From Fantasy to Action TitelTitel Gabriele Oettingen New York University/University of Hamburg

From Fantasy to Action

Gabriele OettingenNew York University/University of

Hamburg

Positive Thinking is Positive: Self-Help Literature

Norman Vincent Peale The Power of Positive Thinking (1985-1994)

Napoleon Hill Success of Positive Thinking (2005)

Mathias Matuschka The Happy-End Universe (2004)

Annemarie Trixner (2003) Be Happy, You will Succeed!

Expectation versus Fantasy

Mental Contrasting of Fantasy and Reality

Intervention and Individual Differences

Overview

Overview

Positive Thinking:

Expectations versus Fantasies

Expectations versus Fantasies

Expectations: Probability judgments

Fantasies: Free thoughts

James, 1890, p. 283

Everyone knows the difference

between imagining a thing and

believing in its existence,

between supposing a proposition

and acquiescing in its truth.

Positive Expectations

… reflect past success

… signal that acting is worthwhile and necessary

… predict more motivation

Positive Fantasies

… independent of past success

… fail to signal that action is worthwhile and necessary

… predict less motivation

Entering Professional Life

How probable do you think it is

that you’ll find an adequate

position in your field?

not at allprobable

very probable

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

After my graduation a member of the research group is leaving, the vacant position gets advertised, and I succeed to take over the position due to my achievements in the past and my ability to fit in.

Work in a biochemical laboratory 

.0

-.10

-.20

-.30

-.40

-.50

.10

.20

.30

.40

.50

Par

tial

Cor

rela

tion

Coe

ffic

ient

Entering Professional Life as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy

.41 .33

-.04

-.40-.29-.39

Number of Job Offers

Amount of Salary

Number of Applications

p < .001

p < . 05

p < .01

p < .05

p < .01

Expectation

FantasyOettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 1). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212.

Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery

How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be able to go for a brief walk using an assistive cane?

How likely do you think it is, that 2 weeks after surgery you will be walking on stairs up and down with the help of an assistive cane?

not at all likely very likely

1 2 3 4 5

not at all likely very likely

1 2 3 4 5

At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ...

I am walking on the stair-ways downwards without help, and I walk easily and quickly to the newspaper stand.How positive were these thoughts or images?

not at all positive

very positive

How negative were these thoughts or images?

1 2 3 4 5

not at all negative

very negative

1 2 3 4 5

At the end of your hospital stay you want to buy a newspaper in the hospital shop ...

I am trying to walk to the door first, using my cane. But how shall I open the door? Uh, and then walking until the elevator? How would I ever do it? How positive were this thoughts or images?

not at all positive

very positive

How negative were this thoughts or images?1 2 3 4 5

not at all negative

very negative

1 2 3 4 5

Negative Fantasy (Recovery)

.0

-.10

-.20

-.30

-.40

-.50

.10

.20

.30

.40

.50

Recovery from Hip Replacement Surgery as Predicted by Expectation and Fantasy

.27 .37 .30

-.31-.36-.43

p < .05

p < . 01p < .05

p < .05p < .01

p < .001

Oettingen & Mayer (2002, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1198-1212.

Hip Joint Motion

Walking on Stairs

General Recovery

Par

tial

Cor

rela

tion

Coe

ffic

ien

t

Expectation

Fantasy

Supportive Evidence

Academic/vocational:

Health:

Interpersonal relations:

Finding a romantic partner

Obesity

Academic achievement

Professional achievement

Chronic disease: Asthma, Colitis, CancerHip replacement surgery

Age groups

Domains

Cultures

Measures of Fantasy

Measures of Motivation & Success

Findings are Replicated Across Different

Turning Fantasies into Goals:

Mentally Contrasting Fantasies

with Reality

Negative Reality

Mental Contrasting

Mental Contrasting

Positive Future

Expectations are Activated

Strong Goal Setting

No Goal Setting

Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.

Indulging

Indulging

Positive Future

Expectations are not

Activated

ModerateGoal

Setting

Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.

