Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic: A

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic: A Transformative Role for

Hawaiian/Indigenous Science in Teacher Education? Pauline W. U. Chinn

ThisqualitativestudyreportsfindingsfromaHawai‘i-basedpro-fessionaldevelopmentworkshopinvolving19secondarymathematicsandscienceteachersfromJapan,Malaysia,Indonesia,Thailand,Korea,Philippines,U.S.andPeople’sRepublicofChina.Participantslearnedaboutplace-basedsciencegroundedinNativeHawaiianperspectivesandpractices andwrote about anddiscussed the roleof indigenousknowledgeandpractices insciencecurriculumprior to1) reflectiveexercisestodevelopapersonalsenseofplaceand2)apresentationonindigenousHawaiianpracticesrelatedtoplaceandsustainability.Responsesprior to the interventions showedmostparticipants fromAsiannationsviewedindigenouspracticesnegatively.Afterwards,mostviewedindigenouspracticespositively.Theycritiquedtheabsenceofindigenousecologicalknowledgeintheirnationalsciencecurriculumandidentifiedlocalissuesofairandwaterqualityowingtoindustri-alization,fires,deforestationandresourceexploitation.Attheendofthetwoweekworkshop,videotapedlessonsandinterviewswiththeworkshop administrator showedmost incorporated students’ places,priorknowledge,and/orculturalpracticesintheirlessons.Afterthreeyears,oneparticipantleftherschooltobeabletoteachplace-basededucation.Findings suggest professional development that includesindigenous,sustainablepracticesandpersonal,place-basedactivitiesprovidesaconceptualframeworkfortransformingmainstreamsciencecurriculaintomeaningfulplaceandproblem-basedcurricularelevanttoactiveenvironmentalliteracy.

StudentsinHawai‘ihaveauniquenaturallaboratorytoexplorefundamentalbiological questions involving evolution, adaptation and the development ofsocioecosystemsonisolatedislandsystems.ButHawaiʻi’sstudentshistoricallystudymainstream,textbook-basedscience.Theymaybecomeliterateinschoolsciencebutseldomlearnaboutissuesofendangeredandinvasivespeciesorsoilandwaterpollutionintheirowncommunities.Atthesecondarylevel,scienceclassesthataddresslocallyrelevantmarinescienceandnaturalhistorytendtobetargetedtowardsloweracademictrackstudents,whilecollegeboundstudentsenroll inmainstreambiology, chemistryandphysicscourses recognizedandrequiredbymanycolleges. MiddleclassstudentswhoarelikelytopursuepostsecondaryschoolingareservedreasonablywellinHawaiʻi’smainstreamschools.Theytakecollegepre-paratoryclassesandenteruniversitieswheretheirscienceandscienceeducationprofessorsachieveprofessionalstatusthroughresearchandwritingsassessedbypeerswhobelongtonationallyandinternationallyrecognizedknowledge-

CiteasfromJ.Reyhner,W.S.Gilbert&L.Lockard(Eds.).(2011).Honoring Our Heri-tage: Culturally Appropriate Approaches for Teaching Indigenous Students(pp.75-95).Flagstaff,AZ:NorthernArizonaUniversity.

Honoring Our Heritage

7676

basedprofessionalsubcultures.ItisironicthatspecialistsstudyingHawaiʻi’sflora,fauna,terrestrialandmarineecosystems,archeologyandgeologymaybelocatedinresearchinstitutionsanywhereintheworld. Incollege,Hawaiʻi’sfutureteachers,especiallythoseinelementarypro-grams,areunlikelytogainthescienceknowledgeandtoolstointegratetheirfamiliarenvironmentsintotheircurricula.Evennationallyaccreditedelementaryteachereducationprogramsrequireonlytwosemestersofintroductorybiologi-calandphysicalscience.AfewyearsagooneofmysciencemethodsstudentssaidteachersatherpublicschoolonKauaihaddecidedonbears(whicharenotfoundinHawaiʻi)asthethemeofsecondgradescience.EvenwhenteachersareknowledgeableaboutHawaiʻi-orientedscience,schooladministrators’desirestoraisestandardizedtestscoresbyadoptingmainstreamcurriculatendstoimpedetheteachingofstandards-based,locallyrelevantscience. ThisisunfortunateaspublicschoolteachersinHawaiʻiworkwithculturallydiversestudentswhoseworldsarelargelylimitedtotheirimmediatefamilies,neighborhoods and communities.Teacher education programs and scienceteachingstandardsstresstheimportanceofaddressingstudentdiversitythroughculturally responsive lessons that includeandbuildupon students’ lives andexperiences(Gollnick&Chinn,1998).Butonceinschools,teachersfindtheinstitutionalfocusonstandardizedtestsofreadingandmathematicscontradictsNationalScienceEducationStandards(NationalResearchCouncil,1996)direct-ingteachersto:

Selectsciencecontentandadaptanddesigncurriculatomeettheinterests,knowledge,understanding,abilities,andexperiencesofstudents.Indeter-miningthespecificsciencecontentandactivitiesthatmakeupacurricu-lum,teachersconsiderthestudentswhowillbelearningthescience.(p.4)

AnelementaryteacherwithamasterdegreeineducationenrolledinmyEDCS433InterdisciplinaryScienceCurriculum,Mālama I Ka ´Āina,SustainabilityclasstolearntoteachHawai‘irelevant,placeandstandards-basedscienceles-sons.Inoneofthewritingassignments,shecritiquedthemainstreamlanguagearts,mathematics,andsciencecurricularprogramsherschoolpurchased:

With thecurricula thatwehave tocover there is little time forscienceandthecontentseemsso“mainland.”Discussingwoodssuchasoakorredwoodisokay,butyetkindofsillybecausewhohasseenanoakorredwoodtree,muchlessoneinHawaii?Wehaveourownwoodshere,butifyoufollowthe_______sciencecontent,youdonotgettocoverthat…TherearealotofgreatideasfromMālama…butIamafraidtodotoomuchofitforfearthatIwouldbeaccusedofnotfollowingthecurriculum(whichtheypaidalotof$$for).1

1Thisandsubsequentquotesthatarenototherwisereferencedarefromstudentandworkshopparticipants’writtenreports,e-mails,etc.

76

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

76 77

Thesecommentsrevealteacherdisempowermentandacritiqueofschoolpoli-ciesthatputscarcefinancialandteachingresourcesintocurriculaunrelatedtostudents’livesandexperiences.Environmentalliteracy,theabilitytounderstand,monitorandmaintainorrestoretheintegrityofenvironmentalsystemsallliferelies on ismarginalized in hopesof producingwhatSternberg (2003) callspseudo-experts:

Conventionalmethodsofteachingmay,atbest,createpseudo-experts—studentswhoseexpertise,totheextenttheyhaveit,doesnotmirrortheexpertiseneededforreal-worldthinkinginsideoroutsideof theacademicdisciplinesschoolsnormallyteach.(p.5)

Hisresearchshowsthatteachingandassessmentthatincludeanalytical,creative,andpracticalthinkingenablesstudentsfrommorediverseracial,ethnic,edu-cationalandsocioeconomicbackgroundstobesuccessfullearnerswhereastheanalyticalapproachesofmainstreamschoolsreducesdiversity.Hethinksteaching“mustrelatetorealpracticalneedsofstudents”andthatpractical,creative,andanalyticalteachingleadstothe“successfulintelligence”neededinfieldssuchasteachingandscience(p.5).Sternbergnotesthatreducingdemocraticoutcomesand producing pseudo-experts incapable of real-world problem solving hasserioussocietalimplications.Hiscurrentworkexaminestheroleofthinkinginwisdom,definedas“theuseofsuccessfulintelligenceandexperiencetowardtheattainmentofacommongood”(p.7).Heworriesthattest-drivenschoolswillnoteducatecitizensandleaderswiththerealworldexperienceneededtomakewisedecisionsinanincreasinglycomplex,interrelatedworld.

