Predicting Punching Acceleration from Selected Strength and Power Variables in Elite Karate Athletes

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research Publish Ahead of PrintDOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000000329

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Predicting Punching Acceleration from Selected Strength and Power Variables in

Elite Karate Athletes: A Multiple Regression Analysis

Irineu Loturco1, 2, 5 ( ), Guilherme Giannini Artioli2, 3, Ronaldo Kobal1, Saulo Gil1, 4,

Emerson Franchini2

1- Pão de Açúcar Group - Nucleus of High Performance in Sport, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

2- Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, School of Physical Education and

Sport, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil

3- Laboratory of Applied Nutrition and Metabolism, School of Physical Education and

Sport, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil

4- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP,

Brazil

5- Brazilian Karate Confederation, Brazil

Irineu Loturco ( )

Pão de Açúcar Group, Nucleus of High Performance in Sport.

Av. Duquesa de Goiás, 571, Real Parque, 05686-001 – São Paulo, SP, Brazil.

Tel.: +55-11-3758-0918

E-mail: irineu.loturco@terra.com.br

Running title: Punching acceleration in elite karate athletes

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ABSTRACT 2

The present study investigated the relationship between punching acceleration 4

and selected strength and power variables in nineteen professional karate athletes from 5

the Brazilian National Team (9 men and 10 women; age: 23 ± 3 years; height: 1.71 6

±0.09 m and body mass: 67.34 ± 13.44 kg). Punching acceleration was assessed under 7

four different conditions in a randomized order: 1) fixed distance aiming to attain 8

maximum speed (FS); 2) fixed distance aiming to attain maximum impact (FI); 3) self-9

selected distance aiming to attain maximum speed (SSS) and 4) self-selected distance 10

aiming to attain maximum impact (SSI). The selected strength and power variables were 11

as follows: maximal dynamic strength in bench press and squat-machine, squat and 12

countermovement jump height, mean propulsive power in bench throw and jump squat, 13

and mean propulsive velocity in jump squat with 40% of body mass. Upper and lower-14

body power and maximal dynamic strength variables were positively correlated to 15

punch acceleration in all conditions. Multiple regression analysis also revealed 16

predictive variables: relative mean propulsive power in squat jump (W/kg), and 17

maximal dynamic strength (1RM) in both bench press and squat-machine exercises. An 18

impact-oriented instruction and a self-selected distance to start the movement seem to 19

be crucial to reach the highest acceleration during punching execution. This 20

investigation, while demonstrating strong correlations between punching acceleration 21

and strength-power variables, also provides important information for coaches, 22

especially for designing better training strategies to improve punching speed. 23

Key words: punching; karate; martial arts; strength training; power training; correlation 25

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INTRODUCTION 36

Competitive karate performance is a multi-factorial phenomenon influenced by 38

technique, tactics and fitness, among other factors (5). In karate combats, offensive 39

actions are performed at very high speeds; athletes must strike before their opponents 40

are able to defend the attack or counter attack themselves (13). Indeed, studies assessing 41

the speed of high-intensity actions during simulated karate combats reported that they 42

last from 0.3 ± 0.1 s to 2.1 ± 1.0 s (1, 10). In official competitions, it has been reported 43

that punching techniques prevail over kicking techniques, probably because they are 44

faster to execute (4). Thus, punching techniques should be one of the main focuses of 45

high-level karate athletes’ training. 46

In preparation for competition, karate athletes undertake strength and 47

conditioning programs. This is an important aspect of training, as highlighted by a 48

recent study showing that both upper- and lower-body muscle power are higher in 49

winners as compared to defeated international level karate athletes (20). One can 50

speculate that upper- and lower-body muscle power might influence speed, acceleration 51

and power of karate techniques, thereby contributing to competitive performance. 52

Therefore, training strategies aiming to maximize muscle power may be of great value 53

for karate athletes. Identifying the physical capacities associated with karate techniques 54

is relevant to improve training methods, especially concerning the exercise type and 55

loads that should be applied to improve karate technique speed, power and acceleration. 56