Dwelling

DwellingExpectations

are not Activated

ModerateGoal

SettingNegative Reality

Oettingen (2000). Social Cognition, 18, 101-129.

Typical Experiment

Independent Variables

• Measure: Expectations

• Manipulate: Goal-setting strategies

Dependent Variables

• Goal commitment and achievement

Exemplary Experiment: Interpersonal Concern

Interpersonal Concern

improve relationship to partner get to know better someone I like get along with my mother

How likely do you think it is that

the named problem will have a

happy ending?

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Aspects of Positive Future

not being lonely anymore feelings of being loved feelings of being needed

Aspects of Negative Reality

feelings of insecurity feelings of unattractiveness being too emotional

Inducing the Three Self-Regulation Strategies

of Goal-Setting

Mental Contrasting

Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Mental Contrasting

Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Mental Contrasting

Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Positive Future

Mental Contrasting

Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Positive Future

Indulging

Write down on the line below the fourth positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

being well-balancedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Indulging

Write down on the line below the third positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

feelings of being neededNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Positive Future

Indulging

Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Positive Future

Positive Future

Indulging

Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Positive Future

Positive Future

Positive Future

Dwelling

Write down on the line below the fourth negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

being too funkyNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Dwelling

Write down on the line below the third negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

being too emotionalNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Dwelling

Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Dwelling

Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Reverse Contrasting

Write down on the line below the second negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of unattractivenessNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Negative Reality

Reverse Contrasting

Write down on the line below the second positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

feelings of being lovedNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Reverse Contrasting

Write down on the line below the first negative aspect of reality that stands in the way of your interpersonal concern having a happy ending .

feelings of insecurityNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Negative Reality

Reverse Contrasting

Write down on the line below the first positive aspect that you associated with your interpersonal concern having a happy ending.

not being lonely anymoreNow really think about this aspect. Imagine the relevant events and experiences as vividly as possible! Let your mind go! Do not hesitate to give your fantasies free reign.

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Positive Future

Negative Reality

Interpersonal ConcernFeeling Energized

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Control group

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

Oettingen, Pak & Schnetter (2001, Study 3). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.

Interpersonal ConcernImmediacy of Action

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Control group

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Exemplary Experiment: Improving in Mathematics

How likely do you think it is

that you will improve in

mathematics?

1 2 3 4 5

very unlikely

very likely

Aspects of Positive Future

passing final exams feelings of pride being qualified for the job

Aspects of Negative Reality

being lazy being absent-minded distraction by other students

MathematicsFeeling Energized

Low Expectation

High Expectation

2

1

3

4

5

Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

2

1

3

4

5

MathematicsEffort

Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

MathematicsAchievement (Course Grades)

5

4

3

6

1

2

Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter (2001, Study 4). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 736-753.

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Supportive Evidence

Academic/vocational:

Health:

Interpersonal relations:

Problem solving

Cigarette reduction

Vocational training Combining work and family lifeStudying abroad

Learning a foreign language

Impression formationMathematics

Social responsibility

Help seeking

Professional relations

Cultures

Time Spans

Settings

Paradigms

Measures of Goal Commitment

Findings are Replicated Across

Dealing with Negative Feedback: Recall of Information

on Relevant Shortcomings

warm cold

fragile strong

passive active

dependent independent

jealous faithful

impatient patient

1. Please estimate the characteristics of this woman by circling the appropriate number.

Please look at this picture for a minute.Then answer – without much thought – the following question.

4. What will this person do in the next five minutes? Please jot down what came to your mind when you were looking at the picture.

Please look at this picture for a minute.Then answer – without much thought – the following question.

Negative Feedback

in challenging situations you are tense.

when interacting with other people you are reserved.  

in stressful situations you react impulsively.

Negative Feedback

(Cued-recall)

6. others think you are a … person.

5. in stressful situations you react … impulsively

4. when interacting with other people you are ... reserved

3. in challenging situations you are ... tense

2. towards others you behave ...

1. in interpersonal interactions you are …

Cued-recall

Recall of Negative Feedback

Low Expectation

HighExpectation

1 -

2 -

0 -

3 -

Mental Contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Pak & Oettingen (2007).