Literature review: A world of difference The history ofwestern science as a cultural enterprise suggests thatknowledge-buildingandtechnologicalinnovationsaredrivenbytheinterestsofdominantelites(Gould,1993;Takaki,1993).ScienceasanobjectivequestforknowledgedevelopedinthecontextofEuropeanimperialismandthequestfornewlandsandresources.Westernsciencemethodsofknowledgebuildingthatinvolvemeasuring,classifying,collecting,dissecting,andmappingofeverythinginamaterialworldareantitheticaltoaHawaiianworldviewthatunderstandshumansandnatureinafamilialrelationship. Hass(1992)writesthatHawaiʻi’sschoolsbeganasavehicleformonocultur-ism,“thepracticeofcateringtothedominantormainstreamculture,providingsecond-class treatment or no special consideration at all to persons of non-mainstreamcultures”(p.161).Culturemaybedefinedas“asystemofvalues,beliefs,notionsaboutacceptableandunacceptablebehavior,andothersociallyconstructed ideas characteristic of a societyof a subgroupwithin a society”(Garcia,1999,p.377).Culturaldifferencesprovideawayfordominantgroupstoportrayothersasoutsidersoflesserimportance.Negativestereotypesmayleadeducatorstodevalueandexcludetheculturalknowledge,perspectivesandpracticesofmarginalizedgroupsandholdlowerexpectationsforthesestudents.

Honoring Our Heritage

7878

AreviewofthehistoryofeducationinHawaiʻishowsthatHawaiianlanguageandculturewerelargelyexcludedfrommainstreamschoolsafterHawai‘ibe-cameaUnitedStatesterritoryin1898.CulturalandeconomicmarginalizationcontributetostatisticsshowingthatNativeHawaiiansinpublicschools,at26%thesinglelargestethnicgroup,experiencethelowestschoolsuccessofanygroup(Kanaiaupuni&Ishibashi,2003). ButHawaiianculturalpracticesandperspectiveshavemuchtocontributetoenvironmentalliteracyandanecosystemsunderstandingofhumaninteractionswiththenaturalworld.Untilamonetaryeconomyandpoliciesallowingprivateownershipoflanddevelopedinthe19thcentury,mostHawaiianslivedandmar-riedwithinahupua‘a,alanddivisiontypicallyextendingfrommountaintoptotheedgeofthereefcontainingfreshwaterandtheresourcesnecessarytosustainthepopulation.Thoselivingupland,mauka,exchangedproductswiththoseliv-ingmakai,towardsthesea(Abbott,1992).Dependenceontheresourcesoftheahupua‘aproducedlongterm,detailedenvironmentalknowledgerevealedinplacenamesofwinds,rains,springs,andotherenvironmentalfeatures(Pukui,etal.,1974). FromaHawaiianperspective,humans,livingthings,landandseaformaninterdependent, ancestral, spiritually-imbued system (Maly, 2001).The con-nectednessoflandandseaisseeninthepairingoflandandseaorganisms,suchas pig,pua‘a and the triggerfish,humuhumunukunukuapua‘a (Rhinecanthus rectangulus).Closeobservation isseen inabinarynamingsystemthat linksnaupaka kahakai, Scaevola sericea,anindigenouscoastalplantdispersedbyseawatertoScaevola gaudichaudiana, naupaka kuahiwi,anendemic,montaneplantdispersedbybirds(Howarth,Gustafsson,Baum&Motley,2003).

Figure 1: Naupaka kahakai(left);Naupaka kuahiwi(right)

TheHawaiianproverb,He aliʻi ka ‘āina; he kaua ke kanaka translated as “Thelandisachief,manisitsservant”(Pukui,1983,p.62)indicatesHawaiiansrecognizedthatactivecare(mālama ‘āina)andrespect/love(aloha‘āina)forallthatsustainedthemenabledtheirsurvival.Incontrast,technologicallyadvancednationsareonlybeginningtorecognizethefundamentalimportanceofhealthyecosystemsasnegativeimpactsofhumanactivitiesbecomeevident.Expres-siveofaneconomicorientation,theenergycapturing,resourceproducing,and

78

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

78 79

cleansingprocessesofnaturalecosystemsareevaluatedasecosystemservices(Daily,2003). Afocusonplace-based,environmentalliteracyinscienceteachereduca-tionandcurriculumdevelopmenttakesonurgencygivenevidencethathumanactivities have become themost important evolutionary force in theworld(Palumbi,2001).Emergingasaninterdisciplinarytheoreticalfieldineducation(Gruenewald,2003;Perez,Fain,&Slater,2004),learningassociatedwithplaceproducestheecosystemsknowledgeintegratinghumansandnaturethatchar-acterizessustainablecultures(Orr,1992;Cajete,1999,2000;Kawagley,2001).DisingerandRoth(2003)stresstheactiveproblem-finding,problem-solving,place-basednatureofenvironmentalliteracy. WhenHawaiʻireviseditssciencecontentstandardsin1999,aHawaiiansayingMālama I Ka ´Āina(Sustainability)tocareforthelandthatsustainsuswasincludedasastandard.With300plusplantandanimalspecies,thehigh-estnumberofcandidatesforprotectivestatus;aboutafourthofthosealreadyprotectedundertheEndangeredSpeciesAct,107of286(Song,2005);and90%ofendemicspeciesfoundnowhereelseintheworld,environmentalliteracyisanimmediateissueforeveryoneinHawaiʻi.Kanahele(1986)speakstoNativeHawaiiansandresidentsofHawaiʻitoday:

IfwearetobetrulyconsistentwithtraditionalHawaiianthought,noonereallyownedthelandinthepast…Therelationshipwastheotherwayaround:apersonbelongedtotheland…Wearebutstewardsofthe´āina and kai,trustedtotakecareoftheseislandsonbehalfofthegods,ourancestors,ourselves,andoutchildren.(pp.208-09)

Culture and perception of the natural world Socioculturaltheoryassumesthatlearningcannotbedissociatedfromin-terpersonalinteractionslocatedinculturalframeworks(Lave&Wenger,1991;Cole,1996;Geeetal.,1996).Sociallysituatedlearningrecognizesthatvalues,emotions,experiencesandculturalcontextsareintegrallyrelatedtolearning.Therecognitionthatdifferentcultureshavedifferentwaysofunderstandinghowpeoplerelatetoeachotherandtheworldisthefoundationforexplicitlyaddress-ingculturalcontextsinteachereducationprograms.Ifnotbroughttoawarenessmainstreamteachersmayonlybecomefamiliarwithsuperficial,evencontrivedculturalelementssuchastheadditionofpineappletomakeaHawaiianpizza. CrossculturalresearchbyNisbett(2003a)andhisAsiancolleaguesyieldsinsightsintotheroleofcultureinshapingviewsofnature.ComparisonsofAsianandAmericanperceptionssuggestthatAsiansaremorelikelytoseehumansandtheirsurroundingsaspartofacomplexsystemwhileAmericanstendtoseeindividualactors.Nisbettsuggeststhatfeng shui,thestudyofhowastructurerelatestoitsenvironment,revealsAsiansperceivetheworldascomposedofcomplexrelationshipswhiletheAmericantendencytoproblem-solvewithse-riesofstepsindicatesrulebased,atomistic,universallyapplicablethinking.Hisresultsindicatethat“Westernersaremoreanalytic,payingattentionprimarily