In this regard, it has been suggested that the acceleration of a punch or kick directly 57

affects the impact; Bollander et al. (2) showed that peak force is related to the 58

acceleration of the object at each instant, multiplied by its effective mass. However, the 59

association between muscle power and the ability to perform karate-specific techniques 60

has never been investigated. 61

In addition to acceleration, the impact caused by a striking technique seems to be 62

influenced by other factors. For example, it was recently demonstrated that the palm 63

strike (a kung-fu technique), when preceded by stepping forward to the target, results in 64

a higher impact as compared to the same technique performed without stepping forward 65

(18). Moreover, athletes may intentionally execute a punch aiming for either maximum 66

speed or maximum impact, depending on whether the competition is “full-contact” or 67

not. During training and competition, athletes may have to punch at different distances 68

from the target, which may also influence the impact generated by the punch. However, 69

the influence of these variables on the acceleration generated by a punch has never been 70

investigated, and the physical capacities that best predict punch acceleration are still 71

unknown. Thus, the objective of the present study was 1) to verify whether a goal-72

oriented instruction (i.e., maximal speed or maximal impact) and the distance from the 73

target affects punching acceleration; and 2) to investigate the strength and power 74

abilities that are most associated with punching acceleration. 75

METHODS 77

Subjects 79

Nineteen professional karate athletes from the Brazilian National Team (9 men and 10 80

women; age: 23 ± 3 years; height: 1.71 ± 0.09 m and body mass: 67.34 ± 13.44 kg) 81

volunteered to participate in the study. This group was submitted to the following 82

training schedule in the period of evaluation: karate specific endurance training: two 45-83

60 minutes session per week; Power/strength training: three 45-60 minutes sessions per 84

week; Technical sessions: five 60-90 minutes per week. All procedures were approved 85

by an Institutional Review Board for use of human subjects. After being fully informed 86

of the risks and benefits associated with the study, all participants signed a written 87

informed consent form. All athletes were tested during the competitive phase of training 88

one week prior to the 2013 Pan American Championship, the major competition of the 89

season, suggesting that athletes were close to or at peak performance. In this 90

competition, the Brazilian National Team was the overall champion, winning 6 medals 91

in 12 classes (3 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals). 92

Experimental Procedures 94

After a standardised 15-min warm-up including general (i.e., running at a 95

moderate pace for 5-min followed by 5-min of lower and upper limbs active stretching) 96

and specific exercises (i.e., karate specific punching movements at moderate intensity 97

speed for 5-min), athletes were provided with a 5-min resting interval. Individuals were 98

then required to perform a punch acceleration test under four different conditions, as 99

follows: 1) fixed distance aiming to attain maximum speed (FS); 2) fixed distance 100

aiming to attain maximum impact (FI); 3) self-selected distance aiming to attain 101

maximum speed (SSS); and 4) self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum impact 102

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(SSI). A 3-min resting interval was allowed between conditions. All tests were 103

performed with athletes using karate gloves, as is standard in competition. An 104

accelerometer (DTS 3D®, Noraxon, AZ, USA) with sensors wirelessly connected to a 105

laptop was attached to the athletes’ gloves and data was recorded in real-time (Figure 106

1). The device sampled at a frequency of 1500 Hz and worked with a sensitivity equal 107

to 400mV/G. During the tests, athletes were placed in front of a “body opponent bag” 108

(BOB) and instructed to position the guard according to their individual preferences. To 109

establish the BOB height, the athlete performed their preferential guard position and 110

conducted the technique in the sternum region of the BOB, where the punch was 111

executed. After 15-min recovery, countermovement and squat jump heights were 112

assessed using a contact platform. Following a further 10-min recovery, athletes were 113

required to perform the mean propulsive power assessment. After a final minimum of 114

90-min of recovery, participants performed the maximal dynamic strength 115

determination. 116

***INSERT FIGURE 1 HERE*** 119

Punch acceleration determination 122

The athletes were instructed to perform a giaku-tsuki (i.e., a specific reverse 123

karate’s punch executed by the back arm, using the hips to push it forward) under the 124

four different conditions in a randomized order (i.e., FV, FI, SSV and SSI). In the fixed 125

distance conditions, athletes were positioned 1 meter from the BOB whereas in the self-126

selected conditions athletes freely chose their best position for starting the punch. The G 127

acceleration (G) was calculated automatically by the device and represented the peak 128

acceleration of the horizontal vector produced throughout the punch execution. Five 129

attempts of each condition were allowed. The data were not filtered. A 15-second 130

resting interval was allowed between attempts. The highest G value of each condition 131

was considered for further analysis (Figure 2). Intra-class coefficient correlations in the 132

four conditions were: FV = 0.954 (95%CI = 0.914 to 0.980); FI = 0.940 (95%CI = 133