Dealing with Negative Feedback: Sustaining a Sense of Competence

Regarding your Social CompetenceSocial Competence your test result was

1818 points (0 = lowest to 60 = highest)

Your test result as compared to the female population (age from 20 to 35 years) is at a

very lowvery low level. Persons with comparable results usually have

conflictualconflictual and disharmoniousdisharmonious interpersonal relationships.

Your result:0: very bad

10: very good

persuasive power

communication

cooperation

openness

self confidence

problem solving

33

22

33

44

33

33

Your result comprises points achieved on the items below, measuring your social competence.

How would you estimate your

social competence?

very low very high

How would you estimate your

interpersonal intelligence?

Please list a number from 0 to 100

Subjective CompetenceChange After Negative Feedback

-1 -

1 -

0 -

Low Expectation

HighExpectation

Mental Contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Pak & Oettingen (2007).

Dealing with Negative Feedback: Optimistic Attributions

Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback

Please rate the cause along the following dimensions.

permanent

What is the major cause of your performance in the test?

the unusual context

something about me

something about many or all situations

transient

something about other people or events

something about this particular situation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The cause is …

Dickhäuser & Stiensmeier-Pelster, 2000, adjusted from Peterson et al., 1982

Optimistic Attributions after Negative Feedback

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental Contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Pak & Oettingen (2007).

Procedural Transfer: Performance on RAVEN Test

1

3

5

7

9

Procedural Transfer Number of Solved Raven Items

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental Contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

2

4

6

8

Coping with Chronic Stress:Improving Communication

with Patients’ Relatives

How confident are you, that you can

improve your relationship with

patients’ relatives?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at allconfident

very confident

Aspects of Positive Future

contentment affection evenness of temper

Aspects of Impeding Reality

lack of time too many patients impatience

Coping with Chronic StressEffort to Improve Communication

1

2

3

5

6

7

4

0

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2).

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Coping with Chronic StressRemedial Action to Improve Communication

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 2).

Coping with Acute Stress:Giving a Talk in Front of an

Evaluative Audience

How well would you like to do in

your talk?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

sufficient excellent

How confident is it that you achieve

your desired level of performance

as indicated in question # 1?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

veryunlikely

very likely

Aspects of Positive Future

Aspects of positive future

(

Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience)

good for my self esteem overcoming my shyness

good exercise

Aspects of Impeding Reality

not being prepared  to be dressed unsuitable

that stupid camera

Performance (

Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience

)

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Low Expectation

High Expectation

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Coping with an Acute StressorPerformance

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Low Expectation

High Expectation

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Coping with an Acute StressorSelf-Evaluation

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).

Coping with an Acute StressorFeeling Energized

Effort (

Giving a Talk in Front of an Evaluative Audience

)

Low Expectation

High Expectation

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).

Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting: Feeling Energized

(

Expectation .42**

.24

.50*** .34*

* p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01

Performance

Feeling Energized

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 1).

Energization as a Mediator: Performance

Sobel-Test: z = 2.05*

Expectation .69***

.50***

.50*** .38***

Feeling Energized

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Studie 1).

Sobel-Test: z = 2.84**

Self-Evaluation

* p < .05, ** p < .01 , *** p < .01

Energization as a Mediator: Self-Evaluation

Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting :

Systolic Blood Pressure Change

Time Table (Mental Contrasting)

Measure ofSBP

Start of the Experiment

Positive Future

Positive Future

1. Aspect 3. Aspect

Negative Reality

2. Aspect

Negative Reality

4. Aspect

Time Table (Indulging)

Measure ofSBP

Start of the Experiment

Positive Future

Positive Future

1. Aspect 3. Aspect2. Aspect 4. Aspect

Positive Future

Positive Future

BSP Change (in mmHG)

-8

-6

-4

-2

0

2

4

Low Expectation

High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, &

Hagenah (2007, Study 2).

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

BSP Change as a Mediator: Goal Commitment

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 2).

