teachers and students and inadequate
preparation for lesson by teachers. Alonge and
Obiweluozor (2015) opined that poor classroom
management could result in very low school
connectedness where students exhibit disciplinary
problems such as absenteeism, disruptive behaviour,
delinquency, lateness and deviant peer group
affiliation. Klem and Connell (2004) stated that
teachers with good classroom management can have
positive influence on students’ lives. The time,
interest, attention and emotional support they give to
students can help them learn and stay healthy.
Wilson and Elliot (2003) emphasised that school
connectedness is an important factor for learning.
Students who feel connected to their school by being
involved in decision making process are more likely
to attend school regularly, stay in school longer, and
have higher grades and test scores. They are less
likely to carry weapons, become involved in violence
or be injured from dangerous activities. They are also
less likely to have emotional problems.
The observed challenges of poor classroom
management such as teachers’ rigid instructional
strategies, large class size, poor motivation of
students, poor communication between teachers and
students among others which may likely cause low
school connectedness exhibited by students in the
areas of absenteeism, disruptive behaviour,
delinquency, lateness and deviant peer group
affiliation among others are of concern to the
researcher, hence ascertaining how true these
challenges are and preferring possible solutions to
ameliorate the challenges led to the study.
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to
guide the study:
1. Do teachers in Lagos State secondary schools
perform their classroom teaching
responsibilities?
2. Do teachers in Lagos State secondary schools
encourage classroom interaction?
3. What is the condition of the classrooms in Lagos
State secondary schools?
4. Are students adequately motivated in Lagos State
secondary schools?
5. What are the consequences of classroom
management on school connectedness in Lagos
State secondary schools?
Methodology
This study adopted the descriptive research design of
the survey type. The population of the study
comprised all students of Lagos State secondary
schools. It involved a sample of 1000 students
randomly selected from 100 secondary schools in the
state. A self-designed questionnaire titled “Classroom
Management and School Connectedness” (CMSC) was
used for the study. CMSC had three sections. Section
A sought the background information of the
respondents; Section B sought information on
classroom management, while Section C sought
information on school connectedness.
The instrument was validated by research experts in
Educational Management and Tests and Measure-
ments in Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti. The
internal consistency of the instrument was
established through test re-test method and a
reliability co-efficient of 0.79 was obtained. Data
were collected and analysed using frequency counts
and percentage scores
Results
The results of the study were presented as follows:
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
160
Research Question 1: Do teachers in Lagos State
secondary schools perform their classroom teaching
responsibilities?
Table 1: Performance in Classroom Teaching Responsibilities
Agree Disagree
S/N Items Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
1 Techers have full knowledge of the topics taught in
class
918 91.8 82 8.2
2 Teachers build lessons sequentially on prior lessons 810 81 190 19
3 Teachers are flexible with instructional strategies to
allow for teachable moments
920 92 80 8
4 Teachers use varieties of teaching methods such as
group and project methods to foster critical and
reflective thinking
914 91.4 86 8.6
Average 890 89 110 11
Table1 showed that 91.8% of the respondents agreed
that teachers have full knowledge of the topics taught
in class while 8.2% disagreed. Also, 81% agreed that
teachers build lessons sequentially on prior lessons
and 92% of the respondents agreed that teachers are
flexible with instructional strategies to allow for
teachable moments. Also, 91.4% agreed that teachers
use varieties of teaching methods such as group and
project methods to foster critical and reflective
thinking. On the average, 89% of the respondents
agreed on positive performance of teachers in their
classroom responsibilities while 11% disagreed. This
implies that teachers in Lagos State secondary
schools are performing their classroom teaching
response-bilities very satisfactorily.
Research Question 2: Do teachers in Lagos State
secondary schools encourage classroom interaction?
Table 2: Encouragement of Classroom Interaction
Agree Disagree S/N Items Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
5 Teachers use interactive activities such as group discussion to engage students in learning
890 89 110 11
6 Teachers use experiential activities such as role playing to help students personalise the information
878 87.8 122 12.2
7 Teachers identify every student in class by their names
560 56 440 44
8 Teachers encourage open, respectful communication about differing view points.
582 58.2 418 41.8
Average 730 73 270 27
Table 2 showed that 89% of the respondents agreed
that teachers use interactive activities such as group
discussion to engage students in learning while 11%
of the respondents disagreed. Also, 87.8% of the
respondents agreed that teachers use experiential
activities such as role playing to help students
personalise the information while 12.2% of the
respondents disagreed .However, only 56% of the
respondents agreed that teachers identify every
student in their class by their names while only
58.2% of the respondents agreed that teachers
encourage open respectful communication about
differing viewpoints. On the average, 73% of the
respondents agreed that teachers encourage
classroom interaction while 27% disagreed. This
implies that teachers in Lagos State secondary
schools encourage classroom interaction in the
teaching- learning process.
Research Question 3: What is the condition of
classrooms in Lagos State secondary schools?
Table 3: The Condition of Classrooms
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
161
S/N Items Agree Disagree
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
9 My class size allows for teachers individualized
assistance
280 28 720 72
10 My class is well ventilated 370 37 630 63
11 There are adequate furniture for students in my
class
240 24 760 76
12 The arrangement of my class allows for free
movement
300 30 700 70
Average 300 30 700 70
Table 3 showed that only 28% of the respondents
agreed that the class size allows for teachers’
individualised assistance while 72% disagreed. Also,
only 37% agreed that classes are well ventilated
while 63% disagreed. Just 24% of the respondents
agreed that there is adequate furniture for students
in the class while only 30% agreed that the
arrangement of the class allows for free movement.
On the average, only 30% of the respondents agreed
that the condition of the classroom allows for proper
management while 70% disagreed. This implies that
the condition of classrooms in Lagos State secondary
schools is not conducive enough for effective
classroom management.
Research question 4: Are students adequately
motivated in Lagos State secondary schools?
Table 4: Motivation of Students.
S/N Items Agree Disagree
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
13 Teachers establish a reward system such
as written praise or open commendation
for students’ academic achievement
540 54 460 46
14 Teachers engage students in appropriate
leadership positions in the classroom
410 41 590 59
15 Students are involved in descision
making process for setting classroom
rules
220 22 780 78
16 Teachers correct students constructively
when they go wrong
560 56 440 44
Average 430 43 570 57
Table 4 showed that 54% of the respondents agreed
that teachers establish a reward system such as
written praise or open commendation for students’
academic achievement. Also, 41% agreed that
teachers engage students in appropriate leadership
positions in the classroom. Only 22% agreed that
students are involved in decision making process for
setting classroom rules, while 56% agreed that
teachers correct students constructively when they
go wrong. On the average, only 43% of the
respondents agreed that students are adequately
motivated while 57% disagreed. This implies that
Lagos State secondary school students are not
adequately motivated by the teachers.
Research Question 5: What are the consequences of
classroom management on school connectedness in
Lagos State secondary schools?
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
162
Table 5: Consequences of Classroom Management on School Connectedness
S/N Items Agree Disagree
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
17 I go to school regularly 640 64 360 36
18 I go to school punctually 410 41 590 59
19 I attend lessons regularly 740 74 260 26
20 I always pay attention during lessons 680 68 320 32
21 I score good grades in class 660 66 340 34
22 I do my classwork regularly 690 69 310 31
23 I do my homework regularly 650 65 350 35
24 I always obey school rules and
regulations
740 74 260 26
25 I enjoy attending classes better than
being in the company of my friends
outside the classroom
670 67 330 33
Average 650 65 350 35
Table 5 showed that 64% of respondents agreed that
they go to school regularly while 41% agreed that
they go to school punctually. Also, 74% attend
lessons regularly, 68% pay attention during classes,
66% score good grades in class, 69% do class work
regularly, 65% do homework regularly, 74% obey
school rules and regulations while 67% enjoy
attending classes better than being in the company of
their friends outside the classroom. On the average,
65% of the respondents show positive attitude to
school connectedness while 35% showed negative
attitude to school connectedness. This implies that
students in Lagos State secondary schools are
showing moderate school connectedness.
Discussion
The study revealed that teachers in Lagos State
secondary schools perform their teaching
responsibilities very satisfactorily. They have full
knowledge of topics taught in classes. They use
varieties of teaching methods to foster critical and
reflective thinking among students. This is in line
with Ajayi (2010) who suggested some strategies for
successful classroom management such as good
mastery of the subject matter and use of appropriate
method of instruction.
The study revealed that teachers in Lagos State
encourage classroom interaction as an important
factor in good classroom management. This is in line
with Alonge (2014) who observed that some factors
can lead to poor classroom management such as lack
of effective communication and interaction between
teachers and students. Klem and Connell (2004) also
stated that the time, interest attention and emotional
support teachers give to students can help them to
learn and stay healthy.
The study revealed that the condition of classrooms
in Lagos State secondary schools is not conducive
enough for effective classroom management.
Manageable class size is a condition for effective
classroom management. The class size in Lagos state
secondary schools does not conform with the opinion
of Ajayi (2010) who suggested manageable class size
as one of the strategies for successful classroom
management.
The study also revealed that students in Lagos State
secondary schools are not adequately motivated. For
instance, only 22% agreed that students are involved
in decision making process for setting classroom
rules. This does not go in line with Wilson & Elliot
(2003) who emphasised that students are more likely
to perform well in schools when they are involved in
decision making process.
The study revealed that students in Lagos State
secondary schools only show moderate school
connectedness. For instance, only 41% attend school
punctually and 33 % prefer to be in the company of
friends outside the classroom than attending classes.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
163
This is in line with Alonge and Obiweluozor (2015)
who opined that poor class management could result
in very low school connectedness where students
exhibit disciplinary problems such as absenteeism,
lateness and deviant peer group affiliation.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded
that effective classroom management plays a
prominent role in high school connectedness.When
classrooms are well managed, students will derive
pleasure in coming to school by being punctual to
school, attentive during lessons and well involved in
class activities.
The following recommendations were made for
effective classroom management and high school
connectedness:
1. Teachers should improve on their classroom
teaching responsibilities by being more flexible
with instructional strategies.
2. Teachers should encourage classroom
interaction in the teaching-learning process by
identifying every student in class by their
names and encouraging open, respectful
communication about differing viewpoints.
3. The condition of classrooms should be made
conducive enough with good ventilation,
adequate furniture and well arranged
manageable class size for effective classroom
management.
4. Students should be adequately motivated by
involving them in appropriate leadership
positions and decision making process for
setting classroom rules.
5. Punctuality and regularity of students at school
should be encouraged for improved school
connectedness.
When these recommendations are in place for good
classroom management it will enhance high school
connectedness and students will derive pleasure in
coming to school by being more regular, punctual,
attentive and well involved in class activities.
References
Ajayi, l .A.(2010). Issues in School Management. Lagos:
Bolabay Publications.
Alonge, H. O. (2014). “Management of students
disciplinary problems”. A paper presented in a
workshop for Sacred Heart Sisters at
Presentation National School, Ugbekun, Benin
City.
Alonge, H. O. & Obiweluozor, N, (2015). Strategies for
managing indiscipline among secondary school
students in Nigeria. International Journal of
Educational Foundations and Management; 9(1):
77-85.
Blum, R. W. (2005). A case for school connectedness:
The Adolescent Learner; 62(7): 16-20.
Blum, R. W. & Rinehart, P.M, (1997). Reducing the
risk: Connections that make a difference in the
lives of youth. University of Minesota. Division of
General Paediatrics and Adolescent Health.
Klem, A. M. & Connell, J.P. (2004). Relationships
matter: Linking teacher support to student
engagement and achievement. Journal of School
Health; 74(7): 262-272.
Mafumo, J. (2013). School connectedness: Exploring
the concept in Zimbabwean schools. Academic
Research International: Social Sciences and
Humanities; 4(2): 558-575.
National Research Council and the Institute of
Medicine (2004). Engaging schools: Fostering
high school students’ motivation to learn.
Washington, D.C: National Academic Press.
Schapps, E. (2003). The role of supportive school
environments in promoting academic success.
Sacramento, CA: California Department of
Education Press.
Wentzel, K. R. (2004). Understanding classroom
competence: The role of social-motivational and
self-processes. Advances in Child Development
and Behaviour; 32: 213-241.
Wilson, D. & Elliot, D. (2003). “The interface of school
climate and school connectedness: An
exploratory review and study”. Paper presented
at the Wingspread conference on school
connectedness: Strengthening health and
educational outcomes for teens. Racine,
Wisconsin.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
164
PRINCIPALS' MANAGERIAL SKILLS AND TEACHERS' ATTITUDE TO WORK IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN AKOKO SOUTH WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ONDO STATE
Osifila G.I. Department of Educational Management
Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between principals' managerial skills and teachers' attitude to work in public secondary schools in Akoko South-West Local Government Area of Ondo State. The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive of the survey type. The population of the study comprised of all the principals and teachers in public secondary schools in Akoko South West Local Government of Ondo State. The sample of 5 principals and 90 teachers were selected using simple random sampling technique. A questionnaire instrument titled "Principals' Managerial Skills and Teachers' Attitude to Work Questionnaire (PMSTAWQ)" was used to collect data. Two research questions and two hypotheses were postulated to guide the study. The research questions were analyzed using percentage, while the hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (PPMCC). The findings of the study revealed that: there was a significant relationship between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’ attitude to work and also a significant relationship was established between principal’s supervisory skill and teachers’ attitude to work. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that: School principals should endeavour to relate well with their teachers so as to keep them motivated; seminars, workshops and conferences should be organized for school principals on how to enhance their managerial skills.
Background to the Study
Todays’ educational institutions are more complex
and sophisticated requiring erudite leadership due to
global economic competitiveness, as leaders are
confronted with unpredictable challenges, which
require different degree of leadership management.
Effective management of teachers may be assumed to
be achievable through leadership behavior, which
promotes their commitment and productivity.
Although, employees’ performance can be highly
affected by many factors arising from within and
outside school context.
In an educational system, the principal and teacher
are the enabler and motivator. Secondary schools are
formal public organizations charged with the
responsibility of preparing the younger ones after
their primary school career for useful living within
any society and equipping them for higher education
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2013). Attainment of
these goals requires a commitment from highly
qualified and motivated teachers.
The problem of principal-teachers relationship has
been an issue of great concern to stakeholders in
education. Ofoegbu (2004) stated that this concern
stem from the performance of secondary school
students in external examinations which have been
worrisome to parents, administrators and the general
public. He further asserted that the yardstick for
measuring standard of education and administrative
responsibility is students’ performance in internal
and external examinations.
The conduct of the school and the quality of their
products are seen by some as a reflection of the level
of administrative performance of their principals.
This is in reflection of the quality of interpersonal
relationship, level and degree of supervision,
monitoring of delegated functions, instructional
activities in the school, planning of school
programmes and routine administration in the
school.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
165
In the context of secondary school administration, the
principal is seen as the executive head who develop
and implement the educational programmes of the
school. The principal keep school records as well as
create a conducive teaching and learning atmosphere
in school. Dale and Fox (2008) asserted that the
success of any school, whether public or private
depends largely on the extent to which individual
talents and efforts are harnessed towards co-
operative endeavours. The success he stressed lies on
motivation and commitment of the members to
group goals and objectives. Hence, the attitude of
teachers/staffs is a characteristic component of
teacher personality. An attitude is a framework that
affects how a person thinks and acts about the world.
If a teacher has a negative attitude towards
education, his job or students, it may influence his
performance as an educator (Spector, 2012).
The quality of teaching is a function of the love,
dedication and devotion of the teacher towards the
subject and students. The principal managerial skill is
also a huge determinant that determines the range at
which the teachers/staffs will be of positive influence
on students. The quality of any teaching programme
cannot rise above the quality of its teachers
In the school system, principal managerial skill is a
tool in the hands of the principals as the executive
head in staff personnel administration. No matter the
size of the school, whether big or small, the principal
cannot execute all the functions alone; he needs to
explore his leadership responsibility to his staff for
effective school administration.
Currently, observations have shown that most
principals have not been realizing the lofty goals set
for their respective schools. This failure has been
attributed to poor managerial skills relating to
interpersonal relationship and supervision of
teaching and non-teaching activities I the school.
Poor managerial attitude may be responsible for
frosty relationship between principals and teachers,
laxity among staff and ineffective implementation of
school programmes. Therefore, the study examined
principal’s managerial skills and teachers’ attitude to
work in public secondary schools in Akoko South
West Local Government Area of Ondo State.
Literature Review
Managing teachers is that part of school management
which is concerned with teachers at work and their
relationship within the educational enterprise.
Omebe (2001) is of the view that well managed
teachers will always look for better ways to do their
teaching job; they are more quality oriented and
more productive. Management of teachers can be
through the adoption of these management
strategies: Supervision, in-service training and
involvement in decision making process.among
others. Hence, any teacher that enjoys the influence
of the above named strategies is bound to give all his
best in discharging his or her duty because he would
derive the satisfaction of being a teacher.
Sipho (2007) in a study on the managerial role of the
principal in whole school evaluation in the context of
disadvantaged schools in Kwazulu-Natal at the
University of South Africa reveals that the managerial
role of the principal includes: instructional
management and support; providing leadership,
facilitating meaningful change; supervision,
evaluation, building and maintaining a winning team,
developing human resources; staff appraisal;
monitoring the implementation of educational
policies, monitoring of learner progress; managing
curriculum and instruction and promoting a positive
school climate.
Positive interpersonal relationships at work have an
advantageous impact on both organizational and
individual variables. Research has demonstrated that
friendships at work can improve individual employee
attitudes such as job satisfaction, job commitment,
engagement and perceived organizational support
(Zagenczyk, Scott, Gibney, Murrell, & Thatcher,
2010). In addition, employee’s negative work
attitudes can be mitigated when leaders and peers
act as confidantes to discuss bad and unpleasant
work experiences (Morrison, 2009; Song & Olshfski,
2008). Valued work relationships can influence
organizational outcomes by increasing institutional
participation, establishing supportive and innovative
climates, increasing organizational productivity and
indirectly reducing the intent to turnover (Crabtree,
2004; Ellingwood, 2004; Song & Olshfski, 2008). In a
study of government workers in South Korea and the
United States, Song and Olshfski (2008) found that in
both countries friendships between superiors and
subordinates positively affect work attitudes.
Supervision in school is defined as helping teachers
exercise their right, and their responsibility, to
promote continued growth (Nolan & Hoover, 2008).
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
166
Blasé and Blasé (2004) view supervision as a
combination of supervisory beliefs and educational
philosophies with the purpose of building trust,
empowering teachers, and fostering reflection. They
maintained that supervision should be inquiry
orientated, and it should encourage teachers’ voices
as well as acknowledges the context and complexity
of teaching (Blasé and Blasé, 2004).
Supervision is considered a key to success in schools.
Ebmeier (2003) produced research that linked
teacher efficacy to supervision. He defined efficacy as
an individual’s belief about his or her own
capabilities to achieve a certain end. According to his
work, supervision activities that teachers felt were
supportive of their roles included providing feedback,
encouragement, emotional support, reinforcement, as
well as modeling experiences. If more classroom
observations occurred, teachers felt they had more
efficacies. Using scales to measure a principal’s
supervision, a principal’s support of teaching, and
teacher’s satisfaction with working conditions, the
conclusions drawn from the data determined that a
principal supervisory behaviors and the efficacy
beliefs of 28 teachers in that principal’s school were
remarkably similar (Ebmeier, 2003).
To guide the study, two research questions and
hypotheses were formulated and postulated
respectively.
Research Questions
1. Would principal’s interpersonal skill influence
teachers' attitude to work?
2. Would principal’s supervisory skill influence
teachers' attitude to work?
Research Hypotheses
1. There is no significant relationship between
principals' interpersonal skill influence teachers'
attitudes to work
2. There is no significant relationship between
principals' supervisory skill influence teachers'
attitudes to work.
Methodology
The research adopted a descriptive type of research
design which looks into the quality of interpersonal
relationship and secondary school effectiveness It is a
research based on information gathered through
questionnaire. The target population for this study
was teachers and principals’ from 17 public
secondary schools in Akoko South West Local
Government Area of Ondo State.
The sample of the study was taken mainly from 10
public secondary schools in Akoko South West Local
Government Area of Ondo State. A simple random
sampling technique was adopted. This involved
writing out the names of all the schools in sheets of
paper and 10 were randomly selected. From each of
the school selected, 12 teachers comprising six males
and females each were picked. Thus, the total sample
was 120 teachers and 10 principals. However, 95
useable questionnaire were retrieved and used for
analysis.
A questionnaire instrument titled; “Quality of
Interpersonal Relationship and Secondary School
Effectiveness Descriptive Questionnaire (QIRSSEDQ)”
was designed and used. The questionnaire contained
two sections. Section A contained information on the
participant’s characteristics, such as gender, length of
experience and education qualification, while section
B was designed to collect information based on the
variables contained in the research questions and
hypotheses. Data so collected were analysed using
frequency distribution and percentage
Presentation of Results
Research Question 1: Would principal's
interpersonal skill influence teachers’ attitude to
work?
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
167
Table 1: Principal’s Interpersonal Skills and Teachers’ Attitude to Work
S/N Statement Agreed Disagreed
No. % No. %
1.Principal's behaviour will likely influence teachers'
attitude to work
95 100 - -
2. Cordial relationship between the principal and the 28 29.5 67 70.5
teachers will not influence the teacher's attitude
to work
3. Principals’ interpersonal skill is the best to engender 92 96.8 03 3.2
positive attitude from teachers
4. When there is a good atmosphere that encourages 93 97.9 02 2.1
creativity and initiatives, teachers are likely to be
more committed
5. Effective use of teachers capability will improve their 81 85.3 14 14.7 attitude to
work
As shown on Table 1, 95 participants (100%) agreed
to the statement that principal's behaviour will likely
influence teachers' attitude to work. Also, 28
participants (29.52%) agreed that cordial
relationship between the principal and the teachers
will not influence the teacher's attitude to work
while, 93 participants (97.9%) agreed that when
there is a good atmosphere that encourages creativity
and initiatives, teachers are likely to be more
committed.
Research Question 2: Would principal's supervisory
skill influence teacher's attitude to work?
Table 2: Principal’s Supervisory Skills and Teachers' Job Attitude to Work
S/N Statement Agreed Disagreed
No. % No. %
6. Adequate supervision is effective in monitoring
the teachers’ attitude to work
90 94.7 05 5.3
7. Regular supervision of teachers performance at 23 24.2 72 75.8
work will not influence their attitude to work
8. Without supervision, teachers do their work 40 42.1 55 57.9
effectively
9. Principals' supervisory skills is not the best to 41 43.2 54 56.8
engender positive attitude to work
10. When teachers are properly supervised, they may 68 71.6 27 28.4
likely change their attitude to work
As shown on table 2, 90 participants (94.7%) agreed
to the statement that adequate supervision is
effective in monitoring the teachers’ attitude to work.
Also, 40 participants (42.1%) agreed that without
supervision, teachers do their work effectively while
68 participants (71.6%) agreed that when teachers
are properly supervised, they may likely change their
attitude to work.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship
between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’
attitude to work.
Table 3: Relationship between Principal’s
Interpersonal Skill and Teachers’ Attitude to Work
Variables N df P. r.cal r.tab
Principal’s Interpersonal Skill
95 93 0.05 0.577 0.205
Teachers’ Attitude to Work
Significant at 0.05
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
168
The results presented on table 3 revealed that the
calculated r value (r.cal) 0.577 is greater than the
table value (r. tab) 0.205 at 0.05 level of significance.
This signifies that a significant relationship exists
between principal’s interpersonal skill and teachers’
attitude to work. The tested hypothesis is therefore
rejected.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship
between principal’s supervisory skill and teachers’
attitude to work.
Table 4: Relationship between Principal’s
Supervisory Skills and Teachers’ Attitude to Work Variables N df P. r.cal r.tab
Principal’s Supervisory Skill
95 93 0.05 0.615 0.205
Teachers’ Attitude to Work
Significant at 0.05
The results as presented on table 4 showed that a
significant relationship exists between principal’s
supervisory skill and teachers’ attitude to work. This
is because the calculated r value (r. cal.) which is
0.615 is greater than the table value (r. tab.) 0.205
obtained at 0.05 level of significance. On this basis
therefore, the null hypothesis tested is rejected.
Discussion of Findings
Hypothesis one which states that there is no
significant relationship between principal’s inter-
personal skill and teachers’ attitude to work was
rejected. This infers that the interpersonal skill of
principal influences the teachers’ attitude to work.
This finding supports the positon of other researcher.
Positive interpersonal relationships at work have an
advantageous impact on both organizational and
individual variables. Research has demonstrated that
friendships at work can improve individual employee
attitudes such as job satisfaction, job commitment,
engagement and perceived organizational support
(Zagenczyk, Scott, Gibney, Murrell, & Thatcher,
2010). In addition, employee’s negative work
attitudes can be mitigated when leaders and peers
act as confidantes to discuss bad and unpleasant
work experiences (Morrison, 2009; Song & Olshfski,
2008). Also, In a study of government workers in
South Korea and the United States, Song and Olshfski
(2008) found that in both countries friendships
between superiors and subordinates positively affect
work attitudes.