Honoring Our Heritage

8080

totheobjectandthecategoriestowhichitbelongsandusingrules,includingformallogic,toexplainandpredictitsbehavior.”Nisbett(2003b)warnseduca-torsthat“itmightbeamistaketoassumethatit’saneasymattertoteachoneculture’stoolstoindividualsinanotherwithouttotalimmersioninthatculture.”Culturaldifferencesrangingfromsuperficialtoideologicalprovideacontextforexaminingschoolsuccessofstudentsfromdifferentculturalgroups.InHawaiʻi,forexample,ahostcultureemphasisonrelationalidentitygroundedinfamilyandplacediffersfromthedominantAmericanemphasisonpersonalidentity.Inmainstreamclassrooms,studentslearnscienceinacultureofindividualistic,competitive practices leading to individual rankings.Hawaiianworldviewsestablishinghumansinfamilial,caringrelationshipswiththenaturalworldareantitheticaltomainstreamideologiesgroundedinscientificprogress,individu-alism,andcapitalism.InfluencedbyDescartes(Orr,1992)andIsaacNewton’sshapingof scientific communication (Bazerman, 1988)mainstreamWesternModernScience(WMS)anditsproduct,schoolscience,tendtoportrayscienceas the discovery of universal truths basedondata gained throughobjective,reproducibleexperimentsstrippedofemotion,culturalcontextsandvalues. OneoutcomeofbeingsocializedinWMSisatendencyforscienceteacherstobelessawareofissuesofcultureineducation(Greenfield-Arambula,2005).Butsomescientistsarebeginningtorecognizetheimportanceofgroundingsci-ence,especiallyenvironmentalscience,inexperiencesandemotionsleadingtoanenvironmentalethicseeninHawaiianvaluesofmālama ́ aina,activecareforthe land and aloha ʻaina,lovefortheland.DavidOrr(1992),anenvironmentalscientist,criticizesWMSforseparatingpeoplefromthenaturalworld:

Cartesian philosophywas full of potential ecologicalmischief,apotentialthatDescartes’heirsdevelopedtoitsfullest.Hisphiloso-physeparatedhumansfromthenaturalworld,strippednatureof itsintrinsic value, and segregatedmind frombody.Descarteswas atheart an engineer, andhis legacy to the environmentofour time isthecoldpassiontoremaketheworldasifweweremerelyremodel-ing amachine. Feelings and intuition have been tossed out alongwith…love.Agrowingnumberof scientists nowbelieve,withSte-phenJayGould,that“wecannotwinthisbattletosave[objectivelymeasurable] species and environmentswithout forging an [entirelysubjective]emotionalbondbetweenourselvesandnatureaswell—forwewill not fight to savewhatwe do not love” (1991, p. 14).

Transformative learning and curricular restructuring Ifmainstreamschoolscienceisviewedasimmersioninthecultureofwesternscience,perhapsimmersingmainstreamteachersintheirstudents’indigenousorsustainability-orientedculturesandcommunitiesholdsthepotentialtohelpthemteachamorecomplex,systemsorientedsciencethatsupportsenvironmentalliteracyandrecognizestheroleofcultureinlearning.From2000–2006,awardsundertheNativeHawaiianEducationActunderwroteEDCS433Interdisciplinary

80

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

80 81

ScienceCurricula,Mālama I Ka ́ Āina,Sustainability,aK-12teachereducationandcurriculumdevelopmentcoursethatincludedamultipledayculture-scienceimmersionco-instructedbyNativeHawaiians,scienceeducators,andscientists(Chinn&Sylva,2000,2002).Throughthisclass,K12teachersdevelopedandtaughtculturallyrelevant,placeandstandards-basedcurricula. Place-based culture-science immersion supports teachers in developingpersonal and professional connections to theirahupua’a, the bioregion thatlandscapearchitectThayer (2003)calls a lifeplace anddefinesas the regionsustainingtheuniquehuman-naturalcommunityinwhichonelivesandworks.Asteachers’environmentalliteracydevelops,theylearnhowtousetheirim-mediateenvironmentsforinterdisciplinary,experientiallessonsthatleadtoanethicofcareandpersonalresponsibility,kuleana,asindicatedintheformerstatesciencestandardMālama I Ka ´Āina(Sustainability). Establishingapersonalconnectionandacquiringthetoolstostudyone’slifeplacecanleadtotransformativeteachingandlearninginscience.Hall(2004)definestransformativelearningas“theprocessoflearning,whetherinformalorinformaleducationalsettingswhichislinkedtochangingtherootcausesofenvironmentaldestructionordamage”(pp.170-171).Transformativelearningrelevanttoenvironmentalliteracycreates“pedagogicalspacesforadultstolearntotransformtheirlivesandthestructuresaroundthem”(p.190).ThisisinlinewithNationalScienceTeachingStandardsurgingteacherstotranslatesciencegoals“intoacurriculumofspecifictopics,units,andsequencedactivitiesthathelpsstudentsmakesenseoftheirworldandunderstandthefundamentalideasof science (NRC,1996, p. 4)” andhasmuch in commonwithDisinger andRoth’s(2003)viewsofanactionorientedenvironmentalliteracy.ItcanbeseenfromHall’slistofelementsoftransformativeenvironmentaleducationbelowthatenvironmentaleducationleadingtoenvironmentalliteracyhasasmuchtodowithcultureandsocietyasscience:

developingasenseofplace;•recognizingtheimportanceofbiodiversity;•connectingwithnature;•revitalizingtraditionalandindigenousknowledge,values,andpractices;•buildingsocialnetworks;•understandingpower-knowledgerelationships;and•learningfromelders.•

Teacherswhovalueandincorporateindigenousknowledgeandvoicesintotheirteachingbroadentheknowledgebaseforthinkingandactingcriticallyintheworldandprovideaconceptualbridge,thoughonenotalwayseasilynego-tiableduetoideologicalandontologicaldifferences,betweenindigenousandmainstreamculturalsystems.Researchcollaborationsinvolvingindigenousandnon-indigenousindividualswithexpertiseintraditionalknowledgeandwesternscienceprovidemodelsofthesynergiestobegainedwhentraditionalandwesternscienceknowledgebasesarecombinedtounderstandparticularenvironmental

Honoring Our Heritage

8282

issues(Poepoe,etal.,2003).UntilHawaiianbecameawrittenlanguage,carefullyconservedknowledgewastransmittedthroughapprenticeshipandparticipationinculturalpractices.HawaiianswereabsolutelydependentonthewisdomoftrainedindividualsandoldpeopleviewedbyDiamond(2001)aslivinglibrariesThistransmissionwasbrokenwiththeinstitutionofcompulsoryschoolinginanEnglishonlyenvironmentafterHawaiʻibecameaterritory.Understandingtheroleoflanguage,placeandcontextualized,interpersonalexperiencesinculturaltransmissionprovidesinsightintoindigenouspeoples’determinationtoshapeeducationfromtheirownculturalperspectives(Cajete,1986;Kawagley,1999;Smith,1999;Smith,2003).Authentic,personalizedenvironmentsandauthentic,experience-basedlearningarestillcriticalfactorsforsuccessintheschoolingofnativeHawaiianstudents(Kawakami&Aton,2000).