0.888 to 0.973); SSV = 0.968 (95%CI = 0.940 to 0.986); SSI = 0.947 (95%CI = 0.900 to 134

0.976). 135

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Maximal dynamic strength determination 141

Maximal dynamic strength was determined for upper and lower body through 1 142

repetition maximum tests (1RM) for bench press and squat-machine exercises. All 143

participants performed two familiarisation sessions prior to the 1RM session. A 5-min 144

warm-up was performed on a motorised treadmill at 9 km.h-1 followed by 3-min of 145

lower limb stretching exercises. Participants then performed 2 warm-up sets: in the first 146

set, they executed 5 repetitions at 50% of 1RM and, in the second set, they performed 3 147

repetitions at 70% of 1RM, with a 3-min interval between sets. After 3 minutes, 148

participants started the test and were allowed to perform 5 attempts to obtain 1RM load, 149

which was measured to the nearest 1kg (3). 150

The squat lift 1RM tests were performed on a squat-machine (Plyo Press®, 151

Athletic Republic, Park City, Utha, USA), where displacement was controlled and the 152

participants started the concentric movement from a 90° knee flexion. Bench press 1RM 153

tests were performed on a “Smith machine” (Technogym Equipment, Cesena, Italy). 154

Correct technique involved lowering the bar in a controlled manner until the bar reaches 155

the chest and then lifting the bar back to the start position until the elbows are fully 156

extended. The head, shoulders, and buttocks remained in contact with the bench 157

throughout the entire execution. Strong verbal encouragement was provided during all 158

attempts. 159

Squat jump and countermovement jump heights 161

In the squat jump, a static position with a 90° knee flexion angle was maintained 162

for 2 seconds before a jump attempt without any preparatory movement. In the 163

countermovement jump, subjects were instructed to perform a downward movement 164

followed by a complete extension of the lower limb joints and freely determine the 165

amplitude of the countermovement in order to avoid changes in jumping coordination 166

pattern. Five attempts at each jump were performed interspersed by 15-sec intervals. 167

The jumps were performed on a contact platform (Smart Jump®, Fusion Sport, Coopers 168

Plains, Australia) with the obtained flight time (t) being used to estimate the height of 169

the rise of the body’s centre of gravity (h) during the vertical jump (i.e., h = gt2 / 8, 170

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where g = 9.81 m/s2). A given jump would be considered valid for analysis if the take-171

off and landing positions were visually similar. The best attempt was used for data 172

analysis purposes. 173

Mean propulsive power and velocity with a load corresponding to 40% of body 176

mass in jump squat and mean propulsive power in bench throw 177

Mean propulsive power was assessed in jump squat and bench throw exercises, 178

both being performed on a Smith machine (Technogym Equipment, Cesena, Italy). 179

Participants were instructed to execute three repetitions at maximal velocity for each 180

load, starting at 40% of their body mass (BM) in jump squat and 30% of their BM in the 181

bench throw. In the jump squat, participants executed a knee flexion until the thigh was 182

parallel to the ground and, and after the command to start, jumped as fast as possible 183

without their shoulder losing contact with the bar. During the bench throw, athletes 184

were instructed to lower the bar in a controlled manner until the bar lightly touched the 185

chest and, after the command to start, threw it as high and fast as possible. A load of 186

10% of BM for jump squat and 5% of BM for bench throw was progressively added in 187

each set until a decrease in mean propulsive power was observed. A 5-min interval was 188

provided between sets. To determine mean propulsive power, a linear transducer (T-189

Force®, Dynamic Measurement System, Ergotech Consulting S.L., Murcia, Spain) was 190

attached to the Smith machine bar. The bar position data was sampled at 1000Hz using 191

a computer. Finite differentiation technique was used to calculate bar velocity and 192

acceleration. Mean propulsive power rather than peak power in both jump squat and 193

bench throw were used since Sanchez-Medina et al. (21) demonstrated that mean 194

mechanical values during the propulsive phase better reflects the differences in the 195

neuromuscular potential between two given individuals. This approach avoids 196

underestimation of true strength potential as the higher the mean velocity (and lower the 197

relative load), the greater the relative contribution of the braking phase to the entire 198

concentric time. We considered the maximum mean propulsive power value obtained in 199

each exercise and the higher velocity obtained in jump squat using a load corresponding 200

to 40% of BM for data analysis purpose. 201

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Statistical Analysis 203

Data are presented as mean +- standard deviation. Relationship between 204

variables was tested via Pearson correlation coefficient, with 95% confidence intervals 205