Hypothesis two which states that there is no
significant relationship between principal’s super-
visory skill and teachers’ attitude to work was
rejected. It was found that a significant relationship
exists between principal’s supervisory skill and
teachers’ attitude to work. The finding is in line with
Ebmeier (2003) who undertook research that linked
teacher efficacy to supervision. He defined efficacy as
an individual’s belief about his or her own
capabilities to achieve a certain end. According to his
work, supervision activities that teachers felt were
supportive of their roles included providing feedback,
encouragement, emotional support, reinforcement, as
well as modeling experiences. If more classroom
observations occurred, teachers felt they had more
efficacies. Using scales to measure a principal’s
supervision, a principal’s support of teaching, and
teacher’s satisfaction with working conditions, the
conclusions drawn from the data determined that a
principal supervisory behaviors and the efficacy
beliefs of 28 teachers in that principal’s school were
remarkably similar.
Conclusion
From the findings of the study, it is concluded that a
significant relationship between principals’
managerial skills and teachers’ attitude to work with
reference to interpersonal relationship and
supervision. This is because all the variables of
principals’ managerial skills tested are significantly
related to teachers’ attitude to work. Thus, it is
imperative that school principals are equipped with
these managerial skills through on the-job-training to
further enhance the performance of teachers under
them by engendering a positive attitude towards
work in the school system.
Recommendations
1. School organization should pay more attention
to the attitude and behaviours their employees
and its leadership style so as to create pleasant
experience for all categories of employees.
2. The principals may also need more training on
leadership style as this may aid their
supervisory and interpersonal skills to do more
on job attitude of teachers.
3. This finding has implications for the
development of loyal employees and incentive
strategy. In view of this, principals should make
effort to reach out to every member of the
school organization irrespective of their
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
169
demographic profiles. This can help in making
them better committed to the organization.
4. Star performers among teachers should be
recognized and compensated accordingly in
order to encourage a culture of good attitude
and commitment.
5. Aligning the personal needs of the employees
with those of the organization can be helpful in
the development of loyal workforce and
performance driven system.
6. One strategy for engendering valued
interpersonal relationships at work is to involve
teachers in the decision making process through
committee system.
7. Finally, school principals should invest more in
uplifting their managerial capacity as this will
enhance staff management practices..
References
Blasé, J. & Blasé, J. (2004). Handbook of instructional
leadership: How successful princip-als promotes
teaching and learning (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin Press.
Ebmeier, H. (2003). How supervision influences
teacher efficacy and commitment: An
investigation of a path model. Journal of
Curriculum and Supervision, 18, 110-141.
Crabtree, S. (2004). Getting personal in the workplace:
Are negative relationship squelching? London:
Hopkins Ltd.
Dale, J., & Fox, M. (2008). Leadership style and
organizational commitment: Mediat ing effect of
role stress. Journal of Managerial Issues, 20(1),
109-130.
Ellingwood, S. (2001). The collective advantage.
Retrieved from http//www.gallupjournal.com.
GMJarchive.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013). National policy on
education. Lagos NERDC Press.
Morrison, R. L. (2009). Are women tending and
befriending in the workplace? Bolton: Maveric
Press
Nolan, J. F. & Hoover, L. A. (2008). Teacher supervision
and evaluation: Theory into practice (2nd ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Song, S., & Olshfski, P. (2008). Friends at Work: A
comparative study of work attitudes in Seoul
City Government and New Jersey State
Government. Administration and Society, 40(2),
147-169
Ofoegbu, F. I. (2004). Teacher motivation as an
essential factor for classroom effectiveness and
school improvement. College Student Journal, 3
(1), 54–69.
Spector, P. E. (2000). Industrial and organizational
psychology: Research and practice. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons.
Zagenczyk, T. J., Scott, K. D., Gibney R, Murrell, A. J., &
Thatcher, J. B. (2010). Social influence and
perceived organizational support: A social
networks analysis. Organizational Behavior and
Human Decision, 111(2), 127-138.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
170
PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT AND ACADEMIC STAFF PRODUCTIVITY IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN
SOUTHWEST NIGERIA
1Adebayo, F. A. and 2Ayegbusi, E. T. 1Department of Educational Management
Faculty of Education Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti
2National Teachers’ Institute, Department of Education, Oye Study Center,
Ekiti State, Nigeria
Abstract
The study investigated the relationship between personnel management and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria. The study was a descriptive research design of the survey type. The sample was selected using multistage, simple and purposive random sampling techniques. The sample for the study was 660 respondents comprising 600 academic staff and 60 head of departments from 6 Colleges of Education. Two research instruments were used to collect data for the study. These are Personnel Management Questionnaire (PMQ) completed by the Academic staff of the Colleges of Education and Academic Staff Productivity Questionnaire (ASPQ) completed for the Academic staff by their Heads of Department. The research instruments were validated and test – retest method was adopted to ensure the reliability of the instruments, which yielded coefficients of 0.83 and 0.75 for PMQ and ASPQ respectively. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data collected. Hypotheses generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that there was significant relationship between the personnel management and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria. The study revealed that the most important predictor variable of academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria was the personnel training. Based on the findings, it was recommended that the personnel managers (Provost, Deans and Head of Departments) should embark on efficient and effective personnel training programs, ideal recruitment process, good motivational packages that will no doubt increase the level of academic staff productivity.
Keywords: Personnel management, Academic staff productivity, Colleges of Education
Introduction
An effective personnel management is the bedrock of
sustainable productivity in an organization.
Personnel management is the part of management
process which is concerned with people at work and
with their relationships within an enterprise (Onah,
2009). Personnel management entails the process of
managing the human resources in terms of planning,
recruiting, training, motivation, communication
pattern, retention measures, conflict management,
discipline and evaluation for sustainable
productivity.
In Nigeria, College of Education is one of the tertiary
institutions purposely established to train teachers
that will teach at lower and upper basic schools. The
shortage of qualified and required number of
teachers in post- independence called for the
government intensive efforts to increase the number
of teachers by introducing different teacher training
programmes like Pivotal Teachers Training
Programme, Advanced Teachers Training
Programme. In a bid to further boost the teachers
training programme, government decided to
establish more Colleges of Education in many parts of
the country.
Colleges of Education are to produce highly
motivated, conscientious and efficient teachers,
encourage the further spirit of enquiry and creativity
in teachers, help teachers to fit into social life of the
community and the society at large and enhance their
commitment to national goals, provided with the
intellectual and professional background adequate
for their assignment and make them adaptable to
changing situations, enhance teachers’ commitment
to the teaching profession (NPE, 2004).
The human resources in Colleges of Education
comprise academic staff, non-academic staff, and
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
171
students. Academic staff and non-academic staff
constitute the personnel in Colleges of Education.
Academic staff have very strong role to play for the
attainment of Colleges of Education objectives. The
activity of academic staff with other resources in the
college will determine the level of productivity
(Ubom 2001).
Personnel management is the field of management
which has to do with planning, organising, and
controlling various operative activities of procuring,
developing, maintaining and utilizing a labour force
in order that the objectives and interest for which the
company is established are attained as effectively and
economically as possible and the objectives and
interest of all levels of personnel and community are
served to the highest degree (Hamid & Manahi 2016).
Hence, there is the need for efficient and effective
coordination of personnel and other resources for the
attainment of the management goals. The study of
Bolarinwa & Kolawole (2015), revealed that there is
significant relationship between personnel
management and productivity. The study insisted on
good welfare packages, adequate remuneration and
good communication system to enhance the level of
teacher productivity.
Productivity can be defined as the balance between
all factors of production that give the greatest returns
for the smallest efforts. According to Dwumah,
Akuoko, & Ofori – Dua (2015) productivity refers to
the amount of products or services produced with the
resources used. Also, productivity is defined as a ratio
of a measure of output to a measure of some or all the
resources used to produce this output. Defined in this
way, one or a number of input measures can be taken
and compared with one or a number of output
measures.
Essentially, productivity is a ratio used to measure
how well an organization (or individual, industry,
country) converts input resources (labour, materials,
machines, etc.) into goods and services. Management
productivity in a time period is usually measured as
quantity of products or services produced/Amount of
resources used. Thus, productivity varies with the
amount of production relative to the amount of
resources used (Ubomi, 2001; Dwumah etal, 2015).
Productivity may be measured at various levels:
organizational, unit, product line, or any other level
that is logical. When attempts are made to include all
inputs and all outputs in a system the measure is
called Total Productivity Measure (TPM). It was
further explains that the inputs used in a process can
be hours of labour, units of capital and quantities of
raw materials compared with the consequent output.
Partial productivity measures are established by
developing ratios of total output to one or more input
categories. For example, labour productivity will be
calculated as total output/labour input. Productivity
can be increased in a number of ways: increase
production using the same amount of resources,
increase production using smaller amount of
resources, reduce the amount of resources used
while keeping the same production or increasing it
and allow the amount of resources used to increase
as long as production increases. To attain
improvement in productivity, there has to be
productivity improvement objectives. These
objectives can be expressed and results could be
measured in terms of one or more of these basic
yardsticks: quantity, quality, time, or the monetary
value. He added that the objectives set should be
specific (Dwumah etal, 2015).
Ovwigho (2008) viewed productivity as output
generated from a given input (resources) within a
period which is summed up as; Output/ Input =
Productivity. It involves efficient use of productive
resources like labour, capital materials. Productivity
is believed to be high when more goods and services
are obtained with a given amount of resources.
The research of Festus & Ajakaye (2016) revealed
that there was a direct link between motivation,
commitment and productivity based on aspects like
training, work experience, work knowledge, culture
and tradition, leadership styles and the
understanding of information systems. The study of
Owojori & Asaolu (2010), pointed out the problems
of personnel management in Universities which
include inadequate finance, violent trade unionism
among staff, personnel and management
disagreement on policy matters, lack of trust as a
result of communication gap, dictation from political
class. The study recommended improved allocation
of funds to school for proper maintenance of
equipment and facilities, staff and management good
rapport, effective staff participation in decision
making, regular seminar, conferences and workshop
to develop personnel on their normal routine to
boost the personnel level of productivity.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
172
Productivity is defined as the balance between all
factors of production that give the greatest returns
for the smallest efforts. According to Anyadike
(2013) productivity refers to the amount of products
or services produced with the resources used. The
research of Ajayi, Ekundayo & Togunloju (2016),
revealed that leadership behaviour and availability of
school facilities were significantly related to teachers’
productivity. The study recommended regular
seminars, workshops, conferences and symposia for
the secondary school teachers in order to enhance
their productivity. The study of Omojola (2016)
revealed that the level of human resources
management and the level of productivity of
academic staff in southwest universities were
moderate. The study also revealed that human
resources management and productivity of academic
staff were significantly related.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the level
of personnel management in Colleges of Education.
The study examined the level of academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education. It examined the
relationship between the personnel management and
academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education.
The study determined the best predictor among the
personnel management practices and academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest
Nigeria
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to
guide the study:-
(1) What is the level of personnel management
practices in Colleges of Education?
(2) What is the level of academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education?
(3) Is there any relationship between personnel
management and academic staff
productivity?
(4) Which of the variables of personnel
management is the best predictor of the
academic staff productivity?
Research Hypotheses
For the purpose of this study the following research
hypotheses were formulated:
(1) There is no significant relationship between
personnel management and academic staff
productivity.
(2) Personnel management variables will not
significantly predict academic staff
productivity.
Methodology
The study made use of descriptive research design of
the survey type. The study made use of personnel
management variables that comprise personnel
planning, personnel recruitment, personnel training,
personnel motivation, personnel retention policy,
personnel decisional participation, personnel
communication pattern, personnel conflict
management, personnel discipline and personnel
evaluation with the academic staff productivity.
The population for the study comprised all academic
staff in public Colleges of Education in Southwest
Nigeria. The Southwest states include Lagos, Ogun,
Osun, Oyo, Ondo and Ekiti. The sample of this study
was made up of 660 respondents comprising 600
academic staff and 60 Heads of departments selected
from six Colleges of Education with the use of
purposive, proportionate and simple random
sampling techniques.
Two sets of research instruments were used for the
study. The first instrument was tagged ‘Personnel
Management Questionnaire’ (PMQ), while the second
instrument was tagged ‘Academic Staff Productivity
Questionnaire’ (ASPQ). The first instrument was
filled by academic staff of the selected Colleges of
Education, while the second instrument was filled by
the head of the department.
The two instruments namely the “PMQ” and “ASP”
were given to the experts in Educational
Management and Tests, Measurement and Evaluation
in Faculty of Education in Ekiti State University, Ado
Ekiti for validation. Test – retest method was adopted
to ensure reliability of the instruments with the
coefficient of (r) 0.83 and 0.75 respectively. Data
collected for the study were analyzed using
descriptive and inferential statistics. Hypotheses
were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
Question 1: What is the level of personnel
management practices in Colleges of Education?
Table 1: Level of personnel management practices
in Colleges of Education
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
173
Levels of personnel
management
Frequency Percentage
Low (50.00 – 120.20) 130 21.7
Moderate (120.21 – 167.60) 377 62.8
High (167.61 – 200.00) 93 15.5
Total 600 100.0
Table 1 presents the levels of personnel management
practices in Colleges of Education. The result shows
that out of 600 respondents sampled, 130
representing 21.7 percent had low level. Those who
had moderate level were 377 representing 62.8
percent while those with high level were 93
representing 15.5 percent. This shows that the level
of personnel management practices in Colleges of
Education was moderate.
Question 2: What is the level of academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education?
Table 2: Level of academic staff productivity in
Colleges of Education
Levels of academic staff productivity
Frequency Percentage
Low (15.00 – 30.18) 18 30.0
Moderate (30.19 – 51.17) 33 55.0
High (51.18 – 60.00) 9 15.0
Total 60 100.0
Table 2 presents the levels of academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education. The result
shows that out of 60 respondents sampled, 18
representing 30 percent had low level of academic
staff productivity. Those who had moderate level
were 33 representing 55 percent while those with
high level were 9 representing 15 percent. This
shows that the level of academic staff productivity in
Colleges of Education was moderate.
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship
between the personnel management practices and
academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education
Southwest Nigeria.
Table 3: Relationship between personnel management practices and academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education Southwest Nigeria
Variable N Mean SD
rcal rtable
Personnel
management 600 143.90 23.699
0.574*
0.195 Academic Staff
Productivity 600 40.68 10.50
*p<0.05
Table 3 revealed that the relationship between
personnel management practices and academic staff
productivity is statistically significant at 0.05 level r =
0.574, p< 0.05. Thus the null hypothesis is rejected.
This implies that there is significant relationship
between personnel management and academic staff
productivity.
Hypothesis 2: Personnel management practice
variables will not significantly predict academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education Southwest
Nigeria.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
174
Table 4: Multiple Regression analysis of personnel management variables and academic staff productivity
in Colleges of Education Southwest Nigeria
Model
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
T Sig. B Std. Error Beta (β)
(Constant) 22.544 5.251 4.293 .000
Personnel motivation .304 .166 .390 1.837 .072
Personnel communication pattern .257 .344 .330 .745 .460
Personnel planning .149 .098 .146 1.519 .135
Personnel Training .456 .366 .518 1.248 .218
Personnel recruitment .450 .153 .494 2.930 .005
Personnel retention measures .174 .106 .212 1.645 .106
Personnel evaluation .098 .116 .119 .843 .403
Personnel decisional participation .111 .118 .133 .947 .348
Personnel discipline .009 .117 .011 .081 .936
Personnel conflict management pattern
.149 .099 .181 1.502 .140
*p<0.05
Dependent Variable: Academic staff productivity
Multiple R = 0.811
Multiple R2 = 0.658
Adjusted R2 = 0.589
F = 9.433
Probability = p<0.05
The following regression can be derived from Table
4.
Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2+ b3X3+ b4X4+ b5X5+ b6X6+ b7X7+
b8X8+ b9X9+ b10X10
Where
X1 = Personnel motivation
X2 = Personnel communication pattern
X3 = Personnel planning
X4 = Personnel training
X5 = Personnel recruitment
X6 = Personnel retention measures
X7 = Personnel evaluation
X8 = Personnel decisional participation
X9 = Personnel discipline
X10 = Personnel conflict management
bi = (i=1-10) Regression Weight
Coefficients
a = Constant (other variables other than
X1-X10)
The multiple regressions relationship between the
dependent and independent variables can therefore
be given as follow:
Y = 22.544 + 0.304X1 + 0.257X2+ 0.149X3+ 0.456X4+
0.450X5+ 0.174X6+ 0.098X7+ 0.111X8+ 0.009X9 +
0.149X10
Table 4 shows that personnel management variables
significantly predict academic staff productivity
(F10,49=9.433*, p<0.05). The null hypothesis is
rejected. This implies that personnel management
variables will significantly predict academic staff
productivity.
The table reveals that there is a significant positive
multiple correlation between the predictor variables
(personnel motivation, personnel communication
pattern, personnel planning, personnel training,
personnel recruitment, personnel retention
measures, personnel evaluation, personnel decisional
participation, personnel discipline, personnel conflict
management pattern) and academic staff
productivity (r=0.811, p<0.05). This implies that all
the predictor variables are factors that can exert
influence on academic staff productivity in Colleges
of Education. The value of the coefficient of
determination (r2=0.658) indicates that all the
predictor variables jointly accounted for 65.8% (r2 X
100) of the total variance in academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education while the
remaining 34.2% unexplained variation is largely due
other variables that can account for academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education.
The regression result in the table reveals that the
most important predictor variable that contributed to
the total variance in academic staff productivity is
personnel training (β = 0.518). This was closely
followed by personnel recruitment (β = 0.494),
personnel motivation (β = 0.390), personnel
communication pattern (β = 0.330), personnel
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
175
retention measures (β = 0.212), personnel conflict
management patterns (β = 0.181). personnel
planning (β = 0.146), personnel decisional
participation (β = 0.133) and personnel evaluation (β
= 0.119). The variable with the least contribution to
academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education
is personnel discipline (β = 0.011). The calculated F-
ratio (9.443) was significant at 0.05 level of
significance. This implies that the predictor variables
jointly provide a significant explanation for the
variation in the academic staff productivity in
Colleges of Education.
Discussion
The study revealed that the level of personnel
management in Colleges of Education of Southwest
Nigeria is moderate. It implies that the personnel
managers (Provost, Deans and Head of Departments)
are managing the academic staff appropriately, to
perform their legitimate duties in teaching, research
and community services. What could be responsible
for this finding might be the fact that both personnel
managers and the academic staff in Colleges of
Education of Southwest Nigeria still get on well
irrespective of the other areas that might need
attention. The finding is in line with the outcome of
the work of Ajayi & Ekundayo (2009), Omojola
(2016), Hamid and Manhi (2016) that the personnel
managers are managing the academic staff
moderately.
The study revealed that the level of productivity of
academic staff in Colleges of Education in Southwest
Nigeria is moderate. This implies that academic staff
are performing creditably in the aspect of teaching,
research and publication, and community services.
The finding may be due to the fact that without
academic staff making positive contribution in these
areas, they may not be promoted and their job
security will be at stake, because it would be
tantamount to unproductivity on their side. The
finding is corroborated with the outcome of the
research of Milind and Rajashree (2015), Omojola
(2016), Ajayi, Ekundayo & Togunloju (2016).
The study showed that there is significant
relationship between personnel management and
academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education
in Southwest Nigeria. This implies that proper
personnel management will have positive impact on
the academic staff productivity. What may be
responsible for this finding is the fact that the
Colleges of Education objectives may not be
attainable without efficient and effective personnel
management system. This finding is in agreement
with the study of Owojori and Ashaolu (2010),
Anyadike (2013), Festus and Ajakaye (2016), and
Hamid & Manahi (2016) that personnel management
and academic staff productivity were related.
The finding showed that most important predictor
variable of academic staff productivity in Colleges of
Education in Southwest Nigeria is the personnel
training, followed by personnel recruitment,
personnel motivation, personnel communication
pattern, personnel retention measures, personnel
decisional participation and personnel evaluation
while personnel discipline is the least in the rank
order. With the F- ratio of 9.443 which implies that
the predictor variables jointly provide a significant
explanation for the variation in the academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest
Nigeria. The finding showed that there are still other
variables apart from those examined in this study
that could further responsible for variation in the
academic staff productivity in Colleges of Education
in Southwest Nigeria.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, the following
conclusions were drawn that: the level of personnel
management in Colleges of Education was moderate;
the level of academic staff productivity in Colleges of
Education in Southwest Nigeria was moderate; there
was significant relationship between personnel
management and academic staff productivity in
Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria; the most
important predictor variable of academic staff
productivity in Colleges of Education in Southwest
Nigeria was personnel training.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, it is
recommended that:
1. Personnel managers need to embark on efficient
and effective personnel training programme that
could take the forms of workshop, conferences,
seminar, refresher courses, educational advancement
and among others for staff development and
sustainable productivity. Training of the newly
employed academic staff should be mandatory for
sustainable productivity.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
176
2. The personnel managers’ needs to adhere strictly
to the standard procedure stipulated for the
academic staff recruitment process. Such process
needs to consider the vacant posts, applicant
performance merit, qualification merit and areas of
specialization merit.
3. Personnel managers needs to intensify effort on
academic staff motivation that could be inform of
regular payment of salary, regular promotion
exercise, good performance reward, commendation,
staff get together, among others needs in order to
sustain productivity in Colleges of Education in
Southwest Nigeria.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
177
INSTITUTIONAL MANAGEMENT AND STUDENTS’ ADMISSION AS DETERMINANT OF STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE IN COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIA
1Ajayi, I.A and 2Idowu, E.K 1Department of Educational Management
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University Ado-Ekiti
2Department of Curriculum Studies and Instruction College of Education, Ikere- Ekiti
Abstract
The study investigated Institutional management and students’ admission as determinant of students’ academic performance in Colleges of Education in southwest Nigeria. The sample for the study consisted of 600 lecturers. A questionnaire was designed and used to collect data from six out of twelve public Colleges of Education in South west Nigeria using proportionate stratified random sampling technique. Also, Inventory on Final Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP) was used to collect information on the final year students’ results for 3 consecutive academic sessions i.e.2013/2014, 2014/2015 and 2015/2016. Data collected were analysed using simple percentages, mean and standard deviation, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Multiple Regression. All hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Findings from the study showed that institutional management and students’ admission were significantly related to students’ academic performance in public Colleges of Education in Southtwest Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended that the institution management should ensure regular conduct of academic board meetings to discuss matter related to academic activities and prompt approval and release of students’ results as this will improve teaching and learning process. In view of the fact that students to be admitted into college system matters a lot for quality maintenance, managers of Colleges of Education should continue to maintain the standard process of admitting students and ensure that only qualified students would be admitted and processed for better academic output.
Key words: Institutional management, Students’ admission and Academic performance
Introduction
The seemingly decline in quality of education in
Nigeria has been a major issue to various education
stakeholders who have continued to express
concerns over the poor academic performance of
Nigerian students at virtually all levels of academic
engagements most especially Colleges of Education.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013), stated that the
goals of tertiary education shall be to contribute to
national development through high level of relevant
manpower training; to develop and inculcate proper
values for the survival of the individual and society;
to also develop the intellectual capacity of individuals
and to acquire both physical and intellectual skills
which enable individuals to be self-reliant and useful
members of the society. Basically, the main objective
of Colleges of Education is to produce quality and
competent teachers for primary and junior secondary
schools.
There is general concern about standard of
education in Nigeria. This concern emanates from the
fact that the level of performance of students at all
level of education most especially in Colleges of
Education in Nigeria is dwindling with the passage of
time. Adelabu (2013) lamented that Nigerians have
sacrificed quality education on the altar of quantity
and mass education. He stressed further that the poor
performance of students in Colleges of Education is
pronounced throughout the 3 year academic
programmes. Right from the first year to the third
year of the programmes, many students performed
woefully in mid-semester test and semester’s
examinations. Also, a close observation of academic
activities in Colleges of Education has shown that
many students failed to adequately prepare for their
examinations unlike in the olden days when students
showed great zeal before and during examination.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
178
This lack of adequate preparation may negatively
affect their academic performance.
Institutional management is the management of
different programmes and activities which aims at
the realisation of the prime goals of every educational
institution. Management could be better
conceptualised as the “executive function” of
educational leadership, whose primary task is to
develop strategies for achieving the school’s core
targets, including the desired student results (Card
&Krüger, 2005). In this sense, “institutional
management is combination of educational leaders
whose actions (both in relation to administrative and
educational tasks) are intentionally geared to
influencing the school’s primary processes and,
therefore, ultimately improve students’ achievement
levels” (Witziers, Bosker and Krüger, 2003).
Every college of education is expected to have a
functioning and efficient Institutional management
which is essential in every educational institution.
For ensuring success of any educational programme,
adequate attention must be given to the leadership
and its approach. There have been observed cases of
non-functional quality assurance units in some
Colleges of Education in Nigeria, as some Colleges of
Education management pay less attention to the
upgrading of their quality assurance units. These
units are responsible for ensuring high standards and
good practices in the teaching, learning and
assessment processes are recognised and rewarded
as problems are rapidly identified and addressed.
Poor implementation of feedback from the quality
assurance unit by the management of some colleges
of education has call for urgent attention. Experience
has shown that the Management of some colleges of
education in Nigeria do not expedite actions on the
report of the Quality Assurance unit rather they are
busy complaining about lack of resources to fully
implement recommendations of the unit.
There are also instances of some Colleges of
Education Management who are in the habit of
recruiting academic staff without following due
process. Recruiting staff has become a significant
issue in higher educational institutions as many
academic staff recruited appears to have been
performing below expectation due to the fact that
some were employed through temporary
appointment and later regularised rather than
subjecting them to thorough interview at the point of
appointment. This may have negative effects on
students’ academic performances as quality teaching
may not be jeopardised.