Connecting informal learning to school science Ilearnedtolovesciencebecausemyfather,ascienceteacher,exposedhischildrentoinformalsciencethroughoutdooractivitiesthatledtointerest-drivenstudyofHawaii’snaturalhistory.Virtuallynoneofmylearningandexperiencestranslatedintoschoolscience,butIneverquestionedit.Asasecondaryscienceteacher,ittookmeyearstorecognizetheironyinNativeHawaiianstudentsbeingleastsuccessfulofallHawaiʻi’sethnicgroupsinschoolsciencethoughcomingfromaculturesustainedthroughbroad-basedenvironmentalliteracy.YearslaterIinterviewedaNativeHawaiianfemaleengineeringstudentwhoreportedthatherfriends’academicpathswereshapedbyelementaryteacherswhogroupedthembyperceivedacademicabilityandbehavior,settingthestageforacademicpeergroupsthatpersistedthroughhighschoolandbeyond(Chinn,1999b).Researchwithmyculturallydiversepreserviceteachers(Chinn,2003)revealedthattheirviewsofteachingareshapedbylifeexperiencesinterpretedthroughthelensesofcultureandschooling.Thesefindingssupportsocio-culturaltheoriesoflearningthatgroundHawai‘iTeacherStandards(www.htsb.org/standards/index.html)andNationalScienceTeachingStandards(NRC,1996)thatstresstheconnectionsbetweenstudents’informalandschoollearning. IsabellaAionaAbbott,thefirstNativeHawaiianwomantoearnadoctorateinsciencebecameinterestedinbotanynotthroughscienceclassesbutthroughhermother’sknowledgeofplantsandherprincipal’ssupportofherinterests(Chinn,1999a).Abbott(1992)listenedashermother,bornandbroughtuponMauidis-cussedlocaldifferencesinknowledgeandpracticeswithculturalexpertMaryPukuifromtheKa‘udistrictofHawaiʻi.Shechides“scholars[who]wouldbetemptedtomakeadeterminationofwhichoneamongthevariousviewpointswascorrectornormative,”notingthat“Hawaiianculturewasdiverse,morepluralisticthanmonolithic.”Sheasksherreaderstoberesearchersoffamilyknowledge,“WeHawaiianshavemostlylostouronce-greattalentfortheoraltransmissionofculture,soifstoriesoftheoldwaysstillresideinyourfamily,searchthemoutandtreasurethem—andmakesuretheyarepreservedinwrittenform”(p.x). LindaTuhiwaiSmith (1999), aMaori researcher, describes 25 researchprojectsbeingundertakenbyindigenouspeopleswith“themessuchascultural

82

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

82 83

survival, self-determination, healing, restoration and social justice” (p. 142).Storytelling,indigenizing,connecting,writing,representingandnamingaresixresearchprojectsimplicitlyembeddedinAbbott’ssuggestiontoNativeHawai-ianstoseekout,treasureandwritetheirculturalstories. ANativeHawaiian preservice teacher’s assignment towrite about herpersonalplaceproducedtheexcerptbelowthatincludesthejoyofchildhoodexperiences,theinternalizedvoicesofelders,Hawaiianplacenamesandculturalusesofland,andacritiqueofrecentchangesinherpersonallylivedenvironment.Itsuggeststhataskingteacherstoreflectonapersonalplacecouldbeginatrans-formationfromthinkingaboutscienceeducationasthedeliveryofimpersonalcontenttothinkingaboutitasexperiential,real-worldlearningusingarangeofresearchmethodsandmethodologiesincludingthoseofmainstreamsciencetodevelopenvironmentalliteracyandinterestinscience:

HanaleihasalltheelementsthatremindmeofmyyouthinPupukeaonOʻahu—beautifulbaytoswimin,valleytoexploreandto[play]aroundin.MycousinsandIwouldexplorealloverthebackcountryandvisitPuʻuMahukaandcleanupthetrashupthereforfearthatifwesawthetrashanddidn’tpickitup,ourancestorswouldpunishus.WewouldheaddownthehillsideintoWaimeaValleyandquicklyfindourselvesplayinginthestream.Wewouldlookforanysortofcreaturetolookatandfloataroundtowardthesea.Thebestwasfloatingouttotheoceanandbeingabletoseethelushvalleybehindus.Weareunabletodothosesortsofthingsnowsincetherearehomesinthebackcountryandthereisever-presentdangerofrockslidesonthehillsidesaswellasleptospirosisinthestreamthatweusedtoplayin…HanaleiremindsmeofhowthingswereinPupukea,ithasthebeautifullushvalleywithimpressiveandmajesticmountainsthatsurroundit,(onepeakfasci-natesme,Hihimanu,thegiantmantaray).ThereistheHanaleiRivertoplayaroundinanditalsoflowsintothelo‘i(taropondfield)whichisareminderformeofwhatwasimportanttomyancestors.

Introducing the study AfterteachingtheMālama I Ka ´Āina,Sustainabilityclassforthreeyears,Iwasinvitedtoleadthesciencecomponentofatwoweekinternationalwork-shoponcurriculartrendsandissueshostedbyaprivateselectiveacademyforsecondaryscienceandmathematicsteachersfromAsiaandtheUnitedStates.IservedastheleadinstructorwiththesupportofseveralHawai‘i-bornscienceteacherswhotaughtattheacademyandhadcompletedtheMālamaclasswithme.Thisallowedustofocusontwotrendsinscienceeducation:1)place-basedscienceeducationand2)teacher-developedculturallyresponsivelessons.Theworkshopwouldfocusontheissueoftheroleofindigenousknowledge,practicesandvaluesinscienceeducation. Nineteenexperiencedsecondaryscienceandmathematicsteachers,8fe-malesand11males,fromJapan(3),Malaysia(5),Indonesia(1),Thailand(1),

Honoring Our Heritage

8484

Korea(2),Philippines(2),andUnitedStates(5)attendeda10-dayworkshopinHonolulu,HawaiʻiofwhichIledtwodaysfocusingonsciencecurriculum.Myformerstudentsguidedparticipantsthroughtheremainderoftheworkshop,presentingtheirplace-basedcurriculaandtakingthemonfieldtrips.Thework-shoptopic,TrendsinScienceCurriculum,presentedanopportunitytoexplorescienceandmathematicsteachers’viewsofindigenousknowledgeandsenseofplacefromacross-culturalperspective.Wouldexercisestodevelopasenseofplace,explorepersonallearning,andexamineecologicalpracticesfromanIndigenousHawaiianperspectivefollowedbyMālamateacherssharing theircurricularprojectsprovideaconceptualframeworkfortransformationallearn-ing?Thestudyexploresthreequestions:

What initial views domathematics and science teachers hold of•localandindigenousknowledgeandhowdotheseviewsinfluenceteaching?DoreflectiveactivitiesandexposuretoNativeHawaiianpractices•orientedtosustainabilityleadtoevidenceoftransformativelearningwithelementsnotedbyHallabove?Whatenvironmentalissuesrelevanttoplace-basedcurriculumareof•concerntoteachers?

Methodology Fiveof25indigenousresearchprojectsdescribedbySmith(1999)wereemployed in this study: indigenizing, connecting,writing, representing, anddiscovering.Indigenizingrefersbothtothere-visioningofculturallandscapesfromtheperspectiveofindigenouspeoplesandoppositiontocolonizationthroughindigenousidentityandpractices.Connecting“positionsindividualsinsetsofrelationshipswithotherpeopleandwiththeenvironment”(p.148).Writingandrepresenting empower indigenouspeoples to represent their realities, issues,andidentity.Discoveringrefersbothto“developmentofethno-scienceandtheapplicationofsciencetomatterswhichinterestindigenouspeoples”(p.160). Todeveloptextsforpersonalreflectionandstoriesforgroupdiscussion,writingpromptsdirectedteacherstowriteabout:1)viewsofindigenousscienceandrelevancetocurriculabeforeandafterseeingapresentationonHawaiianculturalpractices;2)apersonalsenseofplace;and3)personaldevelopmentofexpertise.Followingeachwritingexercise,groupsofthreetofourteachersfromdifferentcountries,discussedtheirwritings,lookingforsimilaritiesanddiffer-ences.Groupsreportedtheirfindingsforwholeclassdiscussion.Attheendoftheinquiries,teacherswereaskedtothinkoftopicsthatcouldbedevelopedintoplace-basedcurriculumrelevanttotheirstudentsandcommunities.Teachers’writingswerecollectedandnotestakenofgroupdiscussions. Aftertheworkshopended,videotapesofteachers’lessonswereexamined,writtenevaluationsoftheworkshopwereanalyzed,andtheworkshopcoordi-natorwasinterviewed.Threeyearsaftertheworkshop,threeparticipantswere

84

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

84 85

contactedbye-mail to see if theworkshophadaffected theirpractices.Onereplied,anIndonesianbiologyteacher.