Mediation by BSP Change:

Sobel-Test: z = 1.76 (p < .10)

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Mediating Processes of Mental Contrasting : If-Then Plans

Number of If-Then Plans

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Mental contrasting

Dwelling on negative reality

Control group

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3).

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Number of If-Then Plans as a Mediator: Goal Commitment

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Mental Contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Control group

Oettingen, Mayer, Sevincer, Pak, & Hagenah (2007, Study 3).

Mediation by If-Then Plans:

Sobel-Test: z = 1.73 (p < .10)

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental Contrasting of Negative

Future with Positive Reality and Prevention Goals:

Smoking Cessation

How likely do you think it is that

you will reduce your cigarette

consumption or that you will stop

smoking?

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not at all likely

very likely

Aspects of Negative Future

cancer bad model for children lifelong addiction

Aspects of Positive Reality

healthy lungs pretty skin physical endurance

Mental Contrasting of Negative Fantasy

Negative Future

Positive Reality

Negative Future

Positive Reality

Indulging in Negative Fantasy

Negative Future

Negative Future

Negative Future

Negative Future

Dwelling on Positive Reality

Positive Reality

Positive Reality

Positive Reality

Positive Reality

Smoking CessationImmediacy of Action

Low Expectation

High Expectation Oettingen, Mayer & Thorpe (2007).

18

16

14

12

8

6

4

10 Mental contrasting

Indulging in negative future

Dwelling on positive reality

Translational Research

Interventions

Development

Mental States

Interventions: Success in Everyday Life

Indulging in positive fantasies

Mental contrasting

Interventions:Mental Contrasting as Meta-Cognitive Strategy

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Time Management

Ease of Deciding

Project Completion

Project Relinquishment

Oettingen, Mayer, Schmidt, & Brinkmann (2007, Study 3).

Interventions: Enhancing Health Behaviors

Lifestyle Intervention by Self-Regulation of Action (LISA)

Intervention group: Information + MCII(Mental contrasting/Implementation Intentions)

Control group: Information

Time Table

52 3 41

Diary

Time after the intervention

Intervention

Control group: Information

MCII-group: Information + MCII

1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months

My sport concern: exercycling in the evening

The very best: feeling balanced

Hindrance: tiredness, bad mood

Key: Overcome/Prevent/Seize Oportunity

If I come home at 7 pm , then I take my i-pod and situation (when and where) behavior

exercycle

My nutrition concern: eat today 2 portions of fruits and 3 portions of vegetables

The very best: well-being

Hindrance: no fruits and vegetable at home

Key: Overcome/Prevent/Seize Opportunity

If I leave for the office at 8 am , then I pick up fruits and

vegetables on the way

situation (when and where) behavior

Ihr erster Tag Wochentag: Datum: 0 3

Bewegung Ernährung Genussmittel

Uhr-zeit

Ausdauer-training

Anderer Sport

Bewegung im Alltag

Obst & Gemüse

Süßes Fett-armes

Fettes Alkohol Rauchen

6 7 8 9

10 11

6-12 Uhr

__ __ Anzahl

gerauchte Zigaretten

12 13 14 15 16 17

12-18 Uhr

__ __ Anzahl

gerauchte Zigaretten

18 19 20 21 22 23

24-6

18-6 Uhr

__ __ Anzahl

gerauchte Zigaretten

Diary (LISA)

Exercise Diet Substitutes

aerobicexercise

otherexercise

dailyexercise

time fruits &vegetables

sweets lowfat

highfat

alcohol smoking

weekday: date:

numberof smokedcigarettes

numberof smokedcigarettes

6-12 am

12-6 pm

6-12 pm

0

30

60

90

120

Min

utes

per

Wee

k

Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005).

Enhancing Health BehaviorExercise

Intervention

F(1,214) = 9.65, p .01

15

45

75

105

Intervention group

Control group

1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months

Intervention group

Control group

-1.0

-0.5

0

0.5

1.0

Ser

v ing

s p e

r W

eek

(mea

n z-

scor

es)

Stadler, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005).