It seems some Colleges of Education Academic Board
members do not meet regularly to address issues
relating to academic matters that may affect the
students. For instance, the delay in releasing
students’ results by the school authorities may
prevent the students from registering for their failed
courses and this may eventually leads to students
spending extra year in the Colleges. In some cases,
students also complain that they do not have access
to their semester results in their departments. This
may not allow students to know their level of
performance and how to work harder for better
grades.
In some cases, lecturers complain that Management
do not give enough time for marking and recording of
examination scripts. This may not give room for
thorough job, thereby resulting to loss of students’
scripts while in a hurry to collate scripts to meet the
deadline set by the Management. The delay in
Academic Board meetings may not also afford
students with disciplinary cases such as examination
malpractices, extortion, stealing, sexual harassment
among others, to know their fate and keep on
attending classes with uncertainty about their
studentship.
The type of students to be admitted for a programme
matters a lot for quality to be maintained. As a policy,
admission into NCE programme requires a minimum
of five passes with three credits at a sitting or four
credits at two sittings in the SSCE, GCE, RSA or City
and Guilds as entry requirements. However, Olusanya
(2002) observed that some institutions as a way of
attracting students do lower their standard by
adopting unconventional procedure like internal sale
of forms for admission other than the nationally
accepted JAMB procedure. Others equally admit
students without the minimum entry qualification.
This trend no doubt, is bound to have adverse effect
on the process of implementation of the NCE
curriculum on admission.
Certain academic requirements must be met before a
candidate is considered for admission into any
chosen course of study in any tertiary institution in
Nigeria. One of the main reasons for such
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
179
requirements is to ensure that set academic
standards are maintained. For the National
Certificate of Education (NCE) programme, the
admission requirements vary according to the
courses of study available within the academic
departments of each of the specializing school in the
college. Observation has shown that system of
admitting students into the Colleges of Education
appears to be faulty as some of the Colleges of
Education do lower their standard by adopting
unconventional procedure like internal sales of forms
for admission other than the Unified Tertiary
Matriculation Examination (UTME). The National
Commission for Colleges of Education has a policy of
admitting students into NCE programme with a
minimum of three credits at a sitting or four credit at
two sittings in O’ Level examination. In some cases,
students with less than the number of minimum
credit passes required for admission are admitted
and allowed to remedy their deficiencies before
graduation. The preparation for O’ Level result to
redeem their deficiencies may not allow the
concerned students to concentrate on their normal
academic progammes in school which may lead to
poor academic performance. The persistence
occurrence of these make it doubtful if institutional
management and students’ admission were
effectively carried out in the Colleges of Education. It
is against this background that the study examines
institutional management and students’ admission in
Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate
institutional management and students’ admission in
Colleges of Education in Southwest Nigeria with a
view to making suggestion for better academic
performance of students. In order to accomplish this
purpose, the following research questions and
hypotheses were raised and generated.
Research Hypotheses
1. There is no significant relationship between
institutional management and students’
academic performance
2. There is no significant relationship between
qualitative students’ admission and students’
academic performance
Methodology
Research Design
The descriptive research design of the survey type
and Expo-facto were adopted in the study.
Population
The population of this study consisted of all the
academic members of staff of the 12 public Colleges
of Education in Southwest, Nigeria. The public
Colleges of Education were made up of 4 Federal
Colleges of Education and 8 State Colleges of
Education.
As at the time of the study, there were 1650 academic
members of staff in Federal Colleges of Education and
2680 academic members of staff in State Colleges of
Education making a total number of 4330 academic
members of staff.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The sample for this study consisted of 600 academic
members of staff from the selected Colleges of
Education in Southwest, Nigeria. Two stages were
involved in the selection of sample. Proportionate
stratified random sampling technique was used to
select 4 out of 8 State Colleges of Education and 2 out
of 4 Federal Colleges of Education in Southwest,
Nigeria. Simple random sampling technique was
used to select 100 academic members of staff from
each College of Education making the total number of
600.
Research Instruments
Two instruments were used to collect data for the
study. These instruments are Questionnaire on
Institutional management and Students Admission as
determinant of students’ academic performance
(QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final Year
Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP). The
QIMSASAP was divided into two sections (A & B).
Section A which contains 4 items elicits information
on the demographic data of the respondents while
section B contains 60 items on Institutional
management and Students Admission and students’
academic performance in the Colleges of Education.
The rating technique was based on a- 4 point Likert
type scales ranging from strongly agree (SA) with 4
points to Strongly Disagree (SD) with 1 point as
shown below:
Strongly Agree (SA) - 4 Points
Agree (A) - 3 Points
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
180
Disagree (D) - 2 Points
Strongly Disagree (SD) -1Point
The IFYSAP consisted of two sections (A & B).
Section A which contained 3 items elicits information
on the demographic data of the schools while section
B is meant to collect information on the final year
students’ results for 3 consecutive academic sessions
i.e.2013/2014, 2014/2015 and 2015/2016.
Validity of the Instruments
Face and content validities of the instruments were
subjected to screening by experts in the areas of
Educational Management and Tests and
Measurement and thereafter pretested, yielding a
reliability coefficient of 0.813.
Data Analysis
The data collected were analysed using inferential
statistics, such as Pearson Product Moment
Correlation and Multiple Regression. All were tested
at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
The results of the study were presented in line with
the hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between
institutional management and students’ academic
performance.
In testing the hypothesis, scores relating to
institutional management and students’ academic
performance were computed using Questionnaire on
Institutional management and Students academic
performance (QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final
Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP)
respectively. These scores were subsequently
subjected to statistical analysis involving Pearson
Product Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of
significance. The result is presented in Table below
Table 1: Institutional management and students’
academic performance
Variables N Mean SD rcal rTable
Institutional
Management
6 25.89 2.24
0.819*
0.707
Students’
Academic
Performance
6 1.42 0.19
*p<0.05 (Significant Result)
Table 1 shows that rcal (0.819) was greater than rTable
(0.707) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
significant relationship between institutional
management and students’ academic performance.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant relationship between students’
admission and students’ academic performance.
In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to
students’ admission and students’ academic
performance were computed using Questionnaire on
Students admission and Students academic
performance (QIMSASAP) and an “Inventory on Final
Year Students’ Academic Performance (IFYSAP)
respectively. These scores were subjected to
statistical analysis involving Pearson Product
Moment Correlation at 0.05 level of significance. The
result is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Students’ admission and students’ academic
performance
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
Students’
Admission
6 14.75 2.09
0.719*
0.707
Students’
Academic
Performance
6 1.42 0.19
*p<0.05 (Significant Result)
Table 2 shows that rcal (0.719) was greater than rtable
(0.707) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
significant relationship between students’ admission
and students’ academic performance.
Discussion
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between institutional management and
students’ academic performance. This implies that
good institutional management will facilitate good
academic performance and vice-versa. Good
institutional management in the area of regular
conduct of academic board meetings and clear
process for staff recruitment will facilitate good
academic performance of students. On the other
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
181
hand, irregular academic board meetings may lead to
delay in release and approval of student results
which may prevent them from registering for their
failed courses and thereby affecting their
performance. Also when competent lecturers are not
recruited, effective service delivery and positive
improvement in students’ academic performance
may not be achieved.
The finding of this study is in agreement with Mumo
(2004) and World Bank (2008) who posited that
retention and the quality of education depends
primarily on the way schools are managed, the
capacity of schools to improve teaching and learning
based on the quality of the leadership provided by
the institution management and students’ discipline.
Moreover, it aligns with Ayot and Briggs (1992) that
academic achievement of students depends on
effective leadership. This finding contradicts the
outcome of the study carried out by Ross and Gray
(2006) that the path of school management to
students’ achievement was not statistically
significant. It also contradict the finding of Becker
(2007) that there was no direct relationship between
management roles and students’ achievement.
It was revealed that there was significant relationship
between students’ admission and students’ academic
performance. If the students admitted into the
system are qualified and undergo better
transformation process, good output in terms of
academic performance is expected. This implies that
when qualified and competent students are admitted
into Colleges of Education, the academic performance
will be good and when less-qualified students are
admitted through unconventional method rather
than accepted Unified Matriculation Tertiary
Examination (UTME), such students may perform
poorly in academic activities. This finding agrees with
the result of Ibe-bassey (1988), who stated that
admission points and the different entry
qualifications, which are the results of prior or
previous academic performance are likely to affect
the students’ future academic performance. The
finding contradicts that of Ringland & Pearson (2003)
that there was no significant difference between
diploma and direct A-level students and their
subsequent academic performance. Mlambo (2011)
also reported that there was no significant difference
in the academic performance among students due to
differences in the admission criteria employed.
Conclusion and Recommendations
It was concluded that institutional management and
students’ admission were important factors in
students’ academic performance. The institution
management should therefore ensure regular
conduct of academic board meetings to discuss
matter related to academic activities and prompt
approval and release of students’ results as this will
improve teaching and learning process.
In view of the fact that students to be admitted into
college system matters a lot for quality maintenance,
managers of Colleges of Education should continue to
maintain the standard process of admitting students
into the college in accordance to NCCE admission
guidelines as this would ensure that only qualified
students would be admitted and processed for better
academic output.
References
Adelabu, E.I. (2013). Nigeria education: Methods and
planning. Lagos: Simarch Nigeria Ltd.
Ayot, H.O. & Briggs, H. (1992). Economics of
Education. Nairobi: Educational Research and
publications.
Becker, B.E. (2007). Strategic human resources
management: Where do we go from here?
Journal of Management, 32, (3) 898-925.
Card, D. & Krueger, A.B. (2005). "Would the
elimination of affirmative action affect highly
qualified minority applicants? Evidence from
California and Texas." Industrial and Labor
Relations Review 58 (3): 416-433.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). New National
Policy on Education Abuja NERDC press.
Mlambo, V. (2011). An Analysis of Some Factors
Affecting Student Academic Performance in an
Introductory Biochemistry Course at the
University of the West Indies. Caribbean
Teaching Scholar. 1(2):79–92.
Mumo, S. N. (2004). Department of Education
Administration Management Planning and
Curriculum Development. PAC/M/508.
Olusanya, S.O. (2002). Standardizing curriculum in
technical teacher preparation in Nigeria: issues,
problems and options for the 21st century.
Journal of Education and National Development
(4)146-152.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
182
Ringland, C. & Pearson, S.A. (2003). Graduate entry to
medical school: Testing some assumptions.
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences.
University of Newcastle, Australia.
Ross, J.A. & Gray, P. (2006). School Leadership and
Student Achievement: The Mediating Effects of
TeacherBeliefs. Canadian Journal of Education,
29 (3), 798-822.
World Bank (2000). Higher Education in Developing
Countries: Peril and Promise. Washington, D.C.
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development; 2000. Available: www.
macrothink.org/jse 12
Witziers, B., Bosker, R.J., &Krüger, M.L. (2003).
Educational leadership and student achie-
vement: The elusive search for an association.
Educational Administration Quarterly, 39 (3),
398-425.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
183
THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL RELATED VARIABLES ON THE BASIC SCIENCE STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE IN JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA.
Ogunyebi, Tunji Henry Department of Integrated Science
College of Education Ikere, Ekiti state.
Abstract
This paper examined the influence of School related variables on Basic science students’ academic performance in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type. Four null hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The sample consisted of 240 Junior Secondary School Students in Ondo State, Nigeriachosen through multistage random sampling technique. A self-constructed questionnaire was used in collecting data for the study. The data were analyzed using inferential statistics of t-test. The study found out that there was a significant difference between the performance of students from large sized and small sized schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. The study further revealed that boarding and single sex schools performed better than day and co-educational schools respectively. Based on this finding, it was recommended among other things that government, parents and teachers should work towards improving the standard of education in our various schools in the state.
Keywords- Performance, Variables, School-related, Determinant.
Introduction
Now that Nigeria is struggling to be self-reliant and
independent technologically, more attention has to
be paid to the educational sector in terms of teaching,
learning and performance of students in sciences,
especially in Basic Science which serves as a pivot
upon which other sciences rotate. The importance of
Basic Science cannot be over stressed. All students
must learn and pass it at the Junior Secondary School
level before they can advance to the senior level. In
recent times, most parents are of the opinion that the
standard of education in secondary schools is not
very encouraging. In terms of achievement, Ekundayo
(2013) reported that performance is largely affected
by a range of statistical indicators including the
student-staff ratio, qualification of teachers, years of
experience of the teacher and the school
environment. Despite the importance of Basic Science
to mankind and the efforts of researchers to improve
on its teaching and learning, the performance of
students in the subject remains low in Nigeria.
Among the factors responsible for the poor outcomes
and achievement in sciences are poor attitudes and
laboratory inadequacy, poor science background,
school size and type among others (Khattri&Kane,
1997). The achievement in science has been widely
reported and student’s interest and ability in science
is a function of the cognitive, affective and features of
the environment (BoeKaerts&Corno, 2009).
In a study conducted by Hu (2008), he examined
educational aspirations and secondary access by
students in large sized and small schools. Using 10th
graders as a baseline population, the study found that
lower percentage of large sized students had
aspirations for high schools and interest in science
compared to their small sized counterparts. Some
factors could be responsible for the differences due to
size, which include; availabilities of resources like
books, computers, and well-equipped laboratories,
lack of social amenities among others.The rate and
degree of failure by secondary schools students both,
in the day and boarding schools in external
examination is now at an alarming rate. Considering
the concern of the parents and guardians for their
children’s performance and the fact that there is a
sharp increase in the number of schools and students,
Adu and Oshati (2014) said that there is a need to
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
184
continuously evaluate the trends in the performance
of the students. How could one expect candidates to
perform well in schools that lack required variables?
Emunemu and Adu (2014) opined that an institution,
which lacks essential resources, should not expect to
reasonably achieve its desired objectives. More so, it
is also important that the environment must be a
challenging one, if it is to arouse the inherent
qualities and faculties of the students.Currently,
many single sex and boarding Secondary Schools are
emerging and most of the parents are taking their
wards from day to boarding schools perhaps on the
basis that boarding secondary schools provide
quality education, have better supervision, higher
parental commitment, motivation, and good
methodology which may lead to positive aspiration
and commitment on the side of the students.
Other factors according to Cardak and Vecci (2013)
are students’ enrollment and attendance in school as
a result of background variables like socio-economic
factors coupled with students’ environment
determines their performance. He opined that
students that come from high SES are those that can
mostly attend a boarding school where they are
believed to be exposed to simulative environment
and taught with rich instructional aids, pictures, and
motivating facilities which promote good
performance rather than abstract teachings. In
contrast, Ryan (2014) gave a contrary opinion that
there are some unobserved factors (like motivation,
ambition, aspiration, and attitudes towards
homework) these factors may depend on individual
parents and students, not necessarily dependents on
the type of schools attended. In a study carried out by
Akinloye and Adu (2015), they pointed out many
other factors that determined and have positive or
negative impacts on academic performance of
students in large, small, day, boarding, single or co-
educational secondary schools, include teaching
equipment and facilities, method of teaching, learning
environment, wages motivation packages, among
others.
In view of these, we should therefore continue to
seek variables which would improve students’
mastery of the subject as well as their academic
performance in schools. The school is a social and
learning agent that provides the environment upon
which a child may be formally educated in order to
attain educational goals. Since the teaching and
learning situation in schools seem to be a function of
the atmosphere or some variables in the school, the
researcher considers school related variables as a set
of unique characteristics of a school which tend to
distinguish one school from another. The school
variables in this study include; the school size, school
type (co-educational/single) and school structure
(day/boarding). Hence, the school related variables
remain the important area that should be studied and
well managed to enhance students’ academic
performance. Therefore, this study intends to
investigate the influence of school related variables
on students’ academic performance in Basic Science.
Statement of the Problem
The poor performance of Secondary School Students
in Basic Science has been widely reported. It has also
been observed that physical facilities especially
classrooms are inadequate in many schools as a
result of overcrowding in most schools (Emunemu
and Adu, 2014). It is noticeable as well that most
schools are highly populated that teachers’
supervision may be difficult. A visit to many schools
shows different attention given to students in day
and boarding schools. Another area of concern which
prompted this study is the lukewarm attitude of
government to the conditions of schools both co-
educational and single. These situations seem to have
diverse effects on the effective teaching and learning
of Basic Science. It is against these mentioned
observations that this research was carried out to
investigate the influence of school size, structure and
type on students’ academic performance in Basic
Science. However, one cannot shun the fact that, in
schools some students are affected by depression or
deprivation of needs, lack of access to educational
materials, and some schools been deprived from
well-equipped laboratories, libraries, experienced
teachers among others. These situations seem to be
hindering effective teaching and learning processes
especially in basic science in schools in Ondo State,
Nigeria. Therefore it is necessary to examine the
difference in the science students’ academic
performance in this zone.
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were generated and
tested;
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
185
1. There is no significant difference between the
academic performance of students in large sized
secondary schools and small sized secondary
schools.
2. There is no significant difference between the
academic performance of students in day
secondary schools and boarding secondary
schools.
3. There is no significant difference between the
academic performance of students from single
(girls) secondary schools and co-educational
secondary schools.
4. There is no significant difference between the
academic performance of students from single
(boys) secondary schools and co-educational
secondary schools.
Research Design
The descriptive research design of survey type was
employed in carrying out this study. The research is
non-experimental and therefore variables were not
manipulated. This makes descriptive survey suitable
for this study.
Population
The population of the study consisted of all Basic
science students in public secondary schools in Ondo
State, Nigeria, who are in the second years of the
study (JSS2). They are made up of boys and girls from
day, boarding,co-educational and single-sex public
secondary schools in the State.
Sample and Sampling Techniques
The sample for this study will consist of 240 Junior
Secondary School II Basic Science students randomly
selected from three local governments in Ondo State,
Nigeria through multistage, purposive and stratified
random sampling techniques.The first stage involved
the selection of one local government each from the
three senatorial districts in the state through simple
random sampling. Forty students were randomly
selected from six schools, thus, a total of 240 students
participated in study.
Research Instrument
A self-designed questionnaire called School Variable
Questionnaire (SVQ) was used for this study. Part A
was designed to collect information on background
characteristics of respondents. Part B consisted items
on environmental and psychological traits. The
methods used in validating the instrument were face
and content validity. Expert judgments were used to
determine both. A test-retest reliability of the
instrument was carried out on 40 junior secondary
schools two students who were not part of the
sample. The scores obtained from the two
administrations of the questionnaire within an
interval of two weeks were correlated by using
Pearson Product Moment Correlation. A reliability
coefficient of 0.72 was obtained. The instrument was
found to be suitable for data collection.Copies of the
questionnaire were distributed by the researcher and
school counselors to a sample of 240 students in six
schools. Copies of the questionnaire were collected
back immediately after completion. The end of the
session results were collected from the principal of
the schools. The data generated were analyzed using
t-test for the hypotheses. The hypotheses were tested
at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
H1: There is no significant difference between
academic performance of students from large sized
schools and students from small sized schools.
In testing this hypothesis, the mean total score and
standard error obtained on academic performance of
students from large sized schoolsand those from
small sized were subjected to t-test analysis at 0.05
level of significance.
Table 1: The t-test showing academic performance of students from large sized and small sized schools in
Ondo State.
Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table Result Large sized school Small sized school
140 100
23.89 24.59
3.28 3.16
238
2.724
1.96
Significant at p<0.05
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
186
Table 1 shows that the mean score of respondents
from large sized schools is 23.89 with standard
deviation of 3.28, while the mean score of
respondents from small sized schools is 24.59 with
standard deviation of 3.16. The t-calculated is 2.724
while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated is
greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
H2: There is no significant difference between
academic performance of students from day schools
and boarding secondary schools.
In testing this hypothesis, the mean total score and
standard errors obtained on the academic
performance of students from day schools and those
from boarding schools were subjected to t-test
analysis at 0.05 level of significance.
Table 2: The t-test showing academic performance of students from day schools and boardingsecondary schools in
Ondo State.
Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-tab Result
Day Schools
Boarding Schools
130
110
13.63
27.33
16.24
10.40
238
4.39
1.96
Significant at p<0.05
Table 2 shows that the mean score of respondents
from day schools is 13.63with standard deviation of
16.24, while the mean score of respondents from
boarding school is 27.33 with standard deviation of
10.40. The t-calculated is 4.39 while the table value is
1.96. .Thus, the t-calculated is greater than t-table
value, and therefore, the null-hypothesis is rejected.
This implies that there is a significant difference
between academic performance of students from the
day schools and boarding schools in Ondo State.
H3: There is no significant difference between
academic performance of students from single (girls)
schools and students from co-educational schools.
In testing this hypothesis, the mean total score and
standard error obtained on academic performance of
students from single (girls) schools and those from
co-educational schools were subjected to t-test
analysis at 0.05 level of significance.
Table 3: The t-test showing academic performance of students from single (girls) and co-educational schools in
Ondo State.
Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table result
Single(girls) school
Co-educational schools
90
150
39.43
32.50
13.04
15.11
238
2.18
1.96
Significant at p<0.05
Table 3 shows that the mean score of respondents from single(girls) schools is 39.43with standard deviation of 13.04, while the mean score of respondents from co-educational schools is 32.50with standard deviation of 15.11. The t-calculated is 2.18 while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated is greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is significant difference between academic performance of students from single (girls) schools and co-educational schools.
H4: There is no significant difference between
academic performance of students from single (boys)
schools and students from co-educational schools.
In testing this hypothesis, the mean total score and
standard error obtained on academic performance of
students from single (boys) schools and those from
co-educational schools were subjected to t-test
analysis at 0.05 level of significance.
Table 4: The t-test showing academic performance of students from single(boys) and co-educational schools in
Ondo State.
Variables N Mean SD df t-cal t-table Result Single(boys)schools Co-educational schools
100 140
24.59 23.89
3.16 3.28
238
2.724
1.96
Significant at p<0.05
Table 4 shows that the mean score of respondents
from single (boys) schools is 24.59 with standard
deviation of 3.16, while the mean score of
respondents from co-educational schools is 23.89
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
187
with standard deviation of 3.28. The t-calculated is
2.724 while the t-table is 1.96. Thus the t-calculated
is greater than the t-table value; therefore, the null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there is
significant difference between academic performance
of students from single (boys) schools and co-
educational schools.
Discussion
The finding of the study revealed in hypothesis1 that
there is significant difference between academic
performance of students from large sized schools and
small sized schools. This can be traced to the fact and
findings of Boekaerts and Corno (2009) who shared
the view that school size determines attentions by
teachers and more concentration by students. Also
students’ interest and ability in science is a function
of the cognitive, affective and features of the
environment and school size.The study also revealed
in hypothesis 2 that there is a significant difference
between academic performance of students from the
day schools and boarding schools in Ondo State.This
is in accordance to the submission of Cardak and
Vecci (2013) who stated that students that attend
boarding schools where they are exposed to
simulative environments and under close supervision
of teachers and the principals with motivating
facilities tend to perform better than other
counterparts who may not have adequate attention of
their parents. This was also supported by Emunemu
and Adu (2014) who share the opinion that higher
academic performance in boarding schools are
attributed to some factors already stated in the study
which day schools are deprived of, due to lack of
adequate funding which hinder academic
performance. It was therefore; found from the study
that boarding schools perform better in Basic Science
than day schools in Ondo state.
The study also revealed in hypothesis 3 that there is
significant difference between academic performance
of students from single (girls) schools and co-
educational schools. This can be traced to the facts
and finding of Ekundayo (2013) who shared the view
that performance is largely affected by a range of
statistical indicators including the student-staff ratio,
qualifications and the school environment where the
girls are not distracted by their opposite sex,
therefore concentrate better in Science learning and
relate better with same sex.The study further
revealed that there is significant difference between
academic performance of students from single (boys)
schools and co-educational schools. This can be
traced to the facts and finding ofAkinloye and Adu
(2015), they pointed out many other factors that
determined and have positive or negative impacts on
academic performance of students in large, small,
day, boarding, single or co-educational secondary
schools, include teaching equipment and facilities,
method of teaching, learning environment where the
boys are not distracted by their opposite sex,
therefore concentrate better in Science learning and
relate better with same sex.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it could be
concluded that students in the small sized schools
perform better in Basic Science than their
counterparts in large sized schools based on
population which may result in overcrowding in large
schools and better concentration in small sized
schools. It could also be concluded from the study
that students in boarding schools are better in Basic
Science due to facilities, better supervision by
teachers and principals. In addition, it was revealed
from the study that students in single schools
perform better due to non-distraction by the opposite
sex and ability to relate better with same sex.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the researcher considers the
following recommendations necessary:
1. Government should provide adequate facilities
especially classroom in large sized schools to
cater for overcrowding so that enough attention
is given to students for conducive and
motivational environment.
2. Government should organize orientation programs
to sensitize all students on gender equity and
positive effects of interaction between different
genderfor effective performance.
3. Government should introduce and encourage most
academic activities in boarding schools to day
schools especially extra moral classes.