Findings Before seeing the presentation onHawaiian cultural practices orientedto sustainability, teacherswrote for a fewminutes on the prompts: “I thinkindigenousscienceis…”and“Theroleithasincurriculumis….”FollowingaPowerPointpresentationoftraditionalHawaiianecologicalpracticesrelatedtofarming,aquaculture,andconservationpractices,teachersrespondedagaintothesameprompts. AmaleChineseteacherfromKualaLumpur,Malaysia,wrotebeforeseeingthepresentation:

Sciencehasnoorlittleplacein(livesof)indigenouspeople—ifatalltheyareusedwithoutbeingunderstood.Manyherbalmedicationsbe-ingusedarepasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration,knowinghowtousebutnotwhy.Theroleithasinsciencecurriculumiserroneous.Manytraditionalorherbalmedicinesrequiredstudies tohaveafullunderstandingandmayhaveagreatimpactonmodernmedicine.

Followingthepresentation,thesamemanwrote:“Itisaboutabalancebetweenthemountain,thelandandthesea—adiverseecologicalbalance.Theroleithasinsciencecurriculumistodothingscorrectlyandshowthewaysandmeanstosustainmodernlife.”AmaleteacherfromJapanwrotebeforethepresentation:“Ithinkindigenousscienceiswhencatfisharenervous,bigearthquakeiscoming. Everynaturalthing,talltree,mountain,river,pond,largerockishouseofGods(spirit).Thereforewehad2,000,000GodsalloverJapan.”Afterthepresenta-tion,hewrote:

Theideaof‘respecttotheNature’wasgonewhenJapanmeetsWesterncultureandtheyfoundJapaniswaybehindtheWest.‘Godsaregone’for100years,1867-1967.Whenwesufferedserousairpollution,‘Godscameback’througheducation.After1960,‘environment’and‘naturalconservation’becamemajorissuesinscienceeducation.Ifyoutalktoprofessionalpeople, carpenters, engineers,mechanics,youwillfindtheirowntraditionalandverypracticalmathandsciencewhichisnottaughtinschoolanditisveryinteresting.

Thegroupssynthesizedanddevelopedgeneralizedanalysesoftheirdiscus-sions.Thefollowingwritingistypicalofgroupreports:

Theearthisoursmallandonlylivableplanet.Weshouldtreatitwithcaresothattheresourcesitprovidesforthehumanracearemanage-ableandsustainable.Manytraditionalpracticesareinvariablyonewayoranother(relatedto)veryeffectiveecologicalcyclesonemustpay

Honoring Our Heritage

8686

attentionto.Thecultureofindigenouspeoplemustberecognizedandrespectedforitscontinuedperpetuation.

Connecting to others: Learning as socially situated Thewriting prompt to describe howpersonal expertise develops askedteacherstoexaminetheirownstagesoflearningfrominitialinteresttoexpertperformance.Afterwritingforfiveminutes,teachersfromdifferentcountriesmetinsmallgroupstodiscusstheirwritingsandlookforsimilaritiesanddif-ferences.Groupsthenreportedtheirfindingsforclassdiscussion. Althoughtheskillsdescribedbyindividualsrangedfromteachingtoskiingtocookingandgrowinghibiscus,thecommonpatternsthatemergedwere:1)Whateverwaslearnedwasimportanttooneormoresignificantothersintheirlives;2)learningwassupportedandencouragedbysignificantothers;3)practice,feedbackandencouragementwereimportantforimprovement;4)enjoyment,interest,andotheremotionswereimportanttolearning;and5)activeandhands-onlearningcomplementedlearningfrombooksandlectures. Assmallgroupssharedtheirpersonalstoriesofdevelopingexpertise,in-ternationalteacherswhohadonlymeteachotherafewhoursearlierandwerestilluncomfortablespeakinginEnglish,formostasecondeventhirdlanguagebegantorelax,offeringnonverbalencouragingnods,smilesandlaughterateachothers’stories.Thesesecondaryscienceandmathematicsteacherswererecog-nizinghowimportantpositiveemotions,affect,andconnectednesstoothersareinlearning

Developing a sense of place Theexercise intended tosensitize teacherswhowere initiallycriticalofindigenouspeoples’emotionalandspiritualconnectionstoplacetotheemotionalaspectsoftheirwritingsonpersonallyimportantplaces.Asintheotherexercises,teachersrespondedtoaprompttowriteforfiveminutesaboutapersonallymean-ingfulplace.Theysharedtheirwritingsinsmallgroupsandreportedsimilaritiesanddifferencestothewholeclass.Althoughspecificplaceswithpersonalcon-nectionsandmeaningrangedfromnaturalsettingssuchasabeautifulbeachtobeinginsideafather’shouse,theplacessharedsomecommoncharacteristics.Theplacesweredescribedinemotionaltermsasbeingcomfortable,familiar,peacefulandsecure.

Transformative learning: Implications for curricular change Thefinalwritingassignmentemployedtheprecedingexercisesanddiscus-sionsasaspringboardforplanningplace-based,teacher-developedcurriculum.Teacherswhoinitiallyhadnotfavoredinclusionofindigenousknowledgeandpracticesinthecurriculumnowthoughtitvaluable,asnotedbyAbbottearlier,toteachstudentstostayconnectedtoeldersandtraditionalknowledge.Studentswouldcontinuetolearnandvaluetheirownculturalpractices,connecttotheirenvironmentthroughculturalpracticesandlearntotreasureinsteadofexploitlocalnaturalresourcesandrawmaterials.Theyregrettedthatchildrenintheir

86

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

86 87

rapidlydevelopingnationsalreadydidnotknowhowitusedtobejustafewgenerationsago.Theyfaultedtest-drivencurriculaforeliminatingthejoysofteachingandlearningandhavinglittleconnectiontostudentsandtheirlives.Theythoughtnationalscienceandmathematicscurriculashouldnotbegenericacrosscountriesandwereof theopinion that individual countries shouldbeproudoftheirownindigenousknowledge. Asianteacherscommentedfrequentlyonthelossofrespectfortheelderlyandthedisplacementoftraditionalknowledgebymodern,westernmodelsofscienceandmathematicseducation.Asagroup,theinternationalteachersex-pressedfrustrationattheirrelevanceofthecurriculaandassessmentadoptedfromformercolonizers.Theycomplainedaboutfeelingtrappedincoveringanextensivebodyofcontent.Theysaidthecurriculumwasdisconnectedfromrealissuesofstudentsandtheircommunities.BothinternationalandU.S.teachersagreedthattest-drivencurriculadidnotsupportindependentthinking,encouragelearningabouttraditionalknowledgeandpractices,oraddresslocalenvironmen-tal issues. Teachersidentifiedissuesofsustainabilityintheirlocalitiesthatcouldbeincluded in theircurricula.Major issueswereairpollution fromunregulatedvehiclesanduncontrolledbrushand forestfires (Malaysia), soil erosionandwaterpollution(Philippines),anddangerousdrivingbehaviorsoninadequateroadsintheirrapidlydevelopingnations(KoreaandMalaysia).AwomanfromthePhilippinesspokeaboutexploitativeloggingthatlefthillsidesdenudedanderodedandthepeoplebelowvulnerabletolandslides,flooding,andwaterpol-lution followingheavy rains.Thegroupdiscussedways to incorporate localenvironmentalissuesintotheircurriculaanddiscussedhowdatacouldbecol-lected,analyzedandreportedtopolicymakerstomakechangesleadingtothecommongood. Overthenexttwoweeksteacherslearnedaboutplace-basedsustainabilityprojectsdevelopedbyteacherswhohadtakenmyplace-basedclassthepreviousyear,studiedtrendsinmathematics,thenwroteandpresentedlessons.The45minutevideotapedidnotrecordeverylessonfullyorcaptureeveryparticipant,butmostprovidedevidenceofplanningtoengagestudents’priorknowledge,culture,orplace.AMalaysianteacherpresentedascenarioof twotaropondfieldsidenticalinsizeandnumberofplantswithdifferentweightsofproduction.Herplaceandculture-basedlessonpreparedstudentsforexaminationquestionsrequiring identifyingandclassifyingrelevantvariables.Amath teacher fromthePhilippinesusedmapsofHonolulustreetsinthevicinityoftheinstitutetointroducehisgeometrylessononintersectingangles.Threeteachersmentionedtheimportanceofconnectingtheirlessontostudents’priorknowledgebeforepresentingaskitreferringtowater,wine,andapplejuiceinalessononacidsandbases.Theystressedthatindicatorsarefoundinnaturalproducts,suchasfamiliarfoodssuchasredcabbage.ThreeothersusedspaghettiandKoreanfoodstointroducetheirtopics.Abiologyteacherusedfamiliaranimalsandplantsinherlessonandreferredtostudents’priorknowledgeinherlesson.ThreeU.S.scienceteachersaddressingtemperatureandkineticenergyaskedparticipantsto

Honoring Our Heritage

8888

workinpairs.ButfourAsian,maleteachersdidnotmakeconnectionsrelevanttostudents’priorknowledge,culture,orplaces.Oneofthelessonsemployedmathematicalterminologyanddidnotengagepriorknowledgeoremployactivelearningstrategies.

