11/13/13. How do we learn? Brainstorm, what are some ways we learn new information? Do we learn...
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- 11/13/13
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- How do we learn? Brainstorm, what are some ways we learn new
information? Do we learn similarly to any other animals? Does
everybody learn the same way?
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- How we Learn Learning: A relatively permanent change in an
organisms behavior due to experience. Habituation: an organisms
decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
Associative learning: Learning that certain events occur together.
The events maybe two stimuli or a response and its
consequences
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- Learning and Conditioning Learning - A relatively permanent
change in behavior due to experiences Conditioning The acquisition
of specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined
stimuli Classical and Operant
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- Classical Conditioning Stimulus = cause Response = effect Ivan
Pavlov (18491936)
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- Elements of Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Conditioned
Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)
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- Neutral StimulusBell Does not normally cause a response or
reflex action by itself a bell ringing a color a furry object
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- Unconditioned StimulusFood Always cause a reflex action food
blast of air noise
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- Unconditioned Response - Salivation A response to an
unconditioned stimulusnaturally occurring reflex Salivation at
smell of food Eye blinks at blast of air Startle reaction in
babies
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- Conditioned Stimulus The learned (once neutral) stimulus The
tone of the bell causes salivation Will eventually elicit the
unconditioned response by itself
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- Conditioned Response The original unconditioned response
becomes conditioned after it has been elicited by the neutral
stimulus Salivation because of the bell tone
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- Classical Conditioning in Humans Watson and Little Albert
Identify the: Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus Unconditioned
Response Conditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Is this
Ethical?
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- Identify the: Neutral Stimulus (NS) Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned
Response (CR)
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- Classical Conditioning Acquisition: in classical conditioning,
the stage when links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus are linked so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering
the conditioned response. Higher-order conditioning: a procedure in
which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often
weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has
learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light
predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also
called second-order conditioning.)
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- Extinction: the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs
in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does
not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant
conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous
recovery: the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished
conditioned response.
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- Generalization: the tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to
elicit similar responses. Discrimination: in classical
conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a
conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
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- Cognitive Processes Early behaviorists believed that learned
behaviors of various animals could be reduced to mindless
mechanisms. However, later behaviorists suggested that animals
learn the predictability of a stimulus, meaning they learn
expectancy or awareness of a stimulus (Rescorla, 1988). Learned
Helplessness Not just the conditioning, the thought influences
behavior as well
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- Biological Predispositions Pavlov and Watson believed that laws
of learning were similar for all animals. Therefore, a pigeon and a
person do not differ in their learning. However, behaviorists later
suggested that learning is constrained by an animals biology. Each
species predispositions prepare it to learn the associations that
enhance its survival.
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- Biological Predispositions John Garcia Garcia showed that the
duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet
result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to
conditioning and not to others (light or sound). Taste Aversion
Courtesy of John Garcia
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- Biological Predispositions Even humans can develop classically
to conditioned nausea.
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- Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning involves respondent
behavior (automatic actions) Operant conditioning reinforces
desired behavior and discourages undesired behavior. Operant
behavior: Behavior that operates (has an effect) on the environment
to produce consequences Classical conditioning=no control Operant
conditioning= control of behavior and consequences
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- Operant Conditioning Law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely
to recur (Edward Thorndike) Skinner used the Law of Effect to
develop principles of behavior control. Operant chamber/Skinners
box: box containing a bar or key that an animal can use to obtain a
food or water reinforcer; attached devices record rate of bar or
key pressing
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- Shaping: reinforcers guide behavior toward desired behavior
with successive approximations Discriminative Stimulus: elicits
response after association with reinforcement (remember
discrimination vs. generalization)
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- Reinforcer: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens
the behavior it follows. Positive Reinforcement: increasing
behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response,
strengthens the response. Negative Reinforcement: increases
behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a
response, strengthens the response (Note: negative reinforcement is
NOT punishment).
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- Primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as
one that satisfies a biological need. Conditioned reinforcer: a
stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association
with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary
reinforcer.
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- Immediate and Delayed Reinforcement Which one works better? In
rats-immediate In humans- both will work, sometimes delayed works
better. If given the option of a small candy bar today or a big
candy bar tomorrow what would you choose?
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- Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing
the desired response every time it occurs. Partial (intermittent)
reinforcement: Reinforcing a response only part of the time;
results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater
resistance to extinction
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- Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio Version having to do with
instances of the behavior. Ex. Reinforce or reward the behavior
after a set number or x many times that an action or behavior is
demonstrated. Interval Version having to do with the passage of
time. Ex. Reinforce the participant after a set number or x period
of time that the behavior is displayed.
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- 4 Basic Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule
Variable-interval schedule Fixed-ratio schedule Variable-ratio
schedule
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- Fixed-Interval Schedule Fixed-interval schedule A schedule in
which a fixed amount of time must elapse between the previous and
subsequent times that reinforcement will occur. No response during
the interval is reinforced. The first response following the
interval is reinforced. Produces an overall low rate of responding
Ex. I get one pellet of food every 5 minutes when I press the
lever
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- Fixed Interval Reinforcement
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- Variable-Interval Schedule Variable-interval Schedule A
schedule in which a variable amount of time must elapse between the
previous and subsequent times that reinforcement is available.