4. Teachers in this state of study should be
encouraged with attractive enumerations and
packages for their serious involvements in
teaching in order to enhance dedication of
teachers and students motivation.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
188
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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TWO VARIANTS OF COOPERATIVE STRATEGY AS DETERMINANTS OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’
LEARNING OUTCOMES IN SOCIAL STUDIES IN EKITI STATE, NIGERIA
1Ajitoni S. O. and 2Ogunjemilua A. A. 1Department of Arts and Social Science Education
University of Ibadan 2Department of Social Studies
College of Education, Ikere Ekiti
Abstract
Social Studies is taught in junior secondary school to equip learners with knowledge and skills to tackle problems in the society through concepts of togetherness, comradeship, cooperation, among others for individual and national development. The poor application of Social Studies knowledge, and skills, has led to the gradual erosion of those values among youths. To correct this, earlier studies focused largely on the inculcation of knowledge in Social Studies using various strategies but neglected the life skill acquisition aspect. This study, therefore, determined the effects of two variants of cooperative strategy (Jigsaw and Group Investigation) on students’ learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The moderating effects of academic ability was also examined. The social interdependence theory provided the framework, while the pretest-posttest control group quasi-experimental design was adopted using a 3x3 factorial matrix. Participants were 349 junior secondary two students (174 male and 175 female). Treatment were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. Instruments used were Social Studies achievement (r=0.79), Academic ability (r=0.78) tests, Life skills assessment (r=0.84) scale and instructional guides. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, Analysis of covariance and Bonferroni post-hoc test at 0.05 level of significance.There were significant effects of treatment on students’ achievement in (F(2,331)=11.01, partial η2=0.06), attitude to (F(2,331)=6.40, partial η2=0.02) and life skills (F(2,331)=7.60, partial η2=0.04) in Social Studies. Academic ability had a significant main effect on life skills (F(2,331)=3.36, partial η2=0.02).Treatment and academic ability was significant on life skills (F(2,331)=3.13, partial η2=0.04), but not on achievement. Group investigation and jigsaw strategies were effective in improving students’ achievement, attitude and acquisition of life skills in Social Studies in Ekiti State, Nigeria. These strategies should be adopted by Social Studies teachers.
Keywords: Jigsaw and group investigation strategies, Achievement, Life skills, Ekiti state, Nigeria
Introduction
Social Studies occupies an important position in the
school curriculum because the subject has been
recognised as an effective tool for citizenship
education in Nigeria. It is also a subject that equips
the learners with critical thinking and problem
solving skills which enable them to tackle problems
and issues that may arise in their socio-economic life.
When students offer Social Studies, they draw on
thinking skills and knowledge from the entire school
curriculum as they construct an understanding of
their social world and seek to solve the problems it
presents. As a result of this, the Federal Ministry of
Education (FME) in Nigeria categorised Social Studies
as one of the core subjects in junior secondary school
curriculum as encapsulated in the National Policy on
Education (FGN, 2013).
The objectives of Social Studies education are in line
with the philosophy and aims of Nigerian Education.
The philosophy and aims are on the development of
high competencies required for solving human’s
diverse environmental problems for better and
effective social living. Specifically, the three major
relationships which exist between human beings and
their environment in order to bring about positive
acceptable values within the society. The teaching of
Social Studies is therefore, directed towards building
a virile Nigeria nation which will forge unity
irrespective of ethnic diversity. It is also directed
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towards promoting citizenship and values education
in addition to skills development (Adeyemi and
Ajibade, 2011). To develop in students’ positive
attitude of togetherness, comradeship, and
cooperation towards a healthy nation, the inculcation
of appropriate values of honesty, integrity, hard
work, fairness and justice at work and play as one’s
contribution to the development of the national goals
(Adaralegbe, 1980). These virtues were said to be
essential in making citizens capable of contributing to
the “building of a free and democratic society, a just
and egalitarian society; a great and dynamic
economy; and a land of bright opportunities for all
citizens (FGN, 2013). This is in line with the national
goals and aspirations in Education. The above virtues
are essential for national development and they are
all embedded in Social Studies.
As noted by Akpochafo, (2001), in spite of the
immense benefits to be derived from the inclusion of
Social Studies in the school curriculum, there seems
to be a poor handling of the subject in the secondary
schools. Abdu-Raheem (2011) observed that the
objectives of Social Studies are yet to be achieved as a
result of poor teaching and lack or inadequacy of
instructional materials to motivate students. The
researcher also observed that performance of
students in relation to Social Studies objectives is
found to be very low most especially ability of
students to process information adequately without
bias in order to be able to solve problem of the
society. Also it has been observed that the teaching of
Social Studies is one of the reasons the society is still
bedevilled by indiscipline and social vices. Such vices
as excessive materialism leading to armed robbery,
smuggling, lack of respect for constituted authority
and elders, impersonation, corruption, laziness and
irresponsibility by holders of public office among
others, are common occurrences in the country. Most
Social Studies classes are structured around a
textbook. Social Studies teachers have traditionally
relied on large group instruction, independent seat-
work, and objective tests as their principal methods
of instruction (Slavin, 1991). In other words, Social
Studies teachers use mostly the lecture method for
imparting knowledge. Under the lecture method, the
teacher, simply becomes a master that provide and
transfer information in the classroom, while the
learner becomes a mere listener without actively
being involved in the process of teaching and
learning. Thus, in order for Social Studies to perform
its function properly, instructional strategies must be
centered on methods that teach a student to seek the
truth.
In preparing the young people for life, it was found
that it was not just enough to fill them with
knowledge according to UNICEF (1997), there is need
to equip them with psycho-social competences that
would enable them make informed choices and
decisions, solve problems, think critically, build
healthy relationships and manage their life in a
healthy and productive manner (KIE, 2008).To equip
the youth with these psycho-social competences
researchers like Amiran (2012) and Powell (2004)
recommended the introduction of life skills education
in the curriculum. Life skills are abilities for adaptive
and positive behaviour that enable us to deal
effectively with the demands and challenges of
everyday life (WHO, 1997), in other words they emp
psychosocial competency. They are a set of human
skills acquired via teaching or direct experience that
are used to handle problems commonly encountered
in daily human life. UNICEF (2004) has expanded the
concept and defines life skills as a large group of
psycho-social and interpersonal skills, which can help
young people, make informed decisions,
communicate effectively, and develop coping and
self-management skills. UNICEF (2004) further
explains that; life skills are not a domain or a subject,
but cross cutting applications of knowledge, values,
attitudes and skills, which are important in the
process of individual development and lifelong
learning. They are not just a set of skills, nor are they
equal to survival skills, livelihood skills, or vocational
skills but part of these skills. According to UNESCO
(2008) life skills are both concrete and abstract. The
concrete skills can be learned directly as a subject.
For example, a learner can take a course in laying
bricks, carpentry or baking and learn that skill. The
others are abstract, psycho-social life skills such as
self-confidence, self-esteem and skills for relating to
others or thinking critically.
WHO (1997) list 10 core psychosocial life skills that
should be acquired in the context of fulfilling the
basic rights of children. They are: decision making,
problem solving, creative thinking/lateral thinking,
critical thinking/ perspicacity, effective
communication, interpersonal relationships, self-
awareness/ mindfulness, assertiveness, empathy,
equanimity, coping with stress, trauma and loss and
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resilience. The 10 life skills are anchored on
UNESCO’s four pillars of learning: learning to know,
do, live together and be (Maclong-Vicencio, 2010).
For this study, decision making, problem solving,
critical thinking, effective communication,
interpersonal relationships, self-awareness and
coping with stress skills were investigated. These 7
skills out of the 10 skills were selected because these
skills are about the thinking processes and
behaviours students will use as they learn Social
Studies contents and work with others to deepen
their understanding of the contents. The 7 skills are
not only contributing to a well-prepared workforce of
the future but also give all individuals life skills that
help them succeed (NSTA, 2011).
The researcher observes that inappropriate
strategies of disseminating Social Studies contents at
all levels could be the major cause of vices such as
political thuggery, election manipulation and rigging,
robbery and acts of vandalism. The purpose of Social
Studies is defeated if it becomes too formal and
largely descriptive rather than informal and
analytical, an experience that could give students
opportunities to gain insight into the sources of and
reasons for things around them. The ultimate goal of
Social Studies is to nurture in learners’ good
citizenship with full emphasis on the development of
those rational habits of mind and humane attitude
that should enable individual learner make informed
decisions about social and personal matters (Osho,
1986). This however, will depend largely on the
teacher’s ability to set specific objectives, harness
resources and employ effective strategies for
teaching.
The development of skills required for making Social
Studies contents relevant to the growth and
development of both the individual and the society
calls for appropriate strategies and most importantly,
strategies to ensure its effective teaching. Such
pedagogy is characterised by a facilitative and
conversational approach. This type of approach can
improve students' communication skills, academic
achievements, improve life skills such as problem
solving and critical thinking and intellectual
development. It can create a cooperative learning
environment and lead to a more positive self-concept
(Davies, 2011). The majority of teachers interviewed
in several studies revealed that learners need to get
involved in taking action that makes a difference to
others. They need to experience being part of the
solution rather than remaining passive observers and
listeners. They need to know and understand that
values are only realised when they are reflected in
one's actions. This can be achieved if the schools
provide opportunities for students to develop skills
by using structures and practices that support
learner centred learning strategy such as cooperative
learning (Stronge, Ward, and Grant, 2011, Adeyemi,
Boikhutso and Moffat, 2003).
Therefore, it is clear that new strategies are needed
to provide a much better understanding and
retention of Social Studies concepts, attitude and
development of life skills. Cooperative learning is
such a strategy that is an important part of today's
education. Kagan (1994) and Parchment (2009)
contended that one of the highest goals of education
is to provide students with the experience that will
allow them to structure their own future social and
physical environments in positive ways, including
their own continuing education. Over several decades
the discussion and research on cooperative learning
(CL) in the classroom and its effects on the
pedagogical and cognitive development of students
have been extensive (Parchment, 2009). It has been
concluded from a great deal of research related to the
cooperative learning strategy, that it is more effective
in enhancing learning outcomes compared to those
achieved by peers in classes with the traditional
instructional strategy (Kincal, Ergul and Timur, 2007;
Gok, Dogan, Doymu§ and Karagop, 2009). In
forefronts of this strategy is; Learning Together,
Student Teams, Group Investigation, Let's Ask and
Learn Together, Jigsaw and Reading-Writing-
Presentation (Doymu§, §im§ek and §im§ek, 2005).
Understanding what cooperative learning is and
which strategy to use and when to use it is critical in
order to maximize students’ potential and academic
success. This study examined the quantitative
difference in achievement, attitude and life skills in
two strategies of cooperative learning, jigsaw and
group investigation (GI).
Jigsaw is a research-based cooperative learning
strategy developed by Elliot Aronson in 1971. In this
strategy, the class is divided into heterogeneous
groups to work on small problems that the group
collates into a final outcome (Lestik and Plous, 2012).
For instance, an in-class activity is divided into topics.
Students are then split into groups with one member
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assigned to each topic. Working individually, each
student learns about their topic and presents it to
their group. Next, students gather into their groups.
Each member presents again to the topic group. In
same-topic groups, students reconcile points of view
and synthesise information. They create a final
report. Finally, the original groups reconvene and
listen to presentations from each member. The final
presentations provide all group members with an
understanding of their own material, as well as the
findings that have emerged from topic-specific group
discussion (Aronson, 2012). Within this cooperative
paradigm the teacher learns to be a facilitating
resource person, and shares in the learning and
teacher process with the students instead of being
the sole resource. Rather than lecturing to the
students, the teacher facilitates their learning, in that
each student is required to be an active participant
and to be responsible for what s/he learns (Aronson,
2014). According to Francis (2013), the strategy
leads to students being tolerant of diverse
viewpoints, to consider others’ thoughts and feelings
in depth, and seek more support and clarification of
others’ positions, irrespective of the ethnic or
religious background and gender of other person.
Jigsaw provided the field of education with various
sub-Jigsaw strategies by the alterations in practice.
There are different versions of Jigsaw strategy
available; Jigsaw I (Aronson et al., 1978), Jigsaw II
(Slavin, 1986), Jigsaw III (Stahl, 1994), Jigsaw IV
(Holliday, 1995), Reverse Jigsaw (Hedeen, 2003) and
Subject jigsaw (Doymus, 2007). Jigsaw and Jigsaw II
differ from each other only in that Jigsaw II allows
group competition. The same is valid for Jigsaw III,
too. However, it is different from Jigsaw I and II since
the process in it is evaluated by forms. Later, Jigsaw
IV was developed by Holliday in 2000. Its difference
from Jigsaw I, II, and III is that some quizzes are given
to students in order to check the learning in expert
and home groups which includes re-teaching missing
parts in the subject at the last step and the parts of
the units which are not taught are added to the
process of instruction again. The reverse jigsaw
strategy also resembles the original jigsaw strategy in
some way but has its own objectives to be fulfilled.
While the jigsaw strategy I, II, III and IV focus on the
student’s comprehension of the instructor’s material,
the reverse jigsaw strategy focuses on the
participant’s interpretations such as perceptions,
judgements through a very active discussion. This
strategy was mainly created to cater for the higher
class students. The subject jigsaw strategy follows the
same jigsaw stages but with some differences of
practices. The uniqueness of this variant to others, is
that after the evaluation processes, the students who
were found to have deficiencies regarding the topics
were allowed to be sent to their groups to cover their
deficiencies. Thus allow re-studied and correction of
their deficiencies in their groups. After the re-studied
the groups were given an examination again together
with their peers regarding the sub-heading in which
they were weak. Following this, individual
evaluations were done. Subject jigsaw strategy also
allowed mixed ability that is it permits
heterogeneous grouping. In this study, Subject Jigsaw
strategy was used.
Researchers have found jigsaw strategy to be
effective at enhancing students’ cognitive, affective
and psychomotor domains. Shan-Ying (2014) found
that jigsaw cooperative learning strategy benefits
students’ academic achievement and knowledge
retention in terms of the increase in mean scores and
the decrease in standard deviation of scores in
Economics. Oguzhan (2014) study revealed a
significant difference in the students in jigsaw group
and control groups in terms of achievement after the
application of the strategy. Mbacho and Changeiywo
(2013) study showed that there is no statistically
significant gender difference in mathematics
achievement when students are taught using jigsaw
cooperative learning strategy. Maxfield (2011) Jigsaw
had a significantly effect on student problem-solving
skills. Garcha and Kumar (2015) found that students
taught using cooperative learning (Jigsaw strategy)
on critical thinking dispositions of secondary school
students achieved significantly higher critical
thinking dispo-sitions as compared to traditional
method.
Francis (2013) observed that when compared with
direct teaching strategy, jigsaw has several benefits
or advantages. First and foremost, most teachers find
jigsaw easy to learn because teacher is not the sole
provider of knowledge which makes most teachers
enjoy working with it because it can be used with
other teaching strategies. However, Francis (2013)
adds that there can be some obstacles when using the
jigsaw strategy. One common problem is student
dominance. In order to reduce this problem, each
jigsaw group has an appointed leader. Students
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realise that the group is more effective if each student
is allowed to present one’s own material before
questions and comments are made. Dominance will
be eventually reduced because students will realize it
is not in the best interest of the group. Another issue
according to Francis (2013) is that of bright students
becoming bored. Francis (2013) suggested that
bright students should be encouraged to develop the
mindset of a teacher. By being a teacher a boring task
can be changed into an exciting challenge.
One of the most important strategies of learning and
strengthening students' interaction is the Group
Investigation. The popularity of group investigation
in teaching has been beyond the reasonable doubt for
many years (Harmer, 2011). Johnson and Johnson
(1994) defined group investigation as ''a small group
that has two or more individuals who; interact with
each other, are interdependent, define themselves
and are defined by others as belonging to the group,
share norms concerning matters of common interest
and participate in a system of interlocking roles,
influence each other, find the group rewarding, and
pursue common goal.'' In this strategy, the class is
divided into several groups that study in a different
phase of a general issue. The study issue is then
divided into working sections among the members of
the groups. Students pair up the information,
arrangement, analysis, planning and integrate the
data with the students in other groups. In this
strategy, the teacher’s general role is to be the leader
of the class and ensure that students comprehend the
explanations (Knight and Bohlmeyer, 1990; Akgay
and Doymu, 2007) and to make the students aware of
resources that may be helpful while carrying out the
investigation (Ojo, 2015). Studies show that group
investigation develops a host of abilities and skills
which are very important for academic and general
purposes (Caruso and Woolley, 2008). According to
Hansen (2006) working in groups and cooperating
with each other is the best strategy to improve
learning and overall skills. As group investigation
involves many students working together, it might
help decrease students' fear and anxiety in the class.
This strategy according to Harmer (2007) has its own
merits, as follows: it dramatically increases the
number of talking opportunities for each student, as
there are many students in the group, personal
relationships become less problematic and also there
is a greater chance of different opinions and varied
contributions than in pair investigation.
Several studies have been done on the effects of
group investigation strategy on students’ learning
outcomes on different subjects. Tan (2004)
concluded that neither group investigation strategy
and whole-class instruction was found to be more
effective than the other in geography. Parchment
(2009) found that group investigation was more
effective strategy of instruction than jigsaw strategy
and the traditional strategy in living environment
(LE) class in social studies. In another study, Amosun
and Oyakhire (2009) on the effects of graffiti
cooperative learning strategy (GCLS) and group
investigation (GI) on Social Studies achievement
found that there is significant main effect of
treatment on the academic performance of students.
Amosun and Oyakhire (2009) concluded that those
taught with cooperative learning strategies
performed better. Koc, Doymu, Karacop and Slmekl
(2010) revealed that group investigation was
significant on students’ achievement in chemical
kinetics in Chemistry. Şimşek (2012) found that
group investigation strategy has a significant effect
on increasing students' academic knowledge in
citizenship lessons. Saktiyani (2015) found that
group investigation is more effective than direct
instruction to teach speaking in the tenth grade
students.
However, researchers like Othman and Murad
(2015), Payne and Monk-Turner (2006) had
observed that group investigation has few
limitations. It sometimes affects the performance of
the weakest members as those who are good in the
group dominate the tasks carried out (Payne and
Monk-Turner, 2006). Moreover, it could be deduced
that because of the diversity of levels in the same
class, and in the same group as well, students might
become dependent (Hyland, 2006). Some members
may prefer to relax and stay silent”, “some do not like
to investigate” and ''group investigation is a waste of
time as students talk about external things and they
cannot reach any agreement'' (Othman and Murad,
2015). In order to overcome these limitations,
researchers like Hyland (2006) argues that teachers
should monitor and facilitate the communication
among the students of the same group as this would
provide them with the best atmosphere to use their
skills and improve it. Accordingly, Glanz (2004)
states that teachers should be careful not to put top
students with low level ones in the same group as
those with low levels will not participate and
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194
completely depend on others. Moreover, teachers
should always move around the class when students
investigate in groups to encourage all students to
work together and help each other in the same group
(Lush, 2009; Othman and Murad, 2015).
Academic ability level is another moderator variable
in this study. This variable is selected in that jigsaw
and group learning strategies under investigation
possess mixed ability level as one of their features. It
has also been observed that students are not the
same especially at the rate at which values, moral and
skills in Social Studies are being learnt and
developed. This is to say that, there is disparity in the
ability to perform specific skill. Ability level is the
degree of the exhibited capability of a student to
learn and comprehend a concept as well as solve
problems in it (Peterson, 1980; Danjuma, 2015).
According to Olibie and Ezeoba (2014) ability level is
defined in terms of students’ relative achievement of
the curriculum among others in a class. It is often
categorised as low, medium and high ability. In this
study, the participants (students) will be classified
into academic ability levels (low, medium and high)
after the pretest, as measured by the academic ability
test given to the students. According to Ofonime
(2007), students with marks from 0% to 39% will be
grouped as low-level ability level students; those
within 40% to 69% as middle-level ability students
and those with 70% and above as high-level ability
students. According to Danjuma (2015) and Ashilley
(2001), low level ability students are said to be the
group of students who perform poorly in tests and
examinations, are easily distracted, less able to set
about tasks in an organised manner and less able to
control their own basic impulses and their destines.
On the other hand, the high-level ability students
were referred to by Collia (2002) as those students
who did not ascribe their fate to luck or to vagaries of
chance but rather to their own personal decisions
and efforts.
Some authors suggest that prior ability is
significantly related to academic achievement
(DeBerard, Spielmans, and Julka, 2004; Stumpf and
Stanley, 2002). Ayodeji (2009) and Okobiah (2012)
also suggested that differences in low- and high-
achieving students are closely linked to instructional
methods used in delivering the curriculum. Some
studies have also shown that method of instruction
can influence the performances of low achieving
students, (Adesoji, 1992, 2008 and Iroegbu, 1998).
This implies that the students’ ability to understand
social concepts and phenomenon may largely
determine their achievement in a Social Studies
curriculum depending on the method of instructional
delivery. Aiyedun (1992) found that academic
ability influences mathematics achievement. The
result confirms that students with high academic
ability had a mean score which is significantly greater
than that obtained by students with low academic
ability. It is against these background that the
researcher determined two variants of cooperative
strategy as determinants of secondary school
students’ learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti
state, Nigeria. The study also examined the influence
of academic ability on dependent measure.
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses will be tested in the
study at 0.05 level of significance.
Ho1: There is no significant main effect of
treatment on students’
a. achievement in social studies
b. life skills in social studies
Ho2: There is no significant main effects of
academic ability on students’
a. achievement in social studies
b. life skills in social studies
Ho3: There is no significant interaction effects of
treatment and academic ability on students’
a. achievement in social studies
b. life skills in social studies
Scope of the Study
The study covered all Junior Secondary Schools Two
(JS II) in Ekiti State. Three senatorial districts of Ekiti
State were used. Three local government areas were
randomly selected from the three senatorial districts
of Ekiti State. Nine schools were purposively selected
from the three local government areas selected.
Intact class of Junior Secondary School II Social
Studies students in each of the nine schools were
randomly assigned to the experimental groups and
control group. The study focused on two variants of
cooperative instructional strategy as determinants of
students learning outcomes in Social Studies in Ekiti
state, Nigeria. The study focused on four Social
Studies concepts. They are marriage, culture, social
institution, cooperation and social attitude. The study
also determined the moderating effects of gender and
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academic ability on students learning outcomes in
social studies.
Methodology
Research Design
This study adopted the pretest-posttest control group
quasi-experimental design. This is because there was
manipulation of independent variable.
Selection of Participants
Participants comprised Junior Secondary School II
students in Ekiti state. Three local government areas
were randomly selected from the senatorial districts
of Ekiti State. Nine senior secondary schools were
purposively selected. Intact class of Junior Secondary
School II Social Studies students in each of the nine
schools was randomly assigned to the experimental
groups and control group. The choice of JSS II
students is considered more appropriate because the
students would have been exposed to some basic
social concepts in Social Studies curriculum. Besides,
those students would have enough time for the
experiments since they are not preparing for any
examinations.
Criteria for the selection of school
The criteria used for the selection of school is as
follows
i. must be government-owned secondary schools,
co-educational schools, and
ii. availability of Social Studies teachers in JS 2
Selection of Social Studies Concepts for the Study
Concepts selected for this study are based on the
contents of Social Studies approved by the Federal
Ministry of Education (FGN, 2013) and the Nigerian
Education Research and Development Council
(NERDC, 2009) for the revised edition of the themes
for Social Studies. The topics are: Culture and
identity, Cooperation, Social institution and Social
attitudes.
Research Instruments
The followings research instruments were used to
collect data for the study
(1) Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT)
(2) Life Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS)
(3) Academic Ability Test (ABT)
(4) Instructional Guide for Jigsaw Learning
Strategy (IGJLS)
(5) Instructional Guide for Group Investigation
Learning Strategy (IGCILS)
(6) Instructional Guide for Conventional Method
(IGCM)
(7) Evaluation Sheet for Assessing Research
Assistants’ Performance (ESARAP)
Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT): The
instrument was developed by the researcher, and it
consists of two sections. Section A seeks
demographics information of the participants such as
name, school, gender and age. Section B contained 26
multiple choice items with five options A – E which
cut across all the topics that were covered in the
study. The topics are culture and identity,
cooperation, social institutions and social attitudes.
The instrument was designed to measure the
student’s achievement in Social Studies. The test was
scored manually; one mark was awarded for each
correct option and zero for wrong option. This means
that the total mark obtainable is 26. The instrument
was presented to the project supervisor, two
lecturers in the Arts and Social Sciences Education
Depart-ment, University of Ibadan and two lecturers
from the School of Educational Social Studies
Department of the College of Education, Ikere Ekiti
for face and content validity. The test items were
administered on a sample representative of junior
secondary school class two students who are not to
be used for the study to determine the reliability
coefficient. The reliability coefficient was established
using Kuder Richardson (KR 20) which gave 0.79.
Life Skill Assessment Scale (LSAS): The Life Skills
Scale was adapted from the University of Pretoria,
Library Service (2012) Life Skill Assessment Scale.
The instrument was modified by the researcher from
5-point Likert response scale to 4-point and also
some of the items were reconstructed in order to be
suitable for the level of the participants in the study.