Interview with institute coordinator Twointerviewswiththecoordinator,oneviatelephoneandtheotherattheinstitute,wereunstructuredandinformal.Questionsinvolvedherrecollectionsofteachers’lessons.SherecalledtheFilipinomathteacher’sgeometrylessonusingHonolulustreets—whenhereturnedheplannedtousestreetsonhiscampusasaplace-basedexample.Shecommentedontwoteacherswhowerenotonthevideotape.ThefirstwasafemaleteacherfromIndonesiawhoselessononcoralswasrelevantbothtoHawai‘iandhercountry.Thesecondwasafemale,elementaryAsianAmericanteacherfromtheU.S.whowasespeciallyinterestedinteachingthataddressedculturalcontexts.

Comments from final evaluations Teacherswrotemorethaneightycommentsrelatedtoquestionsonthepro-gram,assignments,improvements,extracurricularactivities,growthorchangeasaresultoftheprogram,andimplementationofstrategies.Aquarterofresponsesrelated to social and cross-cultural aspects of learning showing they highlyvaluedlearningfrompeersandgainingstrategiesforactive,handsonlearning,andgroupwork:

IreallyenjoyedmeetingandtalkingtoteachersfromaroundtheU.S.andAsia.Thiswastherichestpartoftheexperience.Ilearnedsomuchfrommypeers/colleagueshere.Theygavemealotofconcreteideasandalsogotmethinkingmoregloballyaboutscience/matheducation.

MyworldfocusnowcanincludeSoutheastAsiaduetotheconnectionswiththeteachershere.Previously,myworldviewwasnotsoinclusivealallpartsofAsiaandIwasmoreorientedtoEuropewhenthinkingabout“overseas.”Ifeltsovalidatedtoworkwith___andotherteacherswhocametotheinstitutewhenitcametoteachingfromexperience,givingkidsmorehandsonengagementofthematerial!

Sevenresponses,includingthetwoabovewererelatedtotheimportanceofcultureinteachingandlearning:“Iwilladdaculturecomponenttomychemis-tryclassestomakemyclassmorerelevanttomystudents,Icanhardlywaittodothelesson____andIformedforthefinalproject,”“Taketimetoplangoodlessonswherecultureandhumouris(sic)present.” Threeparticipantsspecificallymentionedthepresentationon indigenousculture:“ThemoretimeIspentinHawai‘i,themoreIcametoappreciateDr.Chinn’slessonsanddiscussions.Theideaofindigenousscienceistrulyarich

88

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

88 89

one,”“Ifoundtheinformationonindigenousscienceespeciallyfascinating…PaulineandtheBishop[Museum]wereworththetripallbythemselves.” Teachersenjoyedandvaluedplace-basedlearning,“Interesting,realoriginalexamplesarethebestteachingaids,evenbetterattheoriginalsite,”suggestedlongeranddifferentfieldexperiences,“Perhapsalsoatripintothemountainstothenativerainforest?”andplannedtoincorporateplace-basedactivitiesintotheirteaching:

AvisittotheBishopMuseum,thestreamandHanaumaBaygavemeanopportunitytoreallyunderstandtheworksofnatureandIthinktheseshouldbeavailableforthenextgroupofteachers!Iwouldliketohavemorefieldtripssothestudentsareexposedtoactualhappen-ingsaroundthem.Ourstudentslackhandsonbutasthesayinggoes,‘Whenthere’sawill,thereisaway!’IwouldtrymylevelbesttobringmystudentsbacktoNatureatleastthreeormoretimesinayear.

Akey idea that participants took from science sessionswas the ethicalrelationshipbetweenhumansandthenaturalworldandtheroleofembodied,activelearningthatsupportsknowledgeorientedtosustainability.Afewyearslater,Ie-mailed3teacherswhohaddevelopedplace-basedlessonstoaskiftheyhadfollowedupontheirideastoshiftteachingintoherstudents’livedenviron-ment.TheteacherfromIndonesiawhopresentedalessononcoralresponded.Anexcerptfromhere-mailfollows:

P:Haveyoufollowedupwithsomeoftheenvironmentalscienceideasinyourownteaching?A:No,notyet.ButI’dlovetoknow,andletmeknowwhatcanIdoaboutit.BecauseI’ma“jobless”now,I’mwaitingfornextmonthtopursuemymasterdegreemajoring“educationmanagement.”There,I hope I couldfind knowledge about how to educate, becausemybackgroundwasbiology.Andinthefuture,Ihaveadreamtobecomeateachertrainer,sharingknowledge,andcreatingalocal,needs-basedcurriculumforruralareasinIndonesia.Ifyoulookatthemap,we’rethemaritimecountry,butwedon’thavecurriculumtodevelopthestudentskillsabouthowtohatchfish,howtoplantalgae,etc.Whattheyhavebeenlearningatschoolistheregular,highstandards,biology,phys-ics,chemistry,thosesucks,boring,don’thaveanyuse,andcausedthefrustrationtothekids. Andbelievemeyouhaveacontributioninbearingthosethoughtsintomymind.WhenIsawyouguysspendalotoftime,makingafieldtriptotheHawaiianvillage,andlearntheirwisdom.Thankyouforanyhelpyoucanprovide.Thankyouforcontactingme,forlisteningtomy“burden”also.