Produces an overall low consistent rate of responding. Ex. I get a
pellet of food on average every 5 minutes when I press the
bar.
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- Variable Interval Reinforcement
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- Fixed-Ratio Schedule Fixed-ratio Schedule A schedule in which
reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of correct
responses. These schedules usually produce rapid rates of
responding with short post-reinforcement pauses The length of the
pause is directly proportional to the number of responses required
Ex. For every 5 bar presses, I get one pellet of food
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- An Example of Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Every fourth instance
of a smile is reinforced
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- Fixed Ratio Reinforcement
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- Variable-Ratio Schedule Variable-ratio Schedule A schedule in
which reinforcement is provided after a variable number of correct
responses. Produce an overall high consistent rate of responding.
Ex. On average, I press the bar 5 times for one pellet of
food.
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- An Example of Variable Ratio Reinforcement Random instances of
the behavior are reinforced
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- Variable Ratio Reinforcement
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- TYPEMEANINGOUTCOME Fixed Ratio Reinforcement depends on a
definite number of responses Activity slows after reinforcement and
then picks up Variable Ratio Number of responses needed for
reinforcement varies Greatest activity of all schedules Fixed
Interval Reinforcement depends on a fixed time Activity increases
as deadline nears Variable Interval Time between reinforcement
varies Steady activity results
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- Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed interval Reward
on fixed time basis Leads to average and irregular performance Fast
extinction of behavior Fixed ratio Variable ratio Variable interval
Reward tied to specific number of responses Leads quickly to very
high and stable performance Moderately fast extinction of behavior
SCHEDULE FORM OF REWARD Reward given after varying periods of time
Leads to moderately high and stable performance Slow extinction of
behavior Reward given for some behaviors Leads to very high
performance Very slow extinction of behavior INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR
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- FI, VI, FR, or VR? 1. When I bake cookies, I can only put one
set in at a time, so after 10 minutes my first set of cookies is
done. After another ten minutes, my second set of cookies is done.
I get to eat a cookie after each set is done baking. 2. After every
10 math problems that I complete, I allow myself a 5 minute break.
3. I look over my notes every night because I never know how much
time will go by before my next pop quiz. 4. When hunting season
comes around, sometimes Ill spend all day sitting in the woods
waiting to get a shot at a big buck. Its worth it though when I get
a nice 10 point. 5. Today in Psychology class we were talking about
Schedules of Reinforcement and everyone was eagerly raising their
hands and participating. Miranda raised her hand a couple of times
and was eventually called on. 1. FI 2. FR 3. VI 4. VI 5. VR
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- Punishment While reinforcement increases behavior, punishment
does the opposite Punishment: An event that decreases the behavior
that it follows. Positive punishment: adding an aversive stimulus.
(spanking) Negative punishment: taking away desirable stimulus.
(grounded)
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- Biological Predispositions Biological constraints predispose
organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. You
can teach a pigeon to flap its wings to avoid shock and to peck to
receive food but not the other way around.
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- Cognition & Operant Conditioning Evidence of cognitive
processes during operant learning comes from rats during a maze
exploration in which they navigate the maze without an obvious
reward. Rats seem to develop cognitive maps, or mental
representations, of the layout of the maze (environment). Cognitive
map: a mental representation of the layout of ones environment
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- Latent Learning Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent when an incentive is given (Tolman
& Honzik, 1930).
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- Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a
behavior for its own sake. Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to
perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of
punishments.
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- Skinners Legacy Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics
argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free
will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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- Applications of Operant Conditioning Skinner introduced the
concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards. In School LWA-JDL/
Corbis
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- FI, VI, FR, or VR? 6. Madison spanks her son if she has to ask
him three times to clean up his room. 7. Emily has a spelling test
every Friday. She usually does well and gets a star sticker. 8.
Steves a big gambling man. He plays the slot machines all day
hoping for a big win. 9. Snakes get hungry at certain times of the
day. They might watch any number of prey go by before they decide
to strike. 10. Mr. Bertani receives a salary paycheck every 2
weeks. (Miss Suter doesnt ). 11. Christina works at a tanning
salon. For every 2 bottles of lotion she sells, she gets 1 dollar
in commission. 12. Mike is trying to study for his upcoming
Psychology quiz. He reads five pages, then takes a break. He
resumes reading and takes another break after he has completed 5
more pages. 6. FR 7. FI 8. VR 9. VI 10. FI 11. FR 12. FR
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- FI, VI, FR, or VR? 13. Megan is fundraising to try to raise
money so she can go on the annual band trip. She goes door to door
in her neighborhood trying to sell popcorn tins. She eventually
sells some. 14. Kylie is a business girl who works in the big city.
Her boss is busy, so he only checks her work periodically. 15. Mark
is a lawyer who owns his own practice. His customers makes payments
at irregular times. 16. Jessica is a dental assistant and gets a
raise every year at the same time and never in between. 17. Andrew
works at a GM factory and is in charge of attaching 3 parts. After
he gets his parts attached, he gets some free time before the next
car moves down the line. 18. Brittany is a telemarketer trying to
sell life insurance. After so many calls, someone will eventually
buy. 13. VR 14. VI 15. VI 16. FI 17. FR 18. VR