The instrument consists of 25 items in the form of
statements in-built on a 4-point Likert response scale
of strongly agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Disagree
(SD) and Disagree (D). It has both positive and
negative items. The 25 test items have been arranged
in such a fashion that the one test item pertaining to
each dimension being measured are arranged one
after the other. The scoring for positive items was
based on 4, 3, 2 and 1 for Strongly Agree, Agree,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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Disagree and Strongly Disagree respectively, which
was reversed for negatively worded items. The Life
Skills Assessment Scale (LSAS) measures five (5)
dimensions of Life Skills as indicated as follows: Self
awareness, effective communication, interpersonal
relationships, creative thinking/critical thinking,
decision making/problem solving, coping with
emotions and coping with stress. The scores obtained
under each dimension represent the level of life skills
in the respective domain and summation of all the
score obtained under each of the five dimensions
would evolve as a global score for life skills. The
instrument was presented to the project supervisor,
two lecturers in the Arts and Social Sciences
Education Department, University of Ibadan and two
lecturers from the School of Educational Social
Studies Department of the College of Education, Ikere
Ekiti for face and content validity. The test items
were administered on a sample representative of
junior secondary school class two students who are
not to be used for the study to determine the
reliability coefficient. The reliability and an internal
consistency of LSAS was determined through
Cronbach alpha which gave 0.84.
Academic Ability Test (AAT): This test was adopted
from the joint publication of New South Wales
Department of Education and Training and Council
for Educational Research (ACER) General Ability
Tests (AGAT) (2007). AAT is a series of tests designed
to assist teachers of students aged seven to sixteen
years (approximately Year 2 to Year 10) in their
assessment of students’ general reasoning ability.
AAT assesses students’ reasoning skills in three
areas: verbal, numerical and abstract (visual) Test.
The test made up of forty (40) items. In the studies
carried out by Adekunle (2005), and Abimbade in
Ehikhamenor (2012), it was observed that this test
has the capacity to discriminate between high and
low ability participants. The maximum score a
student can obtain is 100%. Students who score 60%
and above were grouped into high academic level
group; 40% to 59% were assigned to middle ability
level group while students who obtained less than
39% were placed in low academic ability level group.
ACER General Ability Tests (AGAT) was adapted to be
used for the study, the researcher re-validated the
test to ascertain its suitability for the study. The test
items were administered on a sample representative
of junior secondary school class two students who
are not to be used for the study to determine the
reliability coefficient. The reliability coefficient was
established using Kuder Richardson (KR 20) which
gave 0.79.
Methods of Data Analysis
Data collected were analysed using Analysis of
Covariance (ANCOVA) with the pretest scores used as
covariates. The Estimated Marginal Mean (EMM) was
used to determine the magnitude of the mean scores
of the different groups. The Bonferroni Post-hoc was
used to determine the sources of such significant
differences, and graphs were used to interpret
significant interaction effects. All the null hypotheses
were tested at P < .05 level of significance.
Results
Ho1a: There is no significant main effect of
treatments on students’ achievement in Social
Studies
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
197
Table 1: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Post-Achievement by Treatment and Academic Ability
Source Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta
Squared
Corrected Model 1728.724a 9 192.080 12.840 .000 .254
Intercept 11965.914 1 11965.914 799.859 .000 .702
PreAcheivement 1.360 1 1.360 .091 .763 .000
Treatment 441.276 2 220.638 14.749 .000* .080
Academic ability 60.389 2 30.194 2.018 .134 .012
Treatment * Academic ability
40.373 4 10.093 .675 .610 .008
Error 5071.448 339 14.960
Total 147081.000 349
Corrected Total 6800.172 348
* Significant at p≤ 0.05
Table 1 showed that there was a significant main
effect of treatment on students’ achievement in Social
Studies (F(2,339) = 14.749; p≤0.05, partial η2 = 0.080).
The effect is 8.0%. This means that there was a
significant difference in the mean post-achievement
scores of students in Social Studies. Thus, hypothesis
1a was rejected. In order to determine the magnitude
of the significant main effect across treatment groups,
the estimated marginal means of the treatment
groups was carried out and the result is presented in
Table 2
Table 2: Estimated Marginal Means for Post-Achievement by Treatment and Control Group
Treatment Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) 21.39 1.358 18.721 24.064
Group Investigation Strategy
(GIS) 22.33 .394 21.558 23.109
Conventional Strategy (CS) 17.71 .723 16.282 19.128
Table 2 revealed that the students in Group
Investigation Strategy (GIS) treatment Group 2 had
the highest adjusted post-achievement mean score in
Social Studies (22.33), followed by Jigsaw Strategy
(JS) treatment Group 1 (21.39), while the
Conventional Strategy (CS) control Group had the
least adjusted post-achievement mean scores in
Social Studies (17.71. This order can be represented
as GIS > JS > CS.
Table 4.3: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Achievement by Treatment and Control Group
(I) Treatment (J) Treatment
Mean
Difference (I-
J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval for
Difference
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS) -.941 1.416 1.000 -4.348 2.467
Conventional Strategy (CS) 3.687 1.536 .051 -.008 7.383
Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS)
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) .941 1.416 1.000 -2.467 4.348
Conventional Strategy (CS) 4.628* .853 .000 2.577 6.679
Conventional Strategy (CS) Jigsaw Strategy (JS) -3.687 1.536 .051 -7.383 .008
Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS) -4.628* .853 .000 -6.679 -2.577
Table 3 revealed that students exposed to Group
Investigation Strategy (GIS) werenot significantly
different from their counterparts taught using Jigsaw
Strategy (JS) and but significantly different from
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
198
those taught using Conventional Strategy (CS) in their
post-achievement scores in Social Studies.
Furthermore, the students exposed to jigsaw strategy
were not significantly different from those taught
using conventional strategy. This implies that group
investigation strategy was the main sources of
significant differences in treatment.
Ho1b: There is no significant main effect of
treatment on students’ life skills in Social Studies
Table 4: Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) of Post-Life Skills by Treatment and Academic Ability
Source
Type III Sum
of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Partial Eta
Squared
Corrected Model 11830.279a 9 1314.475 17.021 .000 .311
Intercept 16794.210 1 16794.210 217.465 .000 .391
PreLifeSkills 685.668 1 685.668 8.879 .003 .026
Treatment 938.587 2 469.293 6.077 .003* .035
Academic ability 490.288 2 245.144 3.174 .043* .018
Treatment * Academic
ability 1367.259 4 341.815 4.426 .002* .050
Error 26180.025 339 77.227
Total 1616620.000 349
Corrected Total 38010.304 348
a. R Squared = .311 (Adjusted R Squared = .293)
Table 4 showed that there was a significant main
effect of treatment on students’ life skills in Social
Studies (F(2,339) = 6.077; p≤0.05; η2 = 0.035). The
effect size is 3.5%. This means that there was a
significant difference in the mean post-life skills
scores of students in Social Studies. Hence,
hypothesis 1b was rejected. In order to determine the
magnitude of the significant main effect across
treatment groups, the estimated marginal means of
the treatment groups was carried out, and the result
is presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Estimated Marginal Means Post-Attitude by Treatment and Control group
Treatment Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) 70.75 1.636 67.535 73.970
Group Investigation Strategy
(GIS) 70.76 .853 69.082 72.437
Conventional Strategy (CS) 59.46 3.124 53.311 65.602
Table 5 reveals that students in the Group
Investigation Strategy (GIS) treatment Group II had
the highest adjusted post-life skills mean score to
Social Studies (70.76), followed by the Jigsaw
Strategy (JS) treatment Group 1 (70.75), while
students in the Conventional Strategy (CS) control
Group had the least adjusted post-life skills mean
score to Social Studies (59.46). This order can be
represented as GIS > JS > CS.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
199
Table 6: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Attitude by Treatment and Control Group
(I) Treatment (J) Treatment
Mean
Difference (I-
J) Std. Error Sig.b
95% Confidence Interval for
Differenceb
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS) -.007 1.821 1.000 -4.388 4.374
Conventional Strategy
(CS) 11.296* 3.581 .005 2.681 19.911
Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS)
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) .007 1.821 1.000 -4.374 4.388
Conventional Strategy
(CS)
11.303* 3.256 .002 3.470 19.136
Conventional Strategy
(CS)
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) -.007 1.821 1.000 -4.374 4.388
Group Investigation
Strategy (GIS) -11.303* 3.256 .002 -19.136 -3.470
Table 6 reveals that students exposed to Group
Investigation Strategy (GIS) were not significantly
different from their counterparts taught using Jigsaw
Strategy (JS) but significantly different from those
exposed to Conventional Strategy (CS) in their post-
life skills scores in Social Studies. Furthermore, the
students exposed to jigsaw strategy were not
significantly different from those taught using
conventional strategy. This implies that group
investigation strategy was the main sources of
significant differences in treatment.
Ho2a: There is no significant main effect of academic
ability on students’ achievement in Social Studies
Table 1 showed that there was no significant main
effect of academic ability on students’ achievement in
Social Studies (F(2,339) = 2.018 p>.05, partial η2 =
.0112). Therefore, hypothesis 3a was not rejected.
Ho2b: There is no significant main effect of
academic ability on students’ attitude to Social
Studies
Table 4 shows that there was no significant main
effect of academic ability on students’ life skills in
Social Studies (F(2,339) = 2.17, p>05, partial η2 =
0.013). Thus, hypothesis 3b was not rejected
Table 5: Estimated Marginal Means Post-Life Skills by Academic Ability
Academic ability Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Low 66.83 .673 65.501 68.150
Medium 69.98 1.172 67.669 72.282
High 64.17 3.319 57.640 70.695
Table 5 revealed that medium academic ability level
students had the highest adjusted post-life skills
mean score in Social Studies (69.98), followed by low
academic ability level students (66.83), while their
high academic ability level counterparts had the least
adjusted post-life skills mean score in Social Studies
(64.17). This order can be represented as Medium >
Low > High.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
200
Table 7: Bonferroni Post-hoc Analysis of Post-Life Skills by Academic Ability
(I)
Acadenic_ability (J) Acadenic_ability
Mean
Difference (I-
J) Std. Error Sig.
95% Confidence Interval for
Difference
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Low Medium -3.150* 1.362 .064 -6.428 .127
High 2.657 3.383 1.000 -5.482 10.797
Medium Low 3.150* 1.362 .064 -.127 6.428
High 5.808* 3.530 .303 -2.686 14.302
High Low -2.657 3.383 1.000 -10.797 5.482
Medium -5.808* 3.530 .303 -14.302 2.686
Table 6 reveals that medium academic ability level
students were significantly different from their low
and high academic ability levels counterparts in their
post-life skills scores in Social Studies. Furthermore,
the low academic ability level students were not
significantly different from their high academic
ability level counterparts. This implies that medium
academic ability was the main sources of significant
differences in academic ability level.
Ho3a: There is no significant interaction effect of
treatment and academic ability on students’
achievement in Social Studies
Table 1 showed that there was no significant two-
way interaction effect of treatment and academic
ability on students’ achievement in Social Studies
(F(4,339) = 0.675, p>.05, partial η2 = 0.008). Thus, the
null hypothesis 5a was not rejected.
Ho3b: There is no significant interaction effect of
treatment and academic ability on students’ life skills
in Social Studies
Table 4 showed that there was a significant two-way
interaction effect of treatment and academic ability
on students’ life skills in Social Studies (F(4,339) =
4.426, p≤0.05, partial η2 = 0.050). The effect size is
5.0%. Thus, the null hypothesis 3b was rejected. This
implies that treatment and academic ability when
taken together had effect on students’ life skills in
Social Studies. In order to disentangle the interaction
effect, Figure 1 presents the interaction in line graph.
The interaction is disordinal.
Fig. 1: Treatment and Academic Ability on Students’ Life Skills in Social Studies
Discussion
Main Effect of Treatment on Students’
Achievement in Social Studies
The results revealed a significant main effect of
treatment on students’ achievement in Social Studies.
The magnitude of achievement scores in Social
Studies favoured the group investigation learning
group followed by the jigsaw and the conventional
groups. This may be attributed to the fact group
investigation learning and jigsaw strategies allowed
active participation of students, increase their self-
confidence, and developed communication skills. The
result of the effectiveness of group investigation
learning strategy is in support of the assumptions of
social interdependence theory that the way social
0
50
100
Jigsaw Strategy (JS) Group Investigation Strategy (GIS) Conventional Strategy (CS)
Low Medium High
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
201
interdependence is structured determines how
individuals interact, and this in turn determines
outcomes (Susan, 2005). The results on group
investigation learning strategy is in align with
Parchment (2009) who identified group investigation
as the most effective method of instruction in the
teaching of Social Studies. This result is in support of
the findings of Amosun and Oyakhire Larry (2009);
Koc, Doymu, Karacop and Simsek (2010); Mayasari
(2012); Ojo (2015) and Okur-Akgay and Doymu§
(2012) who in their separate studies found that there
was a significant main effect of group learning
strategy on the academic performance of students in
Social Studies, chemical kinetics, writing organization
of analytical exposition text, Biology and general
physics course respectively. The finding of this study
disagreed with Tan (2004); Tan, Sharan, and Lee
(2007) who reported that group investigation was
not more effective than the whole-class method on
eighth-grade geography students in Singapore.
The result of the effectiveness of jigsaw strategy over
the conventional strategy is in support of the
assumptions of social interdependence theory that
positive interdependence was created when group
members take on complementary roles such as
checker, recorder, elaborator, time keeper, reporter
and group leader (Woolfolk, 2010). The result of the
current study lends credence to the findings of Chu
(2014) who found that jigsaw cooperative learning
method benefits students’ academic achievement and
knowledge retention in terms of the increase in mean
scores and the decrease in standard deviation of
scores. The finding is in agreement with the findings
of Sezek (2013) who indicated that jigsaw was more
successful than teacher-centered learningin teaching
classification of invertebrate animals in biology
courses. The results of the effectiveness of jigsaw
strategy disagreed with Gocer (2010) who in his
study found no statistical significant difference
between jigsaw strategy and traditional whole-class
method
The least effectiveness of the conventional strategy
on students’ achievement score in Social Studies as
compared with the other treatment groups may not
be unconnected with the fact that the strategy is
teacher-centred and where students were not
actively involved in the learning process but only
listen to the teacher as he or she delivers the content
of his/her prepared lesson note. This supports the
assertion of Ajitoni (2005) who referred to this
strategy as minimal students’ participation where
teachers’ talk dominated classroom interaction.
Main Effect of Treatment on Students’ Life Skills
in Social Studies
The result revealed that the treatment had significant
main effect on Junior Secondary School students’ life
skills in Social Studies. The result obtained showed
that students exposed to the group investigation
learning strategy obtained the highest life skills mean
scores, followed by the jigsaw strategy and then the
conventional strategy. These findings allude to the
findings of Saktiyani (2015) who indicated that group
investigation is more effective than direct instruction
to teach speaking in the tenth grade students.
Marialuisa and Alessio (2013) who found that co-
operative learning and in particular the group
investigation strategy, can be effective in triggering
positive intercultural sensitivity.
The findings also show that jigsaw strategy was more
effective than conventional strategy. This buttresses
the findings of a number of other studies such as
Maxfield (2011) who found that jigsaw had a
significantly effect on student problem-solving and
critical thinking dispositions respectively.
Main Effect of Academic Ability on Students’
Achievement in Social Studies
Academic ability was found to have no significant
main effect on students’ achievement in Social
Studies. This support the claim of Alant (2004) who
says that students of varying ability levels performed
differently depending on the type of method of
instruction. The findings are in consonance with
those of Danjuma (2015); Olibie and Ezeoba (2014);
Brown (2014) indicated that there was no significant
difference in the academic achievement among low,
medium and high abilities in Physics, Social studies
and Business Education.
Main Effect of Academic Ability on Students’ Life
Skills in Social Studies
Academic ability was found to have a significant main
effect on students’ life skills in Social Studies. It was
observed that medium academic level students had
better life skills scores than their high and low level
counterparts. This implies that the treatment
favoured the medium academic ability group. This
may be attributed the fact that the medium academic
level students cannot put in extra effort to attain
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
202
better achievement. They are, therefore, contented to
remain average. For this reason, they content
themselves with the classroom learning without
trying to access other information (Eledea, 2002;
Awe, 2003). This significant effect of academic ability
on students’ life skills corroborates the findings of
Abdullahi (1995) who found that the academic ability
predicted objective measure of their academic
achievement in Mathematics.
Two-way Interaction Effects of Treatment and
Academic Ability on Students’ Achievement,
Attitude and Life Skills
The result of the findings showed that the interaction
effects of treatment and academic ability had no
significant effect on students’ achievement in Social
Studies while interaction effects of treatment and
academic ability was found to be significant on
students’ attitude to and life skills in Social Studies.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it was established
thatgroup investigation learning and jigsaw
strategies were found to improve students’
achievement, attitude and life skills in Social Studies
as compared with the conventional strategy.It was
also observed that gender has no influence on
students’ achievement and life skills in Social studies,
but has influence on students’ attitude to Social
Studies.Academic ability was found to have no
influence on students’ achievement in and attitude to
Social Studies. Academic ability had effects on
students’ life skills in Social Studies.
Recommendations
View of the findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made
1. In order to improve students’ achievement and
acquisition of life skills in Social Studies teachers
should adopt group investigation and jigsaw
strategies.
2. Academic ability of the students are important
factors that influence students’ achievement and
life skills in Social Studies. It is therefore,
important for teachers to take into cognizance
the effect of those two variables during the
teaching and learning situation in Social Studies.
3. Government should organise a form of re-
training programmes for the in-service and pre-
service teachers in the effective use of group
investigation and jigsaw strategies through
organisation of seminars, workshops, and
conferences for Social Studies teacher at Junior
Secondary School level. This would help them to
effectively apply these two strategies in teaching
of Social Studies especially life skills.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
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RESOURCE AVAILABILITY AND INTERNAL EFFICIENCY OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS
1Ayodele, J. B. and 2Ogbiye, C. A. 1Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti 2Department of Social Science Education,
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti
Abstract
The study investigated resource availability and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State. The research design was descriptive of the survey type. The population of the study comprised all the public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 320 respondents comprising 300 teachers and 20 principals selected using multistage sampling procedure. At the first stage, simple random sampling technique was used to select nine local government areas in Ekiti State. At the second stage, 20 secondary schools were chosen from the selected local government areas using proportional stratified random sampling technique. The third stage involved random selection of 15 teachers from each of the selected schools, and purposive random sampling was used to select the principals of the selected schools. A validated instrument titled ‘Resource Availability Questionnaire (RAQ)’ and an inventory were used for data collection. Data collected were analysed using cohort analysis, simple percentage and frequency count. Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistic was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The findings showed that the level of resource availability was moderate, while the internal efficiency was high in secondary schools in Ekiti State. The study revealed that there was a significant relationship between physical resource availability and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State. Based on the findings, it was recommended that government should ensure adequate provision and equitable distribution of physical resources to schools where resources are not adequately available. Likewise, the schools should make optimal use of the physical resources provided, so as to ensure effective teaching and learning.
Keywords: Cohort analysis, Internal efficiency, Physical resources, Resource availability.
Introduction
Education is a requisite tool for personal and social
development. The recognition and acceptance of
education as the foundation for all forms of
development have gingered individual’s interest and
demand for education. All nations in the world view
education as a veritable investment for national
development and as such invest enormous amount of
time, energy and money in providing qualitative
education for their citizenry. The resultant effect is to
produce the required quantity and quality of human
resources for the economic growth using the right
mix of inputs.
According to Fafunwa (1974), education is the
greatest legacy a society can boast of and the only
powerful instrument for all forms of development. He
explained further that education is the aggregate of
all the processes by which a child or an adult
develops his abilities, attitudes and other forms of
behaviours of positive values to the society in which
he lives. He further noted that government’s
investment in education is anchored on the premise
that the end justifies the means and the principle of
prime beneficiaries.
The availability of educational resources is very
important because of its roles in the achievement of
educational objectives and goals. The extent to which
an educational institution attains her objective could
be related to the educational resources available.
Over the years, there has been increased provision of
educational opportunities and the cumulative effects
of economic and socio-political instability in the
country have necessitated the proper planning of
government investment in education (Ibukun,
Oyetakin & Akinfolarin, 2012). The objectives of
qualitative education are achieved with the provision
of available resources in right quantity and quality
with effective utilisation and management of the
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
205
resources in schools. It is not how much resources
are allocated, but also how well the available
resources are effectively utilised to enhance the
development of education. Educational resources, in
this context, refer to the forms of material resources
such as infrastructures like land, buildings
(classrooms, laboratories, library, and office space for
staff), equipment (markers, chalk, blackboard as well
as overhead projectors.
There is seemingly low productivity of educational
products in spite of the high amount of money vested
on education (Olubor, 2004). Nigerians expect the
secondary school system to be efficient in a way that
a given quantity of output is obtained with minimum
input; but anecdotal observations of secondary
schools’ operation in Nigeria reveal that there are
elements of inefficiency in the system. The system
wastage experienced could imply that the objectives
of secondary education have not been fully met
because students’ desire for achievement and
transition to tertiary institutions has become very
low recently.
It is not a gainsaying that secondary
education is unique in the educational development
of a child, being the link between primary and
tertiary education. The knowledge, skills, values, and
traits which an individual acquires at this stage will
complement those acquired at the primary level and
when these are combined will prepare such an
individual for tertiary education. Just as the physical
and social development of the average child is beset
with many problems, so the development of
education in any given society is hampered by a
variety of problems. In spite of the role of secondary
education, Omoregie (2005) reported that the system
is riddled with crises of various dimensions and
magnitude all of which combine to suggest that it is at
crossroad. An examination of secondary education in
Nigeria reveals the following challenges that are
plaguing it and undermining the achievement of its
objectives, which include inadequate funding,
inadequate and decay infrastructural facilities,
inadequate and low quality teachers, negative
attitudes of teachers, indiscipline of students,
examination malpractices, inappropriate curriculum,
among others.
In an effort to improve access to secondary education
in Nigeria, the Federal Government introduced the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme, the
policy has been revised in 2004 to reflect the
provision of the constitution concerning the basic
education programme of the government, which
seeks to prepare youths for useful life in higher
education and the society. This policy is very
significant towards the realisation of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All
(EFA) goals, because it has over the years raised
student enrolment. However, it did not pay
consideration to the limited resources in schools. The
immediate consequence of which has been a strain
and pressure on the existing resources. A number of
factors have been linked to efficiency in secondary
schools, and one such factor is education resources.
Efficiency is defined as the optimal relation
between inputs into the system and outputs got
from the inputs injected into the system. A system
or an activity is said to be efficient if it can produce
maximum output with a given quantity of input or
a given quantity of output with minimum quantity
of inputs. Efficiency is more concerned about the
inputs and process of production. Efficiency is the
ability to produce the desired effect with minimum
of effort, expense or waste. The criterion of
efficiency demands that, of two alternatives having
the same cost, one might be chosen which will lead
to a greater attainment of the organisational
objectives. It also demands that, of two alternatives
leading to the same degree of attainment, one
might be chosen which entails the lesser cost. On
one hand, efficiency involves the maximisation of
output if inputs are considered as fixed; and on the
other hand, the minimisation of inputs, if outputs
are considered as fixed.
Efficiency could be measured in two ways, which
are external efficiency and internal efficiency.
External efficiency means the extent to which the
educational system meets the broad social,
economic, cultural and political objectives of the
community of which it is a part. External efficiency
compares the costs of education to the benefits of
education that are external to educational
production, such as higher productivity and
earning in post-schooling work. It provides a
measure of the profitability of investment in
education (Babalola, 2003).
Internal efficiency is the relationship between the
outputs and inputs of an education system. The
internally efficient educational system is one,
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
206
which turns out graduates without wasting any
student-year or without dropouts and repeaters
(Akinwumiju, 1995). The inputs of education can
be summarised as teachers, materials, and
buildings and these are all used to transform one
set of outputs such as primary school leavers into
another set of output such as secondary school
graduates (Olubor, 2004). In the words of Ayodele
(2005), internal efficiency of education measures
the extent to which the resources allocated to the
system are being utilised to realise the objectives
for which the system has been established. This
calls for the measurement of the inputs and
outputs of the system; that is, measurement in real
terms in relation to the resource cost of wastage or
in terms of the flow of students through the
system.
The outputs of the educational system are the
graduates from that system. In order to measure
internal efficiency in education, there is need to do a
cohort analysis. The cohort analysis simply tells the
history of a particular level of education to the time
the group of students left the level. As such, it can
show to what extent the educational system is able to
use its raw materials (students) in the production of
output (graduates). In this regard, the cohort analysis
would show the flow rate in the system such as the
promotion rate, repetition rate and the dropout rate
of students. If the system is able to see the students
through the system in the shortest possible period,
then the system is efficient.
It appears that where the resources are adequately
provided, the system may be efficient than where the
resources are not adequately provided. It is against
this background that the study considered it
necessary to examine how resource availability
relates to the internal efficiency of secondary school
education system in Ekiti State.
The following research questions have been raised in
the study:
1. What is the level of resource availability in public
secondary schools in Ekiti State?
2. What is the internal efficiency of public secondary
schools in Ekiti State?
Research Hypothesis
The following research hypothesis has been
formulated in the study:
There is no significant relationship between physical
resource availability and internal efficiency of
secondary schools in Ekiti State.
Methodology
The study adopted the descriptive research design of
survey type. The population of the study consisted
7,387 public secondary school teachers and
principals in Ekiti State. Three hundred and twenty
respondents (comprised of 300 teachers and 20
principals) were drawn from 20 secondary schools in
Ekiti State, using multistage sampling procedure. The
first stage involved the use of simple random
sampling technique to select three Local Government
Areas each from the three senatorial districts. The
second stage involved the use of proportionate
random sampling technique to select 20 public
secondary schools. At the third stage, stratified
sampling technique was used to select 15 teachers
from each of the 20 schools. An inventory and an
instrument titled ‘Resource Availability
Questionnaire (RAQ)’ were used for data collection.