Honoring Our Heritage

9090

Discussion Thefindingsofthisstudysuggestthatapresentationonindigenouspracticesandreflectivewritingsonpersonalplace,patternsoflearning,andtraditionalpractices provide opportunities forwestern trained science andmathematicsteacherstobringcultureandpersonalexperiencesintodiscussionsofcurriculumandpedagogy.WrittencommentsbyseveralAsianteachersinitiallydevaluedtraditionalpractices,indicatingtheculturaldominanceofwesternscienceandmarginalization of indigenous science knowledge. Following a presentationonHawaiianenvironmentalpracticesorientedtosustainabilitythatinterpretedculturalpracticesfromwesternscienceperspectives,thesameteachersappearedfreertospeakasindigenouspersonstrainedinwesternmodernsciencebutstillconnectedtoandfamiliarwithtraditional,indigenouspractices. TheChineseteacherfromMalaysiawhoinitiallydismissedindigenoussci-ence(“Sciencehasnoorlittleplacein(thelivesof)indigenouspeople—ifatalltheyareusedwithoutbeingunderstood....Theroleithasinsciencecurriculumiserroneous.”)was stillwilling toconsider thepotentialvalueof traditionalherbalmedicinesfollowingdiscoveryofactiveprinciplesthroughsciencere-search.AfterthepresentationonindigenousHawaiianpracticesheunderstoodindigenousscienceinacompletelydifferentlight.Hestillwrotepredominantlyfromtheperspectiveofanon-indigenousperson,butnowthoughtindigenousscience’sroleinsciencecurriculumwouldbetoconnectstudentstothenaturalworldfromanethicalandecosystemsstandpoint:“Itisaboutabalancebetweenthemountain,thelandandthesea—adiverseecologicalbalance.Theroleithasinsciencecurriculumistodothingscorrectlyandshowthewaysandmeanstosustainmodernlife.” BeforethepresentationonindigenousHawaiianpractices,theteacherfromJapangave a folk science exampleof indigenous science, “whencatfish arenervous,bigearthquakeiscoming,”andreferredtotraditionalShintoanimismthatimbuednaturalfeatureswith“2,000,000gods.”Afterthepresentationhenotedthat“respecttotheNature(sic)wasgone”and“Godsaregone”for100yearswhileJapanwasindustrializingtocatchupwiththeWest.“Godscameback”througheducationonlyafterthecountrybegantosufferseriousairpol-lution.Hiswritingsuggeststhatbecomingwesternizedseparatedpeoplefromtraditionalbeliefsandpracticesconnectingthemtotheirenvironmentinarela-tionshipofrespectandreverencewithnegativeconsequences.Thereturnofthegodsrepresentsre-indigenizinganddiscoveryofthepositiveecologicaleffectsofindigenousperspectivesandbehaviorinthenaturalworld. This teacher knewandwasproud that “professional people, carpenters,engineers,mechanics”werestillusing“traditionalandverypracticalmathandsciencewhichisnottaughtinschoolanditisveryinteresting.”Writingasanindigenouspersonfromanationwithitsownculturalknowledgeandpractices,heimplicitlycritiquedhiscountry’sWMSschoolprogramsforexcludingtraditional,indigenousmathandscienceknowledge.Herepresentedthisknowledgeasso“verypractical”that“professionalpeople”evenengineerswithWMStrainingknewandusedit.

90

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

90 91

As teacherssharedanddiscussed their stories, traditionalbeliefsystemsconnectingpeople,placesandnaturalphenomenawerereevaluatedinamorepositivelightasthewisdomandethicsofindigenoussciencebecameapparent.Indiscussionsfollowingsharingofculturalandpersonalexperiences,teacherstouchedontheelementsof transformativeenvironmentaleducationlistedbyHall(2004)andbegantoformulatetheconceptofalifeplace(Thayer,2003)connectedtoculturalandecologicalissuesaffectingtheirlivesandthelivesoftheir students. Thisstudysuggeststhattransformativelearning,“theprocessoflearning…whichislinkedtochangingtherootcausesofenvironmentaldestructionordam-age”(Hall,2004,pp.170-171),developswhenteachersconnecttheirpersonalexperiencesandunderstandingofplacetotheirprofessionalrolesasteachersandcurriculumdevelopers.Unfortunately,in2005,Mālama I Ka ´Āina(Sus-tainability)theonlystandardgroundedinindigenousunderstandingsoflimitedresources, fragile ecosystems, and active care (mālama)was eliminated in astandardsrevisioncontractedtoamainlandconsultant.Hawai‘i’sadministra-torsworrythatcurriculacenteringonlocalenvironmentalissuesandindigenousknowledgewillnotpreparestudentsforstandardizedtestsevenifitaddressesstandards.Thisnarrowvisionleadstodecisionsrestrictingteacherstomainstreamtextscoveringcontentlikelytobetested.Teachers’professionalknowledgeismarginalizedtoproducepseudo-experts(Sternberg,2003). McNeil (2003) notes that teacher education and professional standardspromotingstudent-centeredpedagogy,constructivism,collaboration,problemsolvingandinquiryconflictwithaccountabilityasmeasuredbystandardizedtestsproducedby“business[with]anewvisionthatthereismoneytobemade…inmeetingtheclamorforchoice,privatization,andtesting”(p.34).Westernmodern science curricula oriented to preparing students for an increasinglytechnological, urbanized global economyprovides a universalistic view ofsciencethatseparateslearnersfromtheirexperienceswithlocalenvironmentsandtheirhostculture’straditionalecologicalknowledge(Snively&Corsiglia,2001;Kawagley,1999).SciencelearningisdrivenbystandardizedsciencetestsandinternationaltestssuchasTIMSS,TrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,thatleadtoincreasinglyuniformcurriculaasnationscompeteonstudentperformance(Martin,Mullis&Foy,2008).Inthecurrenttest-drivenenvironment,teachersofplace-basedsciencecurriculummustpresentevidencethisapproachincreasesachievementasenvironmentalliteracyandstewardshiparenothighstakesoutcomes.

Conclusion Atthestartoftheworkshop,teacherstendedtocritiqueindigenousknowl-edgeaspossiblyerroneous,basedonsuperstitionandemptyritual,andservingonlyasanegativeexampleinscience.AfterthepresentationofHawaiianculturalperspectives,teachersbegantoopenlyacknowledgethevalueofindigenousandtraditionalpracticesinteachingenvironmentalsustainability.Writtenexercisesfollowedbysmallgroupandwholeclassdiscussionhelpedteachersdevelopthe

Honoring Our Heritage

9292

conceptofapersonalsenseofplaceandanawarenessofthesocialcontextsoflearning.DiscussionsoftheimpactofWMSontheirscienceandmathematicscurriculaledtocritiquesofwestern,test-drivenmodelsofscienceandmath-ematicscurriculaascolonizingandirrelevanttopressingenvironmentalissuesrelatedtoeconomicdevelopment,globalization,exploitingofnaturalresourcesandmarginalizationofindigenouspeoples. Theevidenceoftransformedviewsofscienceeducationwastheteachers’recognitionofaneedforreinhabitationas“learningtolive-in-placeinanareathathasbeendisruptedandinjuredthroughpastexploitation(Berg&Dasmann,p.35;citedbyGruenewald,2003,p.9).Negativeattitudestowardindigenousknowledgeandpracticeschanged in thedirectionof respectingcultures thatunderstandandcarefortheirenvironments. Developingapersonalsenseofplaceandreflectingontraditionalandin-digenousknowledgeorientedtoplaceandsustainabilityappeartoplayacriticalroleintransformativelearningleadingtoenvironmentalliteracy.Forthehighlydiversescienceandmathematicsteachersintheworkshop,revisitingtraditionalpracticesledtounderstandingsechoingtheHawaiianproverb“He ali‘i ka ‘āina, he kaua ke kanaka”(thelandisachief,manistheservant)(Pukui,1983). ReferencesAbbott,I.(1992).La‘au Hawaiʻi: Traditional Hawaiian uses of plants.Honolulu:

BishopMuseumPress.Bazerman,C.(1988).Shaping written knowledge: The genre and activity of the

experimental article in science.Madison:UniversityofWisconsinPress.Cajete,G.(Ed.).(1999).A people’s ecology: Explorations in sustainable living.

SantaFe,NM:ClearLightPublishers.Cajete,G.(2000).Native science: Natural laws of interdependence. SantaFe,

NM:ClearLightPublishers.Cajete,G.(1986).Science: A Native American perspective: A culturally based

science education curriculum.Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,Interna-tionalCollege,LosAngeles.

Chinn,P.(2003,March23-26).A Hawaiian sense of place: Science curricula incorporating Hawaiian ways of knowing.PaperpresentedattheNARSTAnnualInternationalConference,Philadelphia.

Chinn,P.(1999a).IsabellaAionaAbbottandtheeducationofminoritiesandfemales.Teaching Education, 10,155-167.

Chinn,P.(1999b).Multipleworldsandmis-matchedmeanings:Barrierstomi-noritywomenengineers.Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(6),621-636.

Chinn,P.(2003).Whatpreserviceteachersbringtotheclassroom:Howsocio-culturalexperiencesshapefutureteachersofdiverselearners.InK.Wal-lace(Ed.),Working with mixed heritage students: Critical perspectives on research and practice (pp.187-204). Westport,CT:Greenwood/Praeger.