(95% CI) being calculated for each group separately and for both groups together. As 206

95% CI correlation coefficients did not differ between groups, only the significant 207

correlation coefficients for all the athletes grouped were reported. Normality was 208

confirmed via the Shapiro-Wilk test. Linear regression models to predict acceleration at 209

different punch conditions were also created using the maximum of two variables due to 210

the sample size. Colinearity analysis was conducted to avoid the use of two correlated 211

independent variables. Independent Student t test was used to compare men and women 212

concerning performance in the different maximal strength and power exercises. Two-213

way (gender x punch) ANOVA with repeated measurements in the second factor was 214

used to compare gender groups and punch conditions. Compound symmetry was tested 215

through Mauchly test and the Greenhouse-Geisser correction was used when necessary. 216

Effect sizes were also calculated using eta squared (η2). Level of significance was set at 217

5%. 218

RESULTS 220

Men displayed higher performance values than women in all variables (P < 0.05; 222

Table 1), except in the relative squat-machine 1RM and relative mean propulsive power 223

in jump squat. 224

***INSERT TABLE 1 HERE*** 227

Effects of sex (F1, 17 = 7.84; P = 0.012; η2 = 0.32), condition (F3, 51 = 23.13; P < 0.001; 230

η2 = 0.58), and an interaction effect between sex and condition (F3, 51 = 5.42; P = 0.011; 231

η2 = 0.24) were found for punch acceleration (Figure 3). Men achieved higher 232

acceleration values as compared to women (P = 0.012). The intention to generate impact 233

and the self-selected distance conditions resulted in higher accelerations when compared 234

to the intention to generate speed and the fixed distance (P < 0.01 for both 235

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comparisons). Additionally, speed and fixed distance resulted in lower acceleration than 236

speed and self-selected distance condition. The post hoc analysis indicated that women 237

in the speed and fixed distance attained lower values compared to men in the impact and 238

fixed distance (P = 0.026), speed and self-selected distance (P = 0.032) and impact and 239

self-selected distance (P = 0.008) conditions, and lower than women in all other 240

conditions (P < 0.001). 241

Significant correlations (P < 0.05) were found between punch accelerations in 247

the different conditions and maximal strength and power exercises (Table 2). Both 248

upper and lower-body power and maximal strength variables were positively correlated 249

to punch acceleration in the different conditions. 250

***INSERT TABLE 2 HERE*** 253

For each condition, the following significant (P < 0.001) equations were found: 256

(Fixed distance aiming to attain maximum speed) acceleration (G) = 0.286 + 0.293 258

(relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.008 (squat-machine 1RM, 259

in kg) (R = 0.818, R2 adjusted = 0.627) 260

(Fixed distance aiming to attain maximum impact) acceleration (G) = 1.376 + 0.278 261

(relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.004 (squat-machine 1RM, 262

in kg) (R = 0.806, R2 adjusted = 0.605) 263

(Self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum speed) acceleration (G) = 1.454 + 265

0.275 (relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.003 (squat-machine 266

1RM, in kg) (R = 0.779, R2 adjusted = 0.558) 267

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(Self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum speed) acceleration (G) = 1.767 + 269

0.255 (relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.005 (bench press 270

(Self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum impact) acceleration (G) = 1.923 + 273

0.240 (relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.004 (squat-machine 274

(Self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum impact) acceleration (G) = 2.260 + 277

0.230 (relative mean propulsive power in jump squat, in W/kg) + 0.006 (bench press 278

DISCUSSION 281

The main finding of the present study is that punching with an impact-oriented 283

goal and from a self-selected distance produces higher accelerations compared to a 284

speed-oriented goal and fixed distance. Moreover, several upper- and lower-body power 285

and strength variables were positively correlated to acceleration in the different punch 286

conditions. According to our results, 56% to 65% of the variation in punch acceleration 287

in the various conditions could be predicted by a combination of relative mean 288

propulsive power in squat-machine, and either squat-machine 1RM or bench press 289