Test-retest method was used to determine the
reliability of the RAQ, and coefficient of 0.78 was
obtained which was considered high enough for
reliability. Cohort analysis was used to analyse the
flow of students for a period of four sessions
(2011/2012—2014/2015) in senior secondary
schools, to determine the internal efficiency of each
school. Data collected were analysed using
descriptive (frequency counts and percentages) and
inferential statistics (Pearson Product Moment
Correlation) was used to test the hypothesis at 0.05
level of significance.
Results
Research question 1: What is the level of resource
availability in public secondary schools in Ekiti State?
Table 1: Level of resource availability in Ekiti State
secondary schools
Levels of resource availability
Frequency Percentage
Low (33.3 – 44.14) 11 3.7 Moderate (44.15 – 87.95) 276 92.0 High (87.96 – 100) 13 4.3
Total 300 100
Table 1 revealed the levels of resource availability, in
public secondary schools in Ekiti State. The result
showed that out of 300 respondents, 11, representing
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
207
3.7%, agreed that there was low level of resource
availability. Those who agreed that resource
availability was at moderate level were 276,
representing 92%, while 13, respondents
representing 4.3%, agreed that there was high level
of resource availability. The foregoing results imply
that the level of resource availability in public
secondary schools in the study area was moderate.
Research question 2: What is the internal efficiency
of public secondary schools in Ekiti State?
Table 2: Internal efficiency in Ekiti State secondary
schools
Wastage ratio Frequency Percentage 2 – 3 (Low internal efficiency)
— —
1.43 – 1.99 (Moderate internal efficiency)
— —
1 – 1.42 (High internal efficiency)
20 20
Total 20 100
Wastage ratio was calculated for each school:
OutputinputIdeal
OutputinputActualratioWastage
/
/
OutputActual
InputActualoutputinputActual /
OutputIdeal
InputIdealoutputinputIdeal /
1001
ratioWastage
EfficiencyoftCoefficien
Table 2 revealed the internal efficiency in public
secondary schools in Ekiti State as measured by the
Wastage Ratio, between 1 and 1.42 (i.e. internal
efficiency between 70% and 100%). The result for
the 20 sampled schools was used to generate the
internal efficiency. This implies that internal
efficiency in public secondary schools in the study
area was high.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship
between physical resource availability and internal
efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti State.
Table 3: Physical resource availability and internal
efficiency
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
Resource
Availability 20 66.05 21.91
0.561* 0.444 Internal
Efficiency
20 89.95 6.13
05.0*
Table 3 showed that r-calculated value of 0.561 is
greater than r-table value of 0.444 at 0.05 level of
significance. The null hypothesis is rejected. This
implies that there was a positive and significant
relationship between physical resource availability
and internal efficiency of secondary schools in Ekiti
State. This implies that a favourable level of resource
availability will enhance the schools’ internal
efficiency.
Discussion
The study revealed that the level of availability of
resources in Ekiti State public secondary schools was
moderate. In other words, the availability of
resources such as classrooms, laboratories, tables,
chairs, staff offices, administrative offices, computers,
printers, generating sets among others were
moderately available. The findings support the
submission Afolabi (2006) that resources were
moderately available in most public secondary
schools in Kwara State and Oyo State, respectively.
The study revealed that the level of internal efficiency
in Ekiti State secondary schools was high. The
observed cause of this was that most schools in Ekiti
State had low repetition rate, low dropout rate and
high progression rate. The progression rate increased
steadily throughout the four sessions considered in
this study. This may be due to the increased efforts of
the present administration to revive the education
industry in the State.
The study revealed that there was significant
relationship between physical resource availability
and internal efficiency. The reason for this outcome
might be due to the fact that physical resources, if
adequately available, would enhance internal
efficiency. This seems to be in line and consistent
with the submission of Sowunmi (2018) who found
out that school variables contributed significantly to
the internal efficiency of secondary schools in Oyo
State. Likewise, Yang (2014) found out that a positive
relationship existed between physical resource
availability and internal efficiency, because physical
resources have positive impact on the comfort and
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
208
safety of students. It could therefore be inferred from
the foregoing that when physical resources are
adequately available, it will improve the internal
efficiency of the schools.
Conclusion and Recommendations
From the findings of this study, it can be concluded
that physical resource availability is critical to the
internal efficiency of secondary schools. Based on the
findings of this study, the following
recommendations were made:
1. Government should ensure adequate provision
and equitable distribution of physical resources to
schools where resources are not adequately
available.
2. Principals should mandate all teachers to make
use of available resources in teaching and learning
processes.
3. The school authorities should make optimum use
of the physical resources provided, so as to
improve the internal efficiency of the secondary
schools.
References
Afolabi, R. A. (2006). Relationship between school
facilities and internal efficiency of public and
private secondary schools in Ogbomoso
metropolis of Oyo State. Unpublished M.Ed.
Thesis, University of Ilorin.
Akinwumiju, J. A. (1995). Educational planning:
Statistics and models. Ibadan: Centre for External
Studies. 108-116.
Ayodele, J. B. (2005). Fundamentals of systems
analysis in education. Lagos: Bolabay
Publications.
Babalola, J. B. (2003). Fundamentals of economics of
education. Education Series. Department of
Educational Management, University of Ibadan,
Ibadan.
Fafunwa, A. B. (1974). History of education in Nigeria.
Ibadan: NPS Educational Publisher Ltd.
Ibukun, W. O., Oyetakin, A. I., & Akinfolarin, C. A.
(2012). Impact of human resource and
utilisation on the academic performance of
students in Ondo State secondary schools. Global
Journal of Management and Business Research,
12(1), 115-121.
Olubor, R. O. (2004). A comparative analysis of the
internal efficiency of public junior secondary
education of two selected states in Nigeria.
Journal of Educational Foundations and
Management (JEFAM), 4(1), 194-196.
Omoregie, N. (2005). Re-packaging secondary
education in Nigeria for great and dynamic
economy. Paper presented at the 2nd Annual
National Conference of Association for
Encouraging Qualitative Education in Nigeria
(ASSEQEN). 9th-11th May.
Sowunmi, G. (2018). School production variables and
internal efficiency of public and private junior
secondary schools in Oyo State. Afro Asian
Journal of Social Sciences, 8(2), 1-11.
Yang, K. (2014). Factors affecting internal efficiency of
primary schools in Nuer Zone Gambella Regional
State, Ethiopia. Unpublished M.A. Thesis,
Department of Educational Planning and
Management, Jimma University, Ethiopia.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
209
TOWARDS EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT OF COMMON GOOD IN NIGERIA
Afariogun A. and Ayeni, C.F. Department of Educational Administration and Planning,
Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo.
Abstract
Nigeria is currently facing challenges in regard to management and administration of common good, use of natural resources and sustainability. With growing population, and an increasingly more intensive and extensive use of natural resources, human activity has immensely transformed the environment and in numerous cases had negative effects, which have reached an unprecedented level. In every moment of our lives, we use the resources that nature provides. We breathe air that encircles our earth. We depend on nature to supply all our basics needs of air, food, water, shelter, warmth, energy yet few of us consciously acknowledge these gifts or think about the price nature pays for such generosity. More worrisome is the fact that some persons tend to monopolize the natural resources. As a matter of fact, every citizen must realize that the natural resources are for the common good. As such, it is the duty of all to preserve the natural resources so that we will in turn promote the common good. This paper therefore, ex-rays the administration and management of common good in Nigeria, the paper explains the concept of administration and management, the concept of common good, benefits of common good, abuses of common good and societal values of common good. It also exposes the role of educational administration in the management of common good.
Key Words: Education, Administration, Management, Common good, Nigeria.
Introduction
In Nigeria, there are those who believe that their
participation or otherwise in promoting the common
good is inconsiquential.
One area where most of us can be seen actually blind,
especially in Nigeria, is in the area of our
responsibility towards the promotion of the common
good. Common Good is about all that is neccesary for
individual, families, groups, the facilities and
structures that will aid them in fulfuling their goals.
These include: food, water, housing and light; a
stable, peaceful and participatory political order; a
just and equiptable economic order; avaliability of
basic amenities and social services; provision of
qualitative education for our children affordable
health care services; employment and protection of
life and property; respect for human life and
protection of privacy, developement of spiritual and
temporal goods for the societies and so on. These are
obligations and duties that we all have to promote for
the sake of humanity.
The Concept of Common Good
Common good is something belonging to or serving
the community, (Merriam Webster's Dictionary,
2007). Common good cannot be defined in isolation
but in cognizance of the human person, in close
relationship to fellow human beings, owning certain
things in common and working for the good of each
other as a closer bonds of human interdependance.
According to Peschke (2004), The common goods is
the sum of those conditions of social living whereby
men are enable more readily and more fully to
achieve their perfection and appointed ends. As a
technical term, common good implies those things we
share relatively equally small as schools, hospitals,
social centers, town hall, social services, energy
supply, road networks, water supply, the legal order,
right to fair hearing, and so on. The Common Good is
about how we as a society balance the needs of all, for
the benefit of all. It requires respecting and
protecting fundamental rights; promoting spiritual
and temporal prosperity; and maintaining peace and
security. It is not about just making sure people in
society can exist or survive, it is about creating
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
210
circumstances that allow people to thrive. Thus the
call to create and support a society that improves the
conditions of human life for all. Fresh water, for
instance, is a benefit that is, is a good. Not only is used
to maintain life but it is also critical in agriculture,
ranching, manufacturing, healthy ecosystems,
transportation, and even, recreation. Each of these is
also a good. But the common good is not just the
maximization of each they can sometimes conflict
with each other. Rather, it balances them for the
greatest benefit. People must have enough-water to
drink, farmers must maintain their crops and goods
must move via navigable water. As a society, we
balance the various goods through public policy.
Since they sometimes compete with each other, some
goods or benefits may have to be partially sacrificed
not all can always be maximized. Again, people must
be the highest priority.
The Concept of Management and Admini-stration
This concept, management, may be adopted to refer
to any of these phenomena. The layman, especially in
Nigeria, adopts the term to refer to utilization of
inadequate resources to attain set goals. It is in this
sense that a person may say for instance, that amount
you have given me will not be enough for the
purchases but, I will manage it.
The concept, management, has also been perceived as
a process. It is in this sense that management has
been perceived as a distinct process which comprises
planning, organizing, controlling and to determine
and accomplish an objective by the use of people and
resources. Central to this perception of management
is its recognition as a process of leadership in which
the leader controls human and non-human resources
for the purpose of attainment of set goals in an
organization, in this case, in Nigeria or government
setting. If there is anything that is needed in every
aspect of life, it is adequate management. As a matter
of fact, from the rising up from bed to going back to
bed, we require proper co-ordination (Management)
of our time, money, health, and other available
resources to achieve a meaningful result.
Management simply put, means, to deal with, control,
use money, time, information or wisdom. On the
other hand, the Merriam Webster's Dictionary (2007)
defines Administration as the act of organizing the
way that something is done.
From this understanding, one can infer that
management and administration of common good is
all about harnessing both human and non-human
resources in order to achieve the goals of the country
and its citizens.
Types of Common Good
The creation of wealth by productive action is
blessed by God and praised by humanity, as both a
right and a duty. When properly organized and
respectful of the humanity of the worker, work
therefore become a source of fulfillment and
satisfaction and hence type of common good.
However, there are other types of common good that
are discussed in this paper.
Every group must take into account the needs and
legitimate aspirations of every other group, and still
more of the human family as a whole. The common
good therefore involves all members of society, no
one is exempted from Cooperating, according to each
one's possibilities, in attaining it and developing it.
Politics in Nigeria: In fact, the main reason for the
existence of political community, according to
Catholic Social Teaching (2014), is to defend and
promote the common good. Public authorities are
bound to respect the fundamental and inalienable
rights of the human person, permitting each of its
members to fulfill his duties. All people have the right
to enjoy the conditions of social life that are brought
about by the quest for the common good. Issues of
education health, sport, recreational facilities evenly
distributed, good transport system and road, and so
on are common goods that politics should bring
about. Scripture tells us that Christians are supposed
to be in the world, but not of the world. For too long,
the question of faith in public life has centred on what
the Bible says about government. Christians across
the spectrum have soured on religious involvement
in politics, tempted either to withdraw or to
secularize their public engagement. Yet the kingdom
of God is clearly concerned with justice and
communal well-being. How can Christians or muslims
be active in public life without getting mired down in
political polarization and controversy? Unfortunately,
in Nigeria. our experience has not been a good one,
Imposition of candidates and persons on the
populace, over-bearing sit-tight on the throne, tribal
imposition on important political officers by a tribe
or section against the others in the country.
Enthronement of one party rule; selections instead of
election, and so on have characterized our politics. All
these have resulted in the low status or politicians in
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
211
public estimation, which is neither justified by the
evidence nor good for the health of democracy.
Politics is an honourable vocation, which often exacts
great personal cost form those engaged in it, and
from their families. The fact that some politicians
from time to time fall short of the highest standards
is not ground for dismissing the whole class as
unworthy of respect. It is not ignoble to want a
successful political career, nor dishonourable for
politicians to seek political power. At the same time
politicians must be careful not to use, or to appear to
use, their privileged position for personal gain. Those
politicians who have, by their behaviour, contributed
to a climate of distrust must bear some considerable
responsibility. Part of the responsibility must also lie
with the highly partisan quality of public political
debate, where it has become almost customary to
attribute the worst motives to one's political
opponents. Politicians of one party should 'show
more respect towards those of other parties. In this
way the political common good will be promoted and
protected.
Environmental common good: Environment is one
of the 'common goods which are the shared
responsibility of the human race. We have to reject
some of the easy assumptions of an earlier stage of
industrialization, such as that the human race,
because God had given it dominion over the world,
had an unlimited freedom to despoil the natural
environment for its own purposes. Those who feel
moved to a loving care for the internal balances of
nature are responding to a deep religious instinct
implanted within them by God. Public authorities
must never treat them as having no intrinsic worth,
nor commercial concerns see them merely as sources
of profit or loss. Regarded in those terms, the
environment is a great repository of natural wealth,
belonging to all humanity, present and future, freely
and equally. Because of this environmental mortgage
that the future holds over the present, none of this
natural wealth can be owned outright, as if nobody
but the owner had any say in its disposal. Each
generation takes the natural environment on loan,
and must return it after use in as good or better
condition as when it was first borrowed.
Monopoly of common good: In monopoly of
common good, the individual is reduced to the status
of an isolated economic agent, whose life has
meaning only as a consumer. Those most likely to
suffer from over-reliance on competition to the
detriment of the common good are the poor,
vulnerable, powerless and defenseless. To promote
the idea that the individual is primarily o be
considered by society as a consumer that is to say
when an individual's greatest significance is as a
possessor of wealth and purchaser of goods and
services is both contrary to the God and humanity
and to any rational idea of what a human being really
is.
Merits of the Common Good
(a) Common good gives us right to live and let
live and to live above ego centric, that is self
centeredness, it teaches us how to share good with
others without looking at our own alone.
(b) The treatment of common good improved
life style and decent living, it provides for our
needs at all times and as at the time we need
it. It teaches us how to make use of common
good.
(c) It teaches us etiquette of managing common
goods and gives priority of ethics over
modernity and science.
(d) It discourages capitalism and promote
communism, it shows that community things
should be treated the way it should be.
(e) Adequate treatment and proper managemet
of common goods.
The Role of Educational Administration In The
Management Of Common Good In Nigeria.
Education involves everything that is done within a
nation with a view to uplifting the standard of men
and materials. In other words, education is geared to
enhance the realisation of broader objectives hence it
is directed towards "self-realisation, better human
relationship, individual and national efficiency,
effective citinzenship, national consciousness,
national unity as well as toward social, cultural,
economic, political, scientific and technological
progress, (National Policy on Education, 1981). It is
therefore, worthwhile to highlight some of the
citizens efforts for the common good through the role
of administration and management in education. The
aim is to encourage citizen to improve on whatever
they have been doing to promote the Common Good
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
212
and to seek for ways to better these efforts. The
efforts include the following:
Values and Morals in the Society: In Nigeria
it is very common today for all kinds of organization
to enumerate their core values. These values do not
specify what the organization does but rather express
something of why it does these things and the way it
will, or will not, undertake them. Sub-groups and
individuals may, of course, have particular values
which are not shared by the group as a whole but
without some shared values a society will be self-
destructive.
Social and religious values on a general level have
always tended towards the preservation and the
promotion of the Common Good. For this reason. We
consider societal values, as bases for the Common
Good.
Natural Resources: Natural resources are
simply the resources that nature provides. As
resources provided by nature they are providential.
In other words, they are provided by God ultimately
for the well being of the universe. And since human
beings are the glory of the universe, the natural
resources are provided by God in nature for the well
being of human beings. Because the resources are
providential they are for all. Natural resources are for
the common good and thus serve as bases for the
Common Good also. Natural resources are found all
around the world. Natural resources vary from place
to place. Any misuse of natural resources undermines
the common good.
Appreciation and Generosity: Each of us has
something to offer to someone in need. We can give
our money and our time to charity, or be a friend to
someone who is sick or lonely. For us Nigerians, this
generosity is a practical outworking of thankfulness-
thankfulness for Nigeria's love and care for us, we
should be able to be proud of what we can do for our
country. The Common Good is a symbol of God's love
and generosity, and also a symbol of our love for our
country Nigeria. Therefore, we should be generous
for the Common Good and be thankful to God for the
Common Good.
Service and Stewardship: Properly understood,
service is a revolutionary concept. The notion of
service calls individuals to lay selfish things aside for
the needs of others. It is also an important value for
all social relationships, (Catholic Social Teaching,
2014). Hence meaning is found in service rather than
in self-centeredness, it runs counter to the idea that
life is all about competition, or that freedom simply
means doing what suits me or my group, best. Service
is closely linked or related to the values of
stewardship. Stewardship is about mankind's
response on how to use, and not abuse, the resources
we have been given, whether they are natural
resources or wealth, (Catholic Social Teaching, 2014).
The values of service and stewards are needed for the
Common Good to be preserved and promoted.
Fulfillment of Civic duties: Civic duties is a call to
tremendous commitment in the civic duties by the
citizens of a nation. It is also a call on all to contribute
to building the nation in every way possible, Catholic
Social Teaching (2014), even christians are not left
out on this onerous task. We are encouraged to this
responsibility when the Lord Jesus Christ was faced
with the question of paying imperial tax. His simple
answer was "give to Caesar what is Caesar and to God
what is God". (Matt. 22:15-22). The Apostle, Paul,
dwelt a lot on the duties of a citizen towards
authorities and the nation in the thirteenth chapter of
his letter to the Romans. Just as we do today, the first
Christians wondered about the observance of the law.
Should they pay taxes? May a Christian steal from the
state, spoil or destroy its goods, or destroy common
property, or vandalize the common wealth of a nation
without guilt or blame? The Apostle recommends
them to be good citizens, to respect the authorities,
keep the law and take care of the common goods of
the State. Many Christians think today that paying
taxes and commitment to other civic responsibilities,
like participating in election and taking up the moral
responsibility to vote, are unnecessary. In spite of
anything, we must endeavour to be committed to
what is aimed at building or developing our nation.
And when we have done our duty we only must say:
'we are mere servants doing our duties.
Our civic responsibility for the common good is great,
especially in a society which fails to afford legal
protection for the weakest and most defenceless. We
are morally bound in conscience to choose leaders at
all levels of government who will best serve the
common good. The sum total of social conditions,
Guadium et spec, no. 26 in Catholic Social Teaching,
(2014), which the common good represents
embraces a wide spectrum of concerns which the
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
213
voter, for instance, must have before his or her eyes,
for example, safeguarding the right to life and the
sanctity of marriage and the family; securing
domestic and international peace; promoting
education and public safety; assisting those suffering
from poverty; providing sufficient and safe food,
health care and adequate housing and so on. Things
like politics are too serious a business to be left for
only politicians. It is necessary; therefore, that
individual fulfils his or her civic duties and where
there is mismanagement or failure to use well what is
put by compatriots, those who fail will have God to
contend with as this is total abuse of the principle of
the common good.
Education: Through the provision of qualitative,
moral and holistic education, this will help in the
development of good citizens. Education has
continued to create awareness and appreciation for
the Common Good.
Health: A human being deserves complete attention
and care whether rich or poor, whether they will live
for a day or for ten decades. It is typical of good
citizen, for example, that the dying receives expenses
care, that those who do not have productive mental
capacities as we usually understand them are
treasured and that children and even the unborn are
regarded with respect. To ensure all this, the
government has continued to establish hospitals and
other health care centres for this purpose. This is a
huge effort towards the promotion of the common
good.
Fostering Marriage and Family Life: It is also
typical of Christian practice when it is vital and
energetic that people feel able to make the life long
commitment of marriage to each other because the
beloved person will never be completely understood
or captured even in decades of relationship. The
transient force of sexual attraction is in this way is
transfigured by a sense of the uniquely personal and
something radical and exciting becomes possible.
Abuses of Common Good
Abuse of the common good leads to misuse, abuse
and degradation of human beings, the environment
and society in general. Misuse of common good
involved tax evasion, looting of our treasuries at the
Local Government, State and Federal levels.
Imprisonment and suppression of the poor,and so on.
1. Tax Evasion: Tax evasion goes beyond the
willful intent of tax payers to avoid paying their
exact taxes to questionable roles of some
revenue collection officers. These offenses
involve submitting a fraudulent return. Tax
evasion can also mean filing an accurate return
then refusing to pay the taxes due. In some other
cases it is to conceal or overlook evidence of
wrongdoing, including tax infractions or other
crimes; illegal imports or exports; facilitating
illicit transactions for purposes such as money
laundering.
2. Embezzlement of public fund: These
activities involve the taking or conversion of
money, property or other things of value by
someone who is not entitled to them, but who
has access or opportunities created by virtue of
his or her position or employment in the public
sector.
3. Abuse of Public Trust: Public officers are
vested with the responsibility of promoting and
ensuring the public welfare. This trust is not for
private interest or for the benefit of one or more
individuals. The corruption here consists of the
abuse of the trust vested in the corrupt
individual, just for his or her personal gain. For
example, it is an abuse of public trust for an
individual responsible for government contract,
to purchase goods or services from a company, in
which he or she holds an interest without due
process, or propose real estate developments
which will increase the value of personally
owned property.
How Corruption Has Affected the Common Good
In Nigeria
Corruption has generally been seen as the bane on
the development of our country, Nigeria. There is no
way the effect of corruption has been noticeable as in
the infrastructural development. The effects come
from either that the money made for the
development of these infrastructure was not used at
all or that some and in fact a large part of the money
has been diverted for personal use and the resultant
outcome of the facility become substandard and
cannot serve the purposes they were made for.
Travelling across the length and breadth of the
country you will see death traps in the form of
potholes, fallen bridges, and so on. The same thing is
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
214
found in the airports, sea ports, and sport stadia. In
most of our government schools, be it primary,
secondary, or tertiary institutions, the facilities are in
a state of disrepair. Some pupils in primary and
secondary school sit on the floor to learn and in
higher institutions students stand or sit on the
window frames to receive lectures. When one asks
what has really happened, the answer is that money
meant for these facilities were misused by
government functionaries.
Corruption has affected the infrastructural
development of our country, Nigeria in many ways,
such as: Roads are often in deplorable conditions due
to poor construction by corrupt contractors and their
supervisors. Or the corruption life of those who
demand bribe, kick-back, and so on, before giving the
contracts.Over the years, government is said to have
injected about billion of dollars into power
generation to boost electricity, but we still live in
darkness. Huge sums of money have in many ways
found their ways into individual pockets. This is
corruption. Our healthcare facilities are inadequate
such that people have to fly to lndia or other parts of
the world to get medical treatment. The truth is that
most of the money given for the development of these
facilities has been looted by some individuals.
lt is worthy of note that not only politicians or those
in government that are guilty of corruption and thus
cause infrastructural under development of the
country. Even some of us have contributed directly or
indirectly to it, some of us are relatives of those who
embezzle and loot public money but we are not bold
enough to tell them that it is wrong.
Education and its Usefullness in the Common
Good
The benefits of education cuts across all sectors of the
society: politics, economy, agriculture, religion and
others. Citizens are able to understand policies made
by the government of the day and how they would
affect their life- positively or negatively. Moreover,
the necessity of education is viewed to be more social
than a personal obligation. A society needs to have
qualified and well educated citizens as it helps create
a smooth and developed society. Education is a
necessity of civilisation developing in size and
inculcation of national consciousness and national
unity; this means a type of education that emphasies
patriotism. Second, the inculcation of the right type of
values and attitudes for the survival of the individual
and the society; in this case, it should be able to equip
the children with good orientation in terms of tastes,
morals, respects, obedience and the spirit of
togetherness.Third, the training of the mind in the
understanding of the world around it emphasies the
intellectual development for sound judgment. Fourth
is the acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and
competence both mental and physical, as equipment
for the individual to live in and contribute to the
development of his society.
Conclusion
Family upringing, education and family formation
should be a priority. The family is the basis and the
best place to teach all kinds of values. The child
receives even before birth certain tendencies and
values through inherited gin. If the family has a good
culture or values for the common good, the children
will definitely learn. The family is also the basic unit
of the society. There are common things for common
use in every family while there are other things for
individual use. The children must be taught to care
and protect what is for the common use because it
has a larger sense and use than what is only for the
use of individual. If there is a good orientation and
sensitization about the common good. In the family,
its care and maintenance, the society will benefit.