Chinn,P.,&Sylva,T.(2000).Mālama I Ka ´Āina: Using traditional Hawai-ian and modern environmental practices to develop standards-based K-12

92

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

92 93

science curricula for teachers of Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian students. U.S.DepartmentofEducation,OfficeofK-12EducationPrograms,NativeHawaiianEducationAct.

Chinn,P.,&Sylva,T.(2002).Pikoi ke kaula kualena, Focus on the essential core: Developing culturally relevant, standards-based science curricula for teach-ers of Hawaiian and part Hawaiian students. U.S.DepartmentofEducation,OfficeofK-12EducationPrograms,NativeHawaiianEducationAct.

Cole,M.(1996).Cultural psychology: A once and future discipline.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.

Daily,G.(2003).Whatareecosystemservices?InLorey,D.(Ed.),Global envi-ronmental challenges for the twenty-first century: Resources, consumption and sustainable solutions(pp.227-231).Lanham,MD:SRBooks.

Diamond,J.(2001).Unwrittenknowledge.Nature, 410,521-522.Disinger,J.&Roth,C.(2003).Environmental literacy in America.EricClear-

inghouseforScience,Mathematics,andEnvironmentalEducation.CSMEE Digest 92-1.

Fain,S.(2004).Theconstructionofpublicspace.InD.CallejoPerez,S.Fain&J.Slater(Eds.),Pedagogy of place: Seeing space as cultural education (pp.9-33).NewYork:PeterLang.

Garcia,E.(1999).Student cultural diversity: Understanding and meeting the challenge (2ndEd).Boston,MA:HoughtonMifflin.

Gee,J.,Hull,G.,&Lankshear,C.(1996).The new work order: behind the lan-guage of the new capitalism.Boulder,CO:WestviewPress.

The geography of thought: How culture colors the way the mind works. NewsService,UniversityofMichigan,February27,2003.RetrievedJune18,2010athttp://www.umich.edu/news/Releases/2003/Feb03/r022703a.html.

Gollnick,D.M.,&Chinn,P.C.(1998).Multicultural education in a pluralistic society(5thEd).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Prentice-Hall.

Gould,S.(1993).AmericanpolygenyandcraniometrybeforeDarwin:BlacksandIndiansasseparate,inferiousspecies.InS.Harding(Ed.),The racial economy of science: Toward a democratic future (pp.84-115).Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress.

Gould,S.J.(1991).Enchantedevening.Natural History, 100,4–14.Greenfield-Arambula,T.(2005,April4–7).The research lens on multicultural

science teacher education: What are the research findings, if any, on major components needed in a model program for multicultural science teacher education? Paperpresentedat theNARSTAnnual InternationalConfer-ence,Dallas,TX.

Gruenewald,D.A.(2003).Thebestofbothworlds:acriticalpedagogyofplace.Educational Researcher, 32(4),3-12.

Hall,B.L.(2004).Towardstransformativeenvironmentaladulteducation:Les-sonsfromglobalsocialmovementcontexts.InD.E.Clover(Ed.),Global perspectives in environmental adult education(pp.169-191).NewYork:PeterLang.

Honoring Our Heritage

9494

Haas, M. (1992). Institutional racism: The case of Hawaii. Westport,CT:Praeger.

Hawaii Teacher Standards Board: Empowering teachers through excellence. RetrievedMay26,2005from http://www.htsb.org/standards/index.html

Howarth,D.G.,Gustafsson,M.H.G.,Baum,D.A.,&Motley.T.J.(2003).Phy-logeneticsofthegenusScaevola(Goodeniaceae):ImplicationfordispersalpatternsacrossthePacificBasinandcolonizationoftheHawaiianIslands.American Journal of Botany, 90,915–923.

Kanahele,G.(1986).Ku kanaka stand tall: A search for Hawaiian values. Ho-nolulu,HI:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Kanaiaupuni,S.&K.Ishibashi(2003).Left behind? The status of Hawaiian students in Hawai‘i public schools (PASEReport02-02:13).RetrievedFeb.28,2003atwww.hawaii.gov/gov/Members/Rhonda/e-Newsletter/Members/Rhonda/Documents/Left-Behind-PASE-Report-6.2003

Kawagley,O.(2001).Living voice/voces vivas, Profiles. Oscar Kawagley,Vol2,Track5.SmithsonianNationalMuseumoftheAmericanIndian,August2001.RetrievedMar.10,2005athttp://www.nmai.si.edu/livingvoices/html/eng_vol2.html.

Kawakami,A.J.,&Aton,K.K.(2000).KeA’oHawaiʻi(criticalelementsforHawaiianlearning):PerceptionsofsuccessfulHawaiianeducators.Pacific Education Research Journal 11(1),53-66.

Lave,J.&Wenger,E.(1991).Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral partici-pation.Cambridge,UK:UniversityofCambridgePress.Maly,K.(2001).Mälama pono i ka ´āina–An overview of the Hawaiian cultural landscape. RetrievedJune19,2010athttp://www.kumupono.com/Hawaiian%20Cul-tural%20Landscape.pdf.

Martin,M.O.,Mullis,I.V.S.,&Foy,P.(withOlson,J.F.,Erberber,E.,Preuschoff,C.,&Galia,J.).(2008).TIMSS 2007 International science report: Findings from IEA’s Trends in international mathematics and science study at the fourth and eighth grades.ChestnutHill,MA:TIMSS&PIRLSInternationalStudyCenter,BostonCollege.RetrievedSept.2,2010athttp://timss.bc.edu/timss2007/sciencereport.html

McNeil,J.(2003).Curriculum: The teacher’s initiative(3rdEd.).UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill/PrenticeHall.

NationalResearchCouncil(1996).National Science Education Standards.http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses/html/3.html

Nisbett,R.(2003a).The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently...and why.NewYork:TheFreePress.

Nisbett,R.(2003b).February27,2003interviewretrievedSept.2,2010athttp://www.umich.edu/news/Releases/2003/Feb03/r022703a.html

Orr,D.(1992).Environmental Literacy: Education as if the Earth Mattered. 12th AnnualE.F.SchumacherLecturesOctober1992,GreatBarrington,MA.

Palumbi,S.(2001).Humansastheworld’sgreatestevolutionaryforce.Science, 293, 1786-1790.

94

Developing a Sense of Place and an Environmental Ethic

94 95

Poepoe,K.K.,Bartram,P.,&Friedlander,A.(2003).TheuseoftraditionalHa-waiianknowledgeinthecontemporarymanagementofmarineresources.InPutting Fishers’ Knowledge to Work (pp.328-339).Vancouver,BC:FisheriesCentreResearchReport,UniversityofBritishColumbia.

Pukui,M. (1983). ‘Olelo no’eau: Hawaiian proverbs and poetical sayings. Honolulu:BishopMuseumPress.

Pukui,M,Elbert,S.,&Mookini,E.(1974).Place names of Hawaii(Rev.Ed.).Honolulu:UniversityofHawaiiPress.

Smith,G.(2003,October).Indigenous struggle for the transformation of educa-tion and schooling. KeynoteaddresstotheAlaskanFederationofNativesConvention.Anchorage,AK.

Smith,L.T. (1999).Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples. NewYork:ZedBooks.

Snively,G.&Corsiglia,J.(2001).Discoveringindigenousscience:Implicationsforscienceeducation.Science Education, 85,6-34.

Song, J. (2005,May17). Isles tops in count of species in danger.Honolulu Star-Bulletin, A9.

Sternberg,R.(2003).Whatisan“expertstudent”?American Educational Re-search Journal, 32(8),5-9.

Takaki,R.(1993)Aesculapiuswasawhiteman:Raceandthecultoftruewoman-hood.InS.Harding(Ed.),The racial economy of science: Toward a demo-cratic future (pp.201-209).Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversityPress.

Thayer,R.,Jr.(2003).LifePlace: Bioregional thought and practice. Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.