1RM. 290

In competitive karate, punches are the most used technique (4). Punching is a 291

highly complex technique that requires the coordinated action of arm, trunk and leg 292

muscle groups (22). Some authors consider that the lower-body is the primary 293

contributor to punch execution, because the ground reaction forces generated by legs 294

would be transferred to the upper-body, allowing for a powerful movement (12). Thus, 295

the inclusion of the relative mean propulsive power in jump squat in all punching 296

acceleration predictive equations is indicative that a higher ground reaction force would 297

result in more acceleration. In fact, Filimonov et al. (7) showed that the better the 298

competitive level, the more the legs contribute to the total impact during straight 299

punching in boxers. According to Turner et al. (22) and Lenetsky et al. (12), leg drive is 300

likely to affect pre-impact hand velocity. In World Karate Federation, athletes’ main 301

goal is to score by touching the opponent rather than knocking them out; hence, a higher 302

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hand acceleration and speed would be important to land a punch prior to a response 303

from the opponent (13). Not surprisingly, relative mean propulsive power in jump squat 304

was the only variable that did not differ between men and women, which further 305

strengthens the concept that leg power is crucial for punch acceleration and, therefore, 306

karate performance. 307

Lower-body maximal strength was also predictive of punching acceleration in 308

all conditions, suggesting that karate athletes aiming at improving punch acceleration 309

should improve both relative lower-body mean propulsive power as well as lower-body 310

maximal strength. Indeed, Turner et al. (22) have recommended exercises for lower-311

body maximal strength as an important means to improving punching power, while 312

Lenetsky et al. (12) reported that the literature has not extensively explored punching in 313

relation to upper body. Furthermore, our results indicate that maximal bench press 314

strength is related to punch acceleration and, thus, increasing upper-body maximal 315

strength also appears to be important to improve punch performance. However, it is 316

worthy to note that only 56% to 65% of the variation in punch acceleration was 317

explained by power and strength parameters, suggesting that technical aspects are 318

probably responsible by the remaining variation. 319

The relationships between strength and power abilities and punching speed for 320

both upper and lower limbs can be explained by the dynamics characteristics of 321

punching. When karate athletes punch at higher velocities, the ability to transfer the 322

linear momentum of force from the lower limbs to the upper limbs is critical to hit the 323

opponent as fast as possible. Indeed, this skill is directly associated with the mechanical 324

impulse generated in a specific movement (i.e., the integral of force over a short time 325

interval). These associations have also been demonstrated in other sports actions 326

performed with the upper limbs; Morris et al. (16) described these mechanisms as 327

critical factors for performance in javelin throwing, while Chelly et al. (6) reported a 328

similar relationship in male handball players and predictors of ball throwing velocity. 329

In the current study, both maximum strength and relative mean propulsive power 330

were important predictors of punching acceleration. These findings support the 331

mechanical principle that determines the magnitude of a body’s linear momentum, 332

defined as a product of its mass multiplied by its velocity. In this regard, the athletes 333

capable of applying greater amounts of force against the ground and of moving their 334

bodies forward at higher speeds obtain the best outcomes in punching acceleration. 335

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These abilities are directly correlated to maximum strength and relative power abilities 336

(8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 19). 337

Our results indicated that when athletes where asked to perform a punch with an 338

impact-oriented goal and were free to choose the distance from their target, higher 339

acceleration was achieved. This is likely due to the fact that peak force is related to the 340

acceleration of an object at each instant, multiplied by its effective mass (2). Since peak 341

hand acceleration is correlated to martial arts experience (17) and our athletes were 342

competing at the highest level, it is likely that they were able to adjust the optimal 343

distance to achieve the higher acceleration. This is confirmed by the fact that the speed-344

oriented and fixed distance condition resulted in the lowest accelerations of all 345

conditions. 346

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 348

The findings presented herein suggest that a training system to improve 350

punching acceleration should include exercises capable of increasing lower-body 351

muscle power and both upper- and lower-body maximal dynamic strength. However, 352

to punch at higher velocities, fighters have to develop the technical ability to transfer the 353

linear momentum of force from the lower limbs to the upper limbs as fast as possible. 354