There will be accountability and a sense of dedication
to the common good. Such children will gradually
come out with a great sense of love, respect,
responsibility and care for the common good, but if
on the other hand, families are preoccupied with
individualistic interests, recklessness with common
goods, in the same vein, the children will come up
with ego centric and individualistic personality that
leads to bad governance and misuse of public things
or common goods.
Education is therefore a necessity for someone to
contribute to the administration and management of
common good in Nigeria and the world at large. One
of the reasons for education is self reliance.
Education for self reliance is to inculcate in the
individual the habit of work and prepare individuals
with the necessary skills that will enable them to
contribute their quota to the growth of society and to
manage the common good rather than remain huge
parasites.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
215
Therefore, education must aim at building a new
community and produce individual who can
administer and manage the common good.
Recommendations
Seminars, workshop, enlightenment programmes on
common good should be organized by the
government and various parastatals to enlighten
people.
Everybody should be given equal access to the
common good. No body should be excluded from the
common good or made to feel like an outsider or
outcast as far as the common good is concerned.
The teachings on the common good should be taught
in our churches and mosque all over the nation.
Religious education is the heart or the core source of
formation for the human conscience. It teaches
people how to relate to God, to humanity,
environment and the society at large. As such, the
role of religious education in promoting common
good cannot be overemphasised.
References
Afariogun, A.A. (2014). Education Under the State and
the Church. Jos: Nicxz Press.
Afariogun, A. A. (2017). New Trends in Educational
Administration and Planning, Jos: Afariogun
Press.
Bedeian, A. (2011). Management, Englewood:
Prentice Hall.
Bolam, R, (1999). Educational Administration,
Leadership and Management Towards a research
Agenda in T. Bush, London: Paul Chapman Press.
Catholic Social Teaching (2014). Lord That I May See.
Catecetical Message programme.
Denga, D.I. (1999). Nigerian Education: Proposals for
a Smooth Voyage to the Year 2000 and Beyond.
Calabar: Rapid Educational Publishers.
Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1981). National Policy
on Education, Revised Edition, Lagos: Federal
Ministry of Information.
Merriam Webster's Dictionary and Thesaurus (2007).
Sprin Field: An Encyclopaedia Britannica
Company.
Nwadiani, M. (1998). Educational Management for
Sub-Saharan Africa. Benin City: Nigerian Society
for Educational Planning.
Nwankwo, J.I. (1982). Educational Administration,
Theory and Practice. India: Vikas Publishing
House.
Peschke, H. (2004). The Moral Vol. II. Roma: Peschdet
Press.
Sapre, P. (2002). Realising the Potential of
Educational Management and Administration
Journal (3) 1.
Uduigwomen, A.F. and Ogbenika, K. (ed). (1999).
Phlosophy of Education: An Analytical Approach.
Lagos: Joja educational Research and Publisers.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
216
PRIVATE COST AND DEMAND FOR SANDWICH DEGREE PROGRAMME IN SOUTHWEST NIGERIAN
UNIVERSITIES
1Adebayo F.A and 2Teniola M.A 1Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University, Ado – Ekiti, Nigeria
2Department of Inspectorate, Ministry of Education, Ekiti State, Nigeria
Abstract
The paper examined the relationship between the private cost and demand for sandwich degree program among universities in Southwest Nigeria universities from 2012 to 2016. The research investigated the growth rate of private cost and demand for sandwich degree program among universities. The study used ex-post facto research design and descriptive research design of the survey type in order to describe the private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest Nigeria Universities. The population consisted 19,515 sandwich students in seven universities running sandwich degree programme both Federal and State universities in Southwest, Nigeria as at 2016. The sample for the study consisted of 804 sandwich students and Assistant Directors selected from four universities based on stratified random sampling technique. An inventory titled ‘Data Retrieval Format for Assistant Director of Sandwich (DRFAD)’ and “Private Cost and Demand of Sandwich Degree Questionnaire (PCDSDQ)” for students were used for data collection. A reliability co-efficient of 0.74 using test - retest and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was obtained for PCDSDQ. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency count, percentage. Inferential statistics such as t-test statistics and Pearson product moment correlation (PPMC) were used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance. The results of the analysis showed that the demand for sandwich degree in both Federal and State universities in Southwest Nigeria was declining yearly from 2012 to 2016 and that there was positive significant relationship between private cost and demand for Sandwich degree programme in Nigeria universities. Based on the results, it was recommended that both Federal and State governments should sustain the present tuition fee for the next two years. In addition sandwich centers should provide low cost accommodation so as to boost students’ demand.
Keywords: Private cost, Demand, Sandwich degree, Education, Federal universities, State universities.
Introduction
Some universities in Nigeria are accredited to run sandwich programme where practicing teachers who are non- degree holders are enrolled to study for bachelor’s degree programme during vacation periods of primary and secondary schools. It is observed by the researcher that prospective students for sandwich degree programme raise fund through personal savings, banks and parents rather than the government financing their education.
University education is the major source of providing the required knowledge and skills that will help to generate and accelerate knowledge and skills flow for modern economy (Ayo and Akinyemi, 2011).It is pertinent to note that university education is the type of education given to individuals after secondary level of education. The numbers of universities in Nigeria have increased from 89 in 2006 to 152 in 2017 while university students’ enrolment rose from 349,502 in 2002/2003 to7, 605.068 in 2009/2010
representing 96 percent increase in enrolment. (National Bureau of Statistics, (2017), National Universities Commission (2017), The breakdown of this analysis shows that out of the 152 universities, 40 are federal 44 are state and 68 are privately owned universities. It appears that despite the increase in the number of universities access is not guaranteed for all qualified students. Nwokocha (2006) opined that inadequate access to education may result in many people not participating meaningfully in national development. This might not be unconnected with the perceived shortage of the university places for regular students.
There is a need to extend university education in form of sandwich, open and distance learning to provide equal educational opportunities to the students and worker who cannot afford to abandon their job for educational purposes irrespective of tribe or ethnic background. The implication of this is that those who could not secure admission in an
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
217
educational institution through the unified tertiary matriculation examination conducted by the Joint Admission and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and post UTME will have to seek admission through the sandwich programme. In the case of teachers in the primary and post primary institutions it equally serves as an avenue for upgrading their knowledge, hence the researcher felt that the cost incurred in such educational pursuit could have relationship with demand for sandwich degree programme which the researcher perceived to be declining in recent time. In recognition of this, Aina (2002), Babalola (2002) and Samuel (2003) argued that both federal and state universities in Nigeria were not properly financed hence the need to charge cost in form of tuition fee, transport cost, accommodation cost moderately to boost sandwich enrolment
Statement of the problem
There is the need to find out whether it is the operating cost on the part of the students that causes a decline in demand for sandwich programme. Hence the main problem of this study is to identify the main components of private cost and their relationship on demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest Nigeria universities.
Purpose of the Study
The study examined the relationship between the component of private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest, Nigeria universities. The study investigated the sandwich degree programmme enrolment among university in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016.
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised to guide the study: 1. What was the private cost of sandwich degree
programme in the Universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016?
2. What was the demand for sandwich degree among the Universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to 2016?
Research Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were generated for the
study.
1. There is no significant relationship between private cost and demand for sandwich degree in Southwest, Nigeria universities.
2. There is no significant difference between private cost of federal and state universities in Southwest, Nigeria.
Methodology
The study used ex-post facto research design and descriptive research design of the survey type in order to describe the private cost and the demand for sandwich degree programme in Southwest, Nigeria Universities. An inventory titled ‘Data Retrieval Format for Assistant Director of Sandwich (DRFAD)’, Private Cost and Demand of Sandwich Degree Questionnaire (PCDSDQ) were used to collect the data. The study sampled four universities (Federal=2) and (State=2), and selection of 200 students from each of the universities and One Assistant Director of sandwich from each university. A reliability co-efficient of 0.74 using test - retest and Pearson Product Moment Correlation was obtained for PCDSDQ. Data obtained were analyzed using frequency count, percentage to answer research questions, t-test statistics and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) were used to test the hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance
Table 1: Private cost of sandwich degree programme
among the universities in Southwest Nigeria. (2012
to 2016)
S/N Institution Sum total of private cost items for 5years (2012-2016) (#)
Average cost per contact session (student) (#)
Rank
1 EKSU 1,305,600 260,720 3rd
2 AAUA 1,096,600 239,350 4th
3 UNILAG 1,307,400 261,450 2nd
4 OAU 1,645,400 329,082 1st
Note :
1 EKSU – EKITI STATE UNIVERSITY 2 AAUA - ADEKUNLE AJASIN UNIVERSITY,
AKUNGBA AKOKO 3 UNILAG - UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS 4 OAU - OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY
The table I above revealed that private cost in Southwest, Nigeria universities ranging between #239,350 to #329,082 per contact period and that federal universities has the highest private cost than state universities in Southwest Nigeria universities. That is the federal universities such as OAU, UNILAG, ranked 1st and 2nd while the state universities like EKSU and AAUA ranked 3rd and 4th respectively.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
218
Table 2: Cost items of private cost of sandwich degree programme among universities in Southwest, Nigeria (2012-2016)
S/N
Item
of cost EKSU Total pri-vate
cost for 5years Average
cost %share Rank AAUA
Total cost Average
cost %
share Rank UNILAG
Total cost
2012-2016
Average
cost %sh
are Rank OAU Total
cost 5 Years Average cost %share Rank
1 Tuition fees
percentage #375,000 #75,000 28,80% 1
ST #275,000 #55,000 22.9% 1
ST #500,000 #100,000 38.2
% 1
ST #600,000 #120,000 36.5% 1
ST
2 Departmental
fees #20,000 #5000 1.9% 9
TH #250,000 #5000 21.1% 10
TH #25,000 #5000 1.9
% 9
TH #50,000 #10,000 3.0% 9
TH
3 Examination fees
per contact
session
#50,000 #10,000 3.8% 7TH
#750,000 #15,000 6.3% 7TH
#139,400 - - 11TH
#75,000 #15,000 4,6% 7TH
4 transportation
fees #140,000 #33,000 12.7% 3
RD #190,000 #38,000 15.9% 2
ND #55,000 #27,880 8.1
% 5
TH #133,000 #26,600 8.1% 5
TH
5 expenses on
books #38,500 #7700 2.9% 8
TH #36,500 #7200 3.0% 9
TH #165,000 #11,000 4.2
% 7
TH #69,200 #13,840 4.2% 8
TH
6 feeding cost
(Mid-day meal only)
#179,500 #35,900 13.8% 2ND
#163,500 #32,700 13.7
% 3
RD #140,000 #33,000 12.6
% 2
ND #184,700 36,940 11% 3
RD
7 Accomodation #155,500 #31,000 11.9% 4TH
#140,500 #28,000 11.7% 4TH
#50,000 #28,000 10.7
% 3
RD #216,500 #36,940 13.2% 2
ND
8 Teaching
practice levy #50,000 #10,000 3.8% 9
TH #50,000 #10,000 4.2% 8
TH #7,500 #10,000 3.8
% 8
TH #50,000 #43,300 3.0% 9
TH
9 ICT Levy #14,000 #2800 1.1% 11TH
#15,000 #3,000 1.3% 11TH
#100,000 #1,500 0.6
% 10
TH #7,500 #10,000 0.5% 11
TH
10 Acceptance fees #125,000 #25,000 9.6% 6TH
#110,000 #22,000 9.2% 5TH
#125,000 #20,000 7.6
% 6
TH #100,000 #1500 6.1% 6
TH
11 Other incidental expenses
(Miscellaneous
expenses)
#129,600 #25920 9.9% 5TH
#92,000# #18,400 7.7% 6TH
#25,000 9.6%
4TH
#162,000 #20,000 9.9% 4TH
Total Private
Cost for 5 years
from 2012- 2016
#1305,600 #260,720 100% #1096,000 #239,350 100
% #1,307,400 #261,450 100
% #1645,410 #329,082 100%
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
219
Table 2 above revealed the various cost items for
private cost like tuition fees, departmental fees,
examination fee, transport cost, accommodation cost
etc. that constituted the expenses incurred by
sandwich students. The percentage contribution of
each cost item were calculated. The contribution of
tuition fee has the greatest percentage in virtually in
all the universities whether state or federal
universities.
Moreover, the mid day meal / accommodation cost in
universities sampled for the study showed equally
smaller percentage of contribution to private cost
incurred by an average students.
Question 2: What is the demand for sandwich degree
among the universities in Southwest, Nigeria from
2012 to 2016
Table 3: Enrolment of B.Ed sandwich students among universities in Southwest Nigeria from 2012 to
2016.
Years 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016
Actual enrolment of sandwich student
Actual enrolment of sandwich student
Actual enrolment of sandwich student
Actual enrolment of sandwich student
M F T M F T M F T M F T ESKU 23
0 428 657 197 370 567 175 340 515 170 296 466
AAUA 177
248 420 163 225 388 148 214 362 137 96 353
UNILAG 225
305 530 199 283 482 196 274 470 186 266 452
OAU 200
303 525 180 305 458 175 288 462 168 274 442
Sub Total 828
1281 2109 (27.4)
741 1183 1924 (25.5)
694 1116 1810 (23.9)
661 1052 1713 (22.7)
Percentage decrease on yearly basis are enclosed in
parentheses
2 M = Male, F = Female, T=Total,
Source: Data collected from the field (Directorate of continuing Education Centre/Directorate of sandwich degree in the universities sampled.
Table 3: shows the enrolment of sandwich student from the universities sampled for the study (EKSU, AAUA, UNILAG, OAU) The enrolment of sandwich student in almost all the universities decrease on yearly basis from 2012/2013 academic session to 2015/2016.
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between private cost and demand for sandwich degree in South west, Nigeria universities.
Table 4: Pearson Correlation of private cost and demand for sandwich degree in Southwest, Nigeria universities Variable N Mean SD rcal rtable
Private cost 4 284908 418.96
Demand for sandwich degree
4 478 72.54 0.872* 0.811
*p<0.05
Table 4 reveals that rcal(0.872) is greater than
rtable(0.811) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis is rejected. This implies that there was
significant relationship between private cost and
demand for sandwich degree in Southwest Nigeria
universities. The relationship between private cost
and demand for sandwich degree programme in
Southwest Nigeria universities is significantly high.
This implies that increase in private cost will lead to
corresponding decrease in the demand for sandwich
degree in Southwest Nigeria universities and vice
versa.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference between private
cost of federal and state universities in Southwest,
Nigeria.
Table 5: t-test summary of private cost of federal and
state universities in Southwest, Nigeria
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
220
Type of
Institution N Mean SD df
tcal ttable
State 2 250035.00 15110.87 2
4.923*
4.303 Federal 2 319781.00 13153.60
*p<0.05
Table 5 The table five reveals that tcal(4.923) is
greater than ttable(4.303) at 0.05 level of significance.
The null hypothesis is rejected. This implies that
there is significant difference between private cost of
federal and state universities in Southwest, Nigeria.
The table further shows that federal universities had
higher private cost of #319.781 than state
universities (#250,035.00).
Discussion
The study revealed that the private cost varies from
one university to the other. In the year covered by the
study that is 2012 to 2016, the private cost most
especially the tuition fee is almost constant in almost
all the universities running sandwich programme in
the Southwest, with the exception of accommodation
and mid day meal expenses which varies slightly
because of cost of living in the sampled state. The
finding of this study is in line with the finding of
Samuel and Ofem (2012) which reports a variation in
the unit cost of university education by sector,
discipline and types of institution.
Moreover Belawati (2006) and Mpaata (2010) have
identified some other private costs to learners to
include caution deposits and cost of uniform,
administrative charges, cost of internet connectivity
personally or via commercial cybercafés and that
other factor like types of courses, change of courses
and extra years spend on complexion can increase
private cost of bachelor’s degree. In the same vein,
the finding supported Adeosun (2008) has country
where unemployment is rampant, few people or
adult may not be willing to further their studies. He
equally asserted that effective performance ranks
higher among determinants for enrolment with
954% while the quest for higher income was 56.3%.
Hence, he remarked that the quest for effective
performance on the teaching job and quest for higher
income are the determinants of enrolment in the
sandwich programme.
Furthermore, the study revealed that there is
significant relationship between private cost and
demand for sandwich degree in southwest Nigerian
University because the r calculate [0.872] is greater
than r table [0.811]. This implies that increase in
private cost will lead to corresponding decrease in
the demand for sandwich degree in southwest,
Nigeria universities and vice versa. In support, Alfred
Marhsall [1980] in Adeyemi [2007] private cost, and
sandwich demand is basically determined by the
interaction of price and quantity of goods demanded
i.e, the higher the variable of private cost such as
tuition fee, accommodation fee, reading material fee,
transport fee etc, the lower the demand for places in
the university. It is important to note that demand
curve is downward slopping indicating that private
cost has relationship with sandwich demand.
The study further revealed that there was significant
difference between private cost of federal and state
universities in Southwest, Nigeria universities
because the t-table (2.145) is greater than t
calculated (4.390) hence the null hypothesis is
rejected. This finding implies that federal universities
incurred more private cost than the state
universities. This reason might not be unconnected
with the nature of the sandwich programme whose
major aim is to generate more revenue to
universities, the programme is self finance and it is
expected that the students should paid for the service
provided by the universities more so, when
government either federal or state does not release
grant to fund same. It therefore implies that for good
quality service delivery, the students must be
prepared to pay to argument extra expenses the
universities are likely to incur in running the
programme.
The finding is in agreement with Adeyemi and
Osunde (2005) who opined that the part time
programme sandwich degree programme) are
offered on a ‘’profit” basis i.e profit making venture)
which required high return financially to subsides
regular students enrolled in Nigeria universities who
required paying tuition fee. They further said tuition
fee (private cost) is a means of generating income for
university to be more responsive to student‘s needs.
It is equally pertinent to stress that federal
universities provided more facilities to students than
state universities; hence expenses incurred could be
expected to be more.
Conclusion:
Considering the findings of this study it was
concluded that private cost varies slightly among
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
221
universities while the enrolment/demand for
sandwich slightly decline from 2012-2016 contact
session in both federal and state universities in the
southwest, Nigeria and there was relationship
between private cost and demand for sandwich
education
Recommendation
In view of the implication of the findings of this study,
it is recommended that the university administrators
and educational planners should be sensitized to
identify how to control private cost like tuition Fee,
transport and accommodation cost, of sandwich
degree programme without prejudice to students
demand and quality of instruction. Students should
be sensitized to utilize their limited resource
effectively.
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
222
GOVERNMENT COMMITMENT TO FUNDING AND MANAGERIAL EFFECTIVENESS OF STATE UNIVERSITIES IN
SOUTH-WEST, NIGERIA
1Ogunlade L. A., 2Omotayo, G. O. and 3Ajadi, T. A.
1&2Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education,
Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
3Department of Economics, Kwara State College of Education, Ilorin, Kwara State.
Abstract
This study examined the relationship between government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in Southwest, Nigeria. Descriptive research design was employed. The population of the study consisted of all the academic and non-academic staff of state-owned universities in the southwest, Nigeria. The sample consisted of 100 academic and 100 non-academic staff of two selected state universities. The samples were selected using a multistage procedure. At first, simple random sampling technique was used to select two states. The second stage involved the use of stratified sampling technique to select 50 academic and 50 non-academic staff from each of the selected universities. The instrument used for data collection was tagged ‘Government Financial Commitment and Managerial Effectiveness Questionnaire’ (GFCME-Q). Reliability of the instrument was determined through test-retest method and a correlation coefficient of 0.81 was obtained which was adjudged high enough. Data collected were analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistical tools. All hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Findings showed that the major source of funding available for state universities was government subvention and that the level of government commitment toward funding and the level of managerial effectiveness of the universities were equally moderate. It was also revealed that significant relationship exists between government commitment toward funding and managerial effectiveness of the universities. It was recommended that Government should invest in the universities so that they can add more value to the quality of life in the society through their outputs in the areas of teaching, research and community services.
Key words: Government Commitment, Managerial Effectiveness and State Universities.
Introduction
The role of university education in national
development cannot be overrated. This explains the
rationale behind its inclusion on the concurrent
legislative list in the Nigeria 1999 constitution. The
expectation of the architects of this constitution is
that government at both national and state level
should invest heavily in university education with the
ultimate goal of spurring economic, social and
technological growth and development. Consequent-
ly, the federal and state government are expected to
be the financers of public universities education in
Nigeria through the provision of about 90% of its
revenue.
Although grants under various subheadings are
allocated to the universities by government while
they generate revenue are generated to augment
governmental subvention, yet resources still appear
inadequate. Grants are expected to be released as
recurrent, capital and overhead (research, library,
staff development and direct teaching, and laboratory
cost) and allocated based on the laid down criteria by
the NUC. These criteria seem to be applicable to both
federal and state universities since their financials
are evaluated by the NUC based on the same
guideline. Despite these measures, financial crisis
seems evident in the state universities probably due
to the poor commitment toward funding among other
factors.
Meanwhile, the provision of funds (internally and
externally) requires optimal usage but the pattern of
allocation, accountability and fund control are
equally important. A situation where approved
budgets are not released or released piece-meal
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
223
could result in poor plan implementation, hence the
managerial ineffectiveness in the universities.
However, the greater responsibility being borne by
the state government in the funding of university
education seem quite inadequate as supported by
Eurich (1981). The World Bank (2000) agreed with
this view and argued that the trend is similar in the
other countries especially the developing nations of
the world.
In comparison, Aghenta (2000) and Sofoluwe (2002)
observed that the share of government expenditure
on education is about 40% in Israel, Japan, South
Korea and the United States of America but never
exceeded 17% in Nigeria from 1960 – date. In Britain
since 1919, the tertiary institutions had been
allocated funds by the University Grants Committee
(UGC) which is similar to Nigerian NUC but it
assesses the needs of the universities in a firm,
friendly and creative way. It was replaced in 1992 by
the higher Education Funding Council which
monitors the funding of all Universities and Colleges
of Technology and Colleges of further education with
higher private sector participation through donations
and industrial sectors support endowment. This is
similar to funding source in the United States of
America but dissimilar to the developing countries
where students do not pay tuition and government
provides what they have. This had probably led the
World Bank (2000) to insist that higher education in
developing countries is chronically underfunded.
Although there were escalating demands for higher
education in almost every country of the world.
About 40% of such students live in the developing
nations where nobody defines the exact amount that
constitutes adequate value of funding, contributors
and the contribution ratio. Possible sources of
funding to state universities includes: government
subvention; students/parental contribution; loans
and limited scholarship for indigent and minority
students; improved internally generated revenue
from fees and commercial activities such as
endowment, consultancy, investment in stocks and
commercialisation of research output; education tax
from corporate bodies; and foreign aids. Okoroma as
cited in Okoroma (2006) identified other traditional
way of funding university education in Nigeria to
include development foundations, school fees,
consultancy service, research grants, and government
grants.
It has been observed that prior to the advent of
democracy in 1999, the criteria for allocation were
incremental budget based on available funds ( on the
basis of 5%-20%) across board and student
enrolment) which appeared subject to manipulation.
Allocation and release of fund to state universities
have been falling and rising with the economic
insolvency. This problem is not without its attendant
problem of managerial ineffectiveness challenges. No
Nigerian University has qualified to be listed among
the world best 700 in 2015 Web metric ranking. Such
negative assessments tend to show these universities
as glorified secondary schools counterparts in other
climes even in this era of internationalisation cum
globalisation of knowledge.
In the area of teaching effectiveness, practical works
seems to be restricted to reading textbooks on
practical as seen in dry chemistry (alternative to
practical). Thus, an engineer may not touch a spanner
during training and the use of automated machines
for design appears to be a mirage. Meanwhile this
engineer is expected to construct dams, build silos
and launch satellite into the orbit. The attendant
manifestation is the production of arm-chair and
white collar engineer who can do practically nothing
for himself and his society. Nigeria tends to be an
import-driven country, a dumping ground of all sort
(fake and substandard goods and services) probably
because funding the universities poorly had created
knowledge gap- a negative of the Dewey’s Philosophy
of Pragmatic learning by doing dictum. Filling this
gap through adequate funding could be the needed
impetus to take the country to her technological
breakthrough, societal sustainability and incubation
of future of fortune 'Nobel Laurates’.
In the area of research, Nigerian universities seem
unable to achieve much. Research is a form of
knowledge generation that must be ethical to prevent
harm to humans, animals, environment and the
society. For example, alternative energy that could
have been deployed remains untapped probably as a
result of knowledge gap in a nation that turns out
hundreds of electrical engineers yearly. Whatever
type of research, whether basic, applied, or policy
oriented, it is important for human development. Yet,
this aspect of university education effectiveness
appears largely useful only in the promotion of
university lecturers to higher grades because
sponsorship of research tends to have led to poor
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
224
research culture which is often the cause of
production of inferior goods and incompetent
workforce.
An analysis of the 2014 budget noted that allocation
to education did not rise above 10.63 % between
year 2000 and 2014. This value varied greatly from
UNESCO’s recommendation of 26% of the nation’s
annual budget to education (Onifade, 2003), so also is
the achievement of the objectives of universities
education. The international body’s recommendation
was due to its finding that that only 26% of annual
budget could bring about the desired effectiveness.
Awosusi (2008) and Ogomudia as cited in Adedeji
(2014) affirmed that the inadequate allocation of
funds to education affected adversely the quality of
teaching and research. Jibril (2005) submitted that
government financial commitments to education
expenditure relative to the GDP were 5.6% in
developed countries and 4.1% in developing
countries. Adedeji (2014) equally found out that
university funding is usually hampered by official and
bureaucracy especially fund allocation and release is
such that the amount released to universities were
not based on approved growth levels.
The states are not faring better in the funding of their
universities, probably because they depend on the
federal allocation which in some states like Ekiti
represents about 90% of her total revenue. It is in
view of this background that this paper investigated
the relationship between state government
commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness
of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem
Universities fundamental goals are to bring about
technological, economic, and social growth and
development. A painstaking examination of the
Nigerian university system (especially those
establish-ed by the state governments) revealed that
they are not bringing about the much expected
quantitative and qualitative changes in the society.
They are expected to be the force behind the cerebral
capacity of the country but lots of factors seems to be
bedevilling the systems which make the universities
appear ineffective. At the centre of these factor
appears to be the issue of funding, which is one of the
cardinal inputs that dictate the extent to which any
educational institution will achieve predetermined
goals. Thus, this study examined the relationship
between level state government commitment to
funding and managerial effectiveness of state
universities in southwest, Nigeria.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the level of government commitment toward the funding of state universities and the universities’ managerial effectiveness. It equally examined the level of managerial effectiveness of the state universities. The relationship between the level of government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria was to be investigated.
Research Questions The following questions were raised to guide this study
1. What are the major sources of funding available to state universities in south-west, Nigeria?
2. What is the level of government commitment to funding of state universities in south-west, Nigeria?
3. What is the level of managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria?
Research hypotheses
The following hypotheses were raised to guide this
study
1. There is no significant relationship between government commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.
2. There is no significant difference between academic and non-academic staff rating of government commitment to funding of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.
3. There is no significant difference between
academic and non-academic staff rating of
managerial effectiveness of state universities
in south-west, Nigeria.
Methodology
The design adopted for this study was the descriptive
research of the survey type. The study population
consisted of the academic and non-academic staff of
the state universities in the south-west, Nigeria. The
sample consisted of 100 academic and 100 non-
academic staff. Multi stage sampling procedure was
used in the selection of sample for the study. The first
stage was a simple random sampling for selecting
two states in the south-west, Nigeria. The second
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
225
stage involved the stratified selection of 50 academic
and 50 non- academic staff from each of the
universities in the selected states.
A self-designed instrument titled ‘Government
Commitment to funding and Managerial Effectiveness
of State Universities’ (GCFMESU) was used to collect
data for the study. The instrument was validated by
experts in Educational Management and Test and
Measurement of the Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti.
The test-retest method was used to establish the
reliability of the instrument. The score obtained at
the two tests were analysed using Spearman rank
order and the obtained reliability coefficient of 0.81
was adjudged high enough. Descriptive and
inferential statistical tools were used to analyse data
collected. The descriptive tool used in this study are
frequency counts, percentage and mean score while
the inferential statistical tools are Pearson Product
Moment Correlation (PPMC) for hypothesis one and
t-test for hypotheses two and three. All the
hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.
Results
Research Question 1: What are the major sources of funding available to state universities in south-west, Nigeria?
Table 1: Major Sources of Fund Available to State Universities
Table I presents the mean score ranking of the major
source of funds available to State Universities in the
selected state. As shown in the table, Government
subvention (3.78), Internally Generated Revenue
(3.23), and Tuition Fee (3.20) ranked as the major
sources of fund available to the state universities.
Research Question II: What is the level of government
financial commitment to state universities in south-
west, Nigeria?
Table 2: Level of Government Commitment to
funding of State Universities
Table 2 presents the level of government
commitment to funding of state universities. The
result indicates that 41(20.5) of the respondents
rated the level of government commitment to funding
low, 122 (61%) rated it Moderate while 37(18.5%)
rated it to be high. This implies that the level of
government commitment to funding of state
universities during the period under investigation
was moderate.
Research Question III: What is the level of managerial
effectiveness of state universities in south-west,
Nigeria?
Table 3: Level of Managerial Effectiveness in State
Universities
Result in table 3 revealed that 42 representing 21%
of the respondents said that their university level of
managerial effectiveness was low, 113 representing
56.5% rated the level of managerial effectiveness
moderate while 45 representing 22.5% rated the
level of managerial effectiveness of their university
high. This implies that the level of managerial
effectiveness of the state universities were moderate.
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant relationship
between government commitment to funding and
managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-
west, Nigeria.
Table 4: Test of Relationship between Government Commitment to funding and Managerial Effectiveness of State
Universities
Variable N Mean SD r-cal r-tab Sig Remark
Government Commitment to funding 100 68.32 12.972 0.635 0.197 .000 rejected
Managerial Effectiveness 100 56.03 11.506
S/N Source of fund Mean score Ranking
1 Government Subvention
3.78 1st
2 Internally Generated Revenue
3.23 2nd
3 Tuition Fee 3.20 3rd
4 Educational Tax 2.22 4th
5 Foreign Aids 1.33 5th
Managerial
Effectiveness
Frequency %
Low(25-50) 42 21
Moderate(51-75) 113 56.5
High(76-100) 45 22.5
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
226
Table 4 showed the r-calculated as 0.635 and r-table
value as 0.197 which is significant at 0.05 alpha level.
Thus the null-hypothesis is rejected. This implies that
there is significant relationship between government
commitment to funding and managerial effectiveness
of state universities in south-west, Nigeria.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference
between academic and non-academic staff rating of
government commitment to funding of state
universities in south-west, Nigeria.
Table 5: Test of Difference between Academic and Non-academic Staff Rating of Government Commitment to
Funding of State Universities
Staff N Mean SD df Cal. t-value Crit. t-value P-value
Academic 100 72.70 14.880
198 0.743 1.97 .458
Non-Academic 100 71.65 13.086
Table 5 presents the calculated t-value of 0.743
which is less than the critical t-value of 1.97 with a
corresponding p-value of .458 which is greater at
0.05 alpha level. This indicated that there was no
significant difference. Hence, the hypothesis was
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference
between academic and non-academic staff rating of
government commitment to funding of state
universities in south-west, Nigeria.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference
between academic and non-academic staff rating of
managerial effectiveness of state universities in south-
west, Nigeria.
Table 6: Test of Difference between academic and non-academic staff rating of managerial effectiveness of state
universities
Staff N Mean SD df Cal. t-value Crit. t-value P-value
Academic 100 71.95 13.871
198 0.644 1.97 .520
Non-Academic 100 72.88 14.762
Table 6 presents the calculated t-value of 0.644
which is less than the critical t-value of 1.97 with a
corresponding p-value of .520 which is greater at
0.05 alpha level. This indicated that there was no
significant difference. Hence, the hypothesis was
accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference
between academic and non-academic staff rating of
managerial effectiveness of state universities in
south-west, Nigeria.
Discussion
The study revealed that the major source of funding
available to state universities in Southwest, Nigeria
are Government Subvention, Internally Generated
Revenues (endowment, consultancy, investment in
stock and commercialisation of research output), and
Tuition fee paid by students. This agrees with
Okoroma as cited in Okoroma (2006) who identified
the traditional way of funding university education in
Nigeria to include development foundations, school
fees, consultancy service, research grants, and
government grants. This finding confirms the general
believe that government is the major financer of
university education in Nigeria. The level of
government commitment to funding and level of
management effectiveness in term of teaching,
research, community services and leadership were
revealed as been moderate. This may be true in the
light of the fact that management of these state
universities understand the financial status of their
state government and thus intensifies actions at
improving their internally generated revenues which
are used to augment whatever the government was
able to give as subvention.
The study further revealed that there was no
significant difference exists between the rating of the
government commitment to funding of state
universities by academic and non-academic staff.
With a calculated t-value of 0.743 which is less than
the table value of 1.97 and a corresponding p-value
that is greater than 0.05, the hypothesis was retained
and was inferred that academic and non-academic
staff do not differ in their rating of government
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
227
commitment to funding of state universities. It was
also showed that there was no significant difference
between academic and non-academic staff rating of
the managerial effective of the state universities in
the south west, Nigeria. With t-calculated value .644
and t-table value 1.97 and corresponding p-value
greater than 0.05, the hypothesis was confirmed true
and retained. It is therefore inferred that academic
and non-academic do not differ in their assessment of
the level of managerial effectiveness of the
universities.
The study showed that there was significant
relationship between government commitment to
funding and managerial effectiveness of state
universities in south west, Nigeria. This implies that
the higher the commitment of government in funding
universities the higher their managerial effective in
terms of teaching, quality of research, community
services and leadership. This finding is in tandem
with Awosusi (2008) and Ogomudia (2008)
affirmations that the inadequate allocation of funds
to education adversely affected the quality of
teaching and research.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded
that level of government commitment to funding and
managerial effectiveness of state universities were
moderately high and that they positively relate.
Recommendations
Bases on the findings from the study, it was
recommended that government as the major source
of financial support for these universities should set
its priorities right and invest adequately on them in
order to spur the much needed growth in economy,
technology and sciences. Government should invest
massively in the universities so that they can add
more value to the quality of life in the society through
their outputs in the area of teaching, research and
community services.
References
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for Sustainable Development in Nigeria: A Case
Study of the Federal University of Technology,
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21st Century. In J.O. Fadipe & E.E.
Oluchukwu (eds.). Educational Planning and
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and Administration.
Awosusi, A.O.(2008). Knowledge, attitude and
practice of teachers toward accident and
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Eurich, N.P. (1981). System of Higher Education in
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Praeger Publishers
Jibril, M. (2005). The Knowledge Economy and the
Size and Shape of the Nigerian Higher
Educational System. In Jibril, M. (ed.)
Perspectives and Reflections on Nigerian Higher
Education. Abuja: Spectrum Books.
Ogomudia, A.O.(2008). The challenge of National
Development in Nigeria: Technology as a way
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Ogunlade, A. L. (2005). A cost-benefit analysis of
investment on tertiary teacher education in Ekiti
State. Nigerian Journal of Educational
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Ogunlade, A. L. (2006). Processing social-
educational priorities in Nigerian tertiary
institutions. California Management Review;
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Okoroma, N. S. (2006). Educational Policies and
Problems of Implementation in Nigeria.
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Onifade, O.A. (2003). Factors influencing the
teaching of Health Education in selected tertiary
institutions in Kwara state. Ilorin Journal of
Education (IJE). 22 (1&2), 86 – 95.
Sofoluwe, A.O. (2002). Impact of strategic planning
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International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
229
SCHOOL PLANT MAINTENANCE AND ORGANISATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN EKITI
STATE
B.K. Oyewole & O.A. Fadele Departmennt of Educational Management Faculty of Education, Ekiti State University
Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
This research article investigated school plant maintenance and organizational effectiveness in secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. A descriptive research design of survey type was used to carry out this study. The population of the study consisted of all the 185 public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The sample of the study consisted of 315 respondents selected through multistage sampling procedure. The researchers utilized two sets of instruments titled Questionnaire on School Plant Planning and Maintenance (QSPPM) for the teachers, and Questionnaire in Organisational Effectiveness (QOE) for the principals. The validity and reliability of the two instruments (QSPPM and QOE) were analysed using the statistical package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to find Cronbach alpha values of 0.85 and 0.80 respectively. Data analysis indicated that there was a significant relationship between school plant maintenance and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools. A significant relationship was found between maintenance of spaces for convenience and organisational effectiveness. Based on the findings, it was concluded that school plant maintenance affects organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools. Recommendations were made on the need for the government in collaboration with other education stakeholders to embark on periodic and routine maintenance of existing infrastructural facilities in schools by restoring them from state of disrepair.
Keywords: Administrator, Maintenance, Organizational effectiveness, School plant.
Introduction
School plant are made up of the indispensable
systems and structures required by any educational
institution to function effectively and achieve the
objectives for which it was established. They are
facilities which physically and spatially enable
teaching and learning and by extension help in
producing desirable results as evidenced by good
academic performance of the products of an
educational system.
However, school plant maintenance refers to the
keeping of school site, the buildings and the
equipment in as near their original state of utility as
possible. It refers to any work such as repairs,
servicing, painting, etc, carried out on any component
of the plant with a view to keeping it or restoring it to
optimum working condition (Olagboye, 1998). It
must be noted that the school plant is the space
interpretation of the school curriculum. Thus, for the
attainment of educational objectives, there should be
adequate provision and maintenance of the school
plant. It is hoped that a well-planned and maintained
school plant will gear unexpected outcomes of
education that will facilitate good social, political and
economic emancipation, effective teaching and
learning process. According to American Association
of School Administrators (2003) maintenance
involves those activities which are concerned with
keeping ground buildings and equipment at their
original condition of completeness of efficiency,
either through repairs or by replacements in order to
ensure that the physical plant, equipment, grounds
and service facilities are continuously useable.
It may also be difficult to achieve school effectiveness
without adequate provision and maintenance of
school plants. School effectiveness refers to the level
of goal attainment of a school which may be
measured with the use of such variables as teachers’
performance and efficiency, teachers’ productivity,
and students’ academic achievements. Adequate
provision and maintenance of school plants enables
the teachers to put in their best in imparting
knowledge to their students. Availability of relevant
instructional materials could motivate the teachers to
adopt appropriate method of teaching in the
classroom and keep adequate lesson notes.
Adequate provision and maintenance of ICT facilities
such as computer and internet facilities may
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
230
invariably lead to teachers’ and students’ ICT literacy
and enable them apply it in the classroom during
teaching-learning situation. This may make the
process to be more meaningful and participatory.
Furthermore, this may go a long way to contribute
actively to students’ learning in all ramifications
including the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
aspects all of which may culminate in school
effectiveness.
Educational facilities in some secondary schools in
Ekiti State appear to be in terrible condition. The
schools are littered with battered structures; worn
out equipment (where they are available at all);
overcrowded classrooms; inadequate manpower in
quantity and quality; poor working conditions as well
as inadequate school plant planning and poor
maintenance of the available ones culminating in
ineffectiveness in the operation of these schools.
Poor maintenance of administrative spaces can also
go a long way to affect organizational (school)
effectiveness. Inadequate provisions and
maintenance of principal’s office, clerk’s office, staff
room, Guidance Counselors’ office and health clinics
could impact negatively on the achievement of school
goals and objectives. If the principal’s office and staff
room are lacking or not spacious enough to
accommodate necessary facilities such as cabinets
and shelves for keeping documents, chairs and table
in a school, the principal and teachers may find it
difficult to perform their duties conveniently. Lack or
poor maintenance of health clinic in a school could
put the lives of the available human resources and
students in jeopardy and consequently disrupt the
peace and smooth running of the school.
Adequate provision and maintenance of spaces for
convenience can also have positive effect on
organizational effectiveness. Inadequate and poor
provision of toilets, cafeteria, kitchen, dormitories,
stores and other spaces for conveniences in a school
may hamper the convenience of the teachers and
students and shatter their interest. Consequently,
teachers and principals may decline posting to such
schools and students may have no interest in
attending the school. This will ultimately endanger
the achievements of goals and objectives of such an
educational organization and make it ineffective.
However, the presence of all these spaces tends to aid
the achievement of the school goals and objectives.
School Plant Maintenance and Organisational
Effectiveness
An aspect of school management that is generally
overlooked is facilities maintenance. According to
Ukeje, Akabogu and Ndu (1992), maintenance of the
school plant is defined as those activities connected
with keeping the buildings, equipment and
surroundings at their original or best condition of
completeness and efficiency, either through repairs
or replacement. The issue of facility maintenance is
haphazardly addressed at all levels of the educational
system. Repairs take place only when problems arise
due to break down of the existing facility. Facility
maintenance entails providing clean and safe
environment for teaching and learning. It also
involves provision of adequate facilities for teaching
and learning.
A lot of research has proved that poorly maintained
plants can hamper the achievement of school
effectiveness. Lawrence (2003) pointed out that
poorly maintained school facilities may have adverse
health safety impacts in causing asthma attacks,
drowsiness, lethargy and a resulting inability to
concentrate. The study also expressed that poor
school facility conditions negatively impact staff and
students morale. Another study also found that
schools with better facility conditions had higher
student achievement scores (Cash, 1993).
Similarly, Taiwo (2000) equated the importance of
provision of facilities to the importance of their
maintenance. This is because usage of any utilized
material is bound to depreciate the value of such
material with time. He further posited that school
facilities are not left out. According to him, this has
significantly affected school laboratories which are
either inadequately provided for or are poorly
maintained.
Tawgaw (2007) observed in his study that maintenance could be categorized into Emergency and Periodic. Emergency maintenance is called for by the situation of events and areas such as: structural problem, quipment amendable to periodic inspe-ctions, plumbing facilities and sanitary accessories. Including here also, are: doors, windows, louvers, cracked walls, leaking roof.
Another type of maintenance is the preventive
method. This concerns facilities which follow repairs
and renovating cycle. It could be in days, weeks,
monthly or yearly. This type of maintenance is often
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
231
accomplished by substitution of new parts or
materials for old and worn-out ones. It does not
entail the substitution of completely new facilities.
This is sometimes called ‘preventive maintenance’.
Prev-entive maintenance includes miscellaneous jobs
that are required to keep mechanical and electrical
equipment operatives, the painting of exterior and
interior surfaces, repair of doors and windows,
reflowing, repair of damage roofs and ceilings. The
maintenance of these facilities is gravely necessary in
order to avert colossal wastage or their total loss.
Among the major ways of ensuring the optimum
utilisation of available resources is through
maintenance culture. Maintenance culture of any
school speaks much about an institution. According
to Akpan (2011) the general appearance of school
facilities constitute the basis upon which members of
the public pass their judgements about the academic
performance going on in the school. Furthermore,
according to Abraham (2003), school plant
management is viewed as functions geared towards
maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of the
schools. Aside the provision of school plants, it is also
very important to maintain and develop it. The best –
planned plant that is not maintained soon becomes
defaced and losses its aesthetic value and worth.
This is in line with the submission of Owodogu
(1998). that ‘a poorly kept building or poorly
maintained site, all inhibit the development of a good
educational programme.’ Thus as good as the
provision of plant is, the more important one, is to
maintain the plant.
The untidy compound, the un-service equipment and
the poorly maintained buildings not only tarnish the
image of the school but shorten the life span of the
facilities. The Ekiti State Government of Nigeria has
continued to advocate better maintenance culture by
the school community members, school adm-
inistrators inclusive. This will help to avoid incurring
heavy expense in replacing damages or worn-out
items with new ones.
Succinctly, the maintenance of the school plant is as
important as its acquisition if not more important.
The school administrators or principals must use
everything at his disposal to bring about adequate
maintenance of the school plant. According to Obi
and Ezegbe (2002), there are some activities, which
the school administrators should carry out to ensure
effective school plant maintenance. These activities
include:
1. Engaging an experienced custodial su-
pervisor to assist the administrator
2. Keeping the compound tidy by sweeping the
floors of the buildings and compound
3. Repairing machines, vehicles etc. whenever
there is breakdown
4. Re-flooring and repairing cracked walls
5. Replacing broken window blades and roofing
sheets
6. Engaging knowledgeable carpenters, plum-
bers, electricians, labourers, painters to
effect necessary repairs in school.
7. Purchasing requisitions, equipment and mat-
erials for custodial duties such as diggers,
rakes, wheelbarrow, etc.
Therefore, a deliberate culture of maintenance of
school plant should be highly esteemed. This will
enable rust parts such as leaking and weak roof to be
replaced, dilapidated walls to be mended, faded
painting resulting from effects of rains, and weather
be redecorated to give beauty and standard to the
school.
Based on research findings and considering the
practicing situation as regards school plant
maintenance in Ekiti State, the researchers
formulated the following hypotheses:
H1: There is no significant relationship between
school plant maintenance and organizational
effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools.
H2: There is no significant relationship between school maintenance of spaces for convenience and organizational effectiveness.
Methodology
The descriptive research of the survey design was
used to carry out this study. The study is primarily in
investigation into school plant maintenance and
organizational effectiveness. The study may help to
ascertain the extent to which school plant
maintenance positively contribute to organizational
effectiveness of secondary schools. Thus,
appropriate suggestions could be made for
improvements in education in the study area.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
232
The population of this study consisted of all the 185
public secondary schools in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The
sample of the study consisted of 315 respondents
selected through multistate sampling procedure. The
first stage involved the use of proportional stratified
random sampling technique to select five (5) local
government areas from the existing three senatorial
districts in Ekiti State. The second stage involved the
use of simple random sampling technique to select
(3) secondary schools from each of the selected local
government. The third stage also involved the use of
simple random sampling technique to select one
principal and twenty (20) teachers from each of the
selected schools. This allowed for good sample
representation.
The researchers utilized two sets of instruments:
Questionnaire on School Plant Planning and
Maintenance (QSPPM) for teachers, and
Questionnaire on Organisational Effectiveness (QOE)
was used for the principals. The researchers
constructed the questionnaires after careful review
of some literature related to the study. The
questionnaire consisted of two sections: A and B.
Section A consisted of simple question on
demographic data such as name of school, location,
local government area, qualification and grade level
while section B contained items relating scale was
based on a 4-point Likert scale ranging rom Strongly
Agree (4 points) Agree (3points) Disagree (2 points)
and Strongly Disagree (1point). The validity and
reliability of the two instruments (QSPPM and QOE)
were analysed using the statistical package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) to find Cronbach alpha values of 0.85
and 0.80 respectively. The co-efficient were
considered adequate for the study.
Results
Data obtained through QSPPM and QOE were
analysed and all hypotheses were tested at the 0.05
level of significance using Pearson’s Product Moment
Correlation.
H1: There is no significant relationship between
school plant maintenance and organizational
effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools.
In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to
school plant maintenance and organizational
effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary school were
computed and subjected to statistical analysis
involving Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation at
0.05 level of significance. The results as presented in
Table 1.
Table 1: School Plant Maintenance and
Organisational Effectiveness
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
School Plant
maintenance
Organizational
Effectiveness
15
15
11.92
37.93
1.24
5.56
0.696*
0.482
*P<0.05
Table 1 showed that r cal (0.696) was greater than r
table (0.482) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
a significant relationship between school plant
maintenance and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti
State secondary schools.
H2: There is no significant relationship between
maintenance of spaces for convenience and
organizational effectiveness.
In order to test the hypothesis, scores relating to
maintenance of spaces for convenience and
organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary
schools were computed and subjected to statistical
analysis involving Pearson’s Product Moment
correlation at 0.05 level of significance.
The result is presented in Table 2.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
233
Table 2: Maintenance of Spaces for Convenience and
Organisational Effectiveness
Variables N Mean SD rcal rtable
Maintenance of spaces for convenience
Organizational Effectiveness
15
15
7.39
37.93
2.24
5.56
0.615*
0.482
*P<0.05
Table 2 showed that r cal (0.615) was greater than r
table (0.482) at 0.05 level of significance. The null
hypothesis was rejected. This implies that there was
a significant relationship between maintenance of
spaces for convenience and organizational
effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary schools.
Discussion
The study revealed that there was significant
relationship between school plant maintenance and
organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State secondary
schools. This implies that the maintenance of school
plant will enhance effective teaching/learning
process which could in turn lead to school
organizational effectiveness, which also implies that
the maintenance of school plant is positively related
to school organizational effectiveness. The finding is
consistent with the assertion of Lawrence (2003) that
poorly maintained school facilities may have adverse
health and safety impacts in causing asthma attack
drowsiness, lethargy and a resulting inability to
concentrate. Taiwo (2000) equated the importance of
provision of facilities to the importance of their
maintenance, this is because usage of any utilized
materials is bound to depreciate the value of such
material with time and he further posited that school
facilities are not left out. This finding is also in line
with Owodogu (1989) that a poorly kept building or
poorly maintained site inhibits the development of a
good programme, thus, as good as the provision of
school plant is, the more important one is to maintain
the plant.
The result also showed that there was significant
relationship between maintenance of spaces for
convenience and organizational effectiveness in Ekiti
State secondary schools. This implies that proper
maintenance of spaces for convenience would
prolong the use of the plants. The findings agrees
with Ajayi (1999) who identified spaces for
conveniences to include toilets, cafeteria, kitchen
dormitories, custodian sheds and stores and these
spaces are germane for effective functioning of an
educational organization. Lawrence (2003) is also of
the opinion that poorly maintained space for
convenience could negatively impact staff and
students’ morale and a good physical working
condition in anys organisation will have a positive
impact on job effectiveness and morale.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Arising from the findings of this study, one major
conclusion drawn was that school plant maintenance
affects organizational effectiveness in Ekiti State
secondary schools. Therefore, organizational effect-
iveeness in Ekiti State secondary schools cannot be
divorced from adequate school plant maintenance by
all the stakeholders in the education sector. In other
words, if school plants are well maintained, the end
result is organizational effectiveness but if poorly
maintained the end result is otherwise.
Based on the findings of this study the following
recommendations were made:
1. Government in collaboration with philanth-
ropists and Non-Governmental Organisation
(NGOs) should embark on periodic and
routine maintenance of existing infrastruc-
tural facilities in schools by restoring them
from state of disrepair.
2. The school management should construct
and ensure proper maintenance of toilets
facilities for both staff and students’
conveniences.
3. Government should formulate appropriate
policies to ensure adequate school plants in
our educational system and proper
maintenance of these school plants in the
various educational organizations.
International Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (IJEFAM) 2018
234
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