The inclusion of punching drills, in which athletes attempt to achieve the highest 355

possible impact from a self-selected distance, ought to be considered an essential part of 356

any karate training routine. Longitudinal studies investigating the impact of improving 357

these variables on punch performance should be conducted to further confirm and 358

strengthen the associations found in the present study. Future studies should also 359

include trunk specific exercises as predictive variables for punching acceleration, 360

because a stable trunk (especially at the lumbar region) might be important to transmit 361

ground reaction forces throughout the body (12). 362

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 364

The authors are grateful to Dr. Bryan Saunders for the careful English 365

proofreading. Guilherme G Artioli is supported by FAPESP (#2011/17059-2). 366

REFERENCES 368

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FIGURE LEGENDS 430

Figure 1. Equipment for the acceleration (G) measurement. 432

Figure 2. Acceleration (G) measurement during giaku-tsuki execution. 434

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Figure 3. Punch acceleration in different combination of distance and goals for men and 436

women high-level karate athletes (values are mean ± standard deviation). 437

*different from all other conditions (P < 0.05). 438

#all conditions were different between men and women (P < 0.05). 439

TABLE LEGENDS 441

Table 1. Body mass, power and strength characteristics of men and women from 443

Brazilian karate team. 444

Table 2. Correlation coefficients (and 95% confidence interval) between punch 446

accelerations and maximal strength and power variables. 447

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Table 1: Body mass, power and strength characteristics of men and women from

Brazilian karate team.

Men (n = 9) Women (n = 10)

Body mass (kg) 76.7 ± 14.4* 59.1 ± 8.4

Bench press 1RM (kg) 89 ± 19* 44 ± 5

Squat-machine 1RM (kg) 201 ± 31* 151 ± 17

Relative bench press 1RM (kg/kg) 1.16 ± 0.17* 0.76 ± 0.14

Relative squat-machine 1RM (kg/kg) 2.65 ± 0.32 2.58 ± 0.38

Mean propulsive power in jump squat (W) 718 ± 150* 458 ± 66

Mean propulsive power in bench throw (W) 583 ± 116* 261 ± 51

Relative mean propulsive power in jump squat (W/kg) 9.49 ± 1.81 7.93 ± 1.75

Relative mean propulsive power in bench throw (W/kg) 7.68 ± 1.22* 4.48 ± 0.99

Jump squat velocity with 40% of BM (m/s) 1.23 ± 0.15* 1.10 ± 0.09

Squat jump (cm) 40.6 ± 5.6* 30.5 ± 3.2

Countermovement jump (cm) 43.2 ± 5.3* 31.9 ± 4.2

* Different from women (P < 0.05)

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Table 2. Correlation coefficients (and 95% confidence interval) between punch accelerations and maximal strength and power variables.

FS FI SSS SSI

Maximal velocity during jump squat with 40% of BM 0.742

(0.433 to 0.894)

(0.400 to 0.886)

(0.398 to 0.886)

(0.440 to 0.896)

Relative mean propulsive power in jump squat 0.765

(0.476 to 0.905)

(0.521 to 0.915)

(0.477 to 0.905)

(0.551 to 0.922)

Relative squat-machine 1RM 0.664

(0.300 to 0.859)

(0.314 to 0.863)

(0.289 to 0.856)

(0.255 to 0.846)

Relative mean propulsive power in bench throw 0.729

(0.411 to 0.889)

(0.288 to 0.855)

(0.282 to 0.854)

(0.424 to 0.892)

Relative bench press 1RM 0.762

(0.470 to 0.903)

(0.373 to 0.879)

(0.374 to 0.879)

(0.443 to 0.897)

Squat jump height 0.687

(0.338 to o.870)

(0.309 to 0.862)

(0.282 to 0.854)

(0.320 to 0.865)

Countermovement jump height 0.729

(0.411 to o.889)

(0.373 to 0.879)

(0.344 to o.871)

(0.406 to 0.888)

*(FS) = fixed distance aiming to attain maximum speed; (FI) = fixed distance aiming to attain maximum impact; (SSS) = self-selected distance

aiming to attain maximum speed; (SSI) = self-selected distance aiming to attain maximum impact.

ACCEPTED

Predicting Punching Acceleration from Selected Strength and Power Variables in Elite Karate Athletes

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