Enhancing Health BehaviorHealthy Nutrition

1 week 1 month 2 months 4 months

Intervention

F(1,224) = 5.13, p .05

Mental Contrasting as

Intervention:

Improving Self-Discipline

and Self-Esteem

Time Table

Intervention

Control group: Description of a picture

MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing)

1 weeklater

day 1 day 2 day 3 day 4 day 5 day 6 day 7

MCII-Intervention

A todays pressing concern : clearing up my desk

The very best: relief

Hindrance: I‘m not in mood for it

If

start sorting my documents.

Situation Handlung

, then I immediately

I‘m not in mood for clearing my desk this evening

time management (“I kept my appointments easily”)

project completion (“How many projects did you complete?”)

feeling on top of things (“How often did you feel in control?”)

Self-Dicipline

Self-Esteem

“I have high self-esteem”

Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski (2001).

never very often

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

not very true of me very true of me

Improving Self-Discipline

37

39

41

43

Self

-Dis

cipl

ine

Baseline After one week35

MCII group

Control group

M = 36.4

M = 38.2

M = 42.0

M = 37.2

Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007).

Improving Self-Esteem

4.5

5

Self

-Est

eem

Baseline After one week4

MCII group

Control group

M = 4.25

M = 4.5

M = 4.75

M = 4.45

Oettingen, Barry, Guttenberg, & Gollwitzer (2007).

Mental Contrasting as Intervention:

Preparation for an Exam

Time Table

May

July October

Distribution of the workbooks

Collection of the workbooks

Intervention

Control group: Writing an essay

MCII group : MCII (mentally and in writing)

Preparation for an ExamNumber of Test Questions Completed

125

150

175

200

225

Num

ber

of t e

st q

uest

ions

MCII group Control group

Duckworth, Grant, Loew, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2007).

Mental Contrasting as

Intervention:

Chronic Back Pain Patients

0

25

35

45

Num

ber

of a

chi e

ved

lif t

s in

2 m

i nut

es

Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007).

Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients

3 weekslater

3 months later

Intervention

20

30

40

50

MCII group

Control group

100

120

140

Erg

o m

eter

test

(m

axim

al a

chi e

ved

wat

tage

)

Schramm, Oettingen, Dahme & Klinger (2007).

3 weeks later

3 months later

Intervention

110

130

150

MCII group

Control group

Physical Capacity of Chronic Back Pain Patients

Meta-cognitive strategies

Cost effective in teaching + application

Across domains

Across samples

Strengths of the MCII Intervention

Development

Measuring Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting

Please write down one of your named aspects. Think about this aspect and depict the respective events or experiences in your thoughts as intensively as possible. Choose the aspect that first comes into your mind.

Elaboration (Interindividual Differences)

Frequency of the Spontaneous Use of Mental Contrasting

Mental Contrasting (N = 55) was chosen more frequently than

Indulging (N = 34),

Reverse Contrasting (N = 30),

Dwelling (N = 21),

χ²(3, N = 140) = 17.77, p < .001

Spontaneous use of Mental Contrasting and Goal Commitment (Anticipated Dissappointment)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Low Expectation

High Expectation

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

Dwelling on negative reality

Reverse contrasting

Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 1).

Contextual Influences

You Take A Tour Through a Coal Mine...

…suddenly a deafening sound erupts around you… You find yourself standing in total darkness, enveloped in dust. …You realize you are trapped…

Two Conditions (Contextual Influences)

Priming: Ideal Course

Priming: Obstacle

Priming: Ideal Course

Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter and the flashlight stays lit.

Priming: Obstacle

Your flashlight starts to flicker. You screw the cap on tighter, but the flashlight goes out.

Contextual Influences of Mental Contrasting

10

20

30

40

Num

ber

of p

art i

cipa

nts

Priming: Obstacle Priming: Ideal Course0

Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 2).

Mental contrasting

Indulging in positive future

N = 26

N = 18N = 16

N = 25

χ²(1, N = 85) = 3.74, p < .09

Socialization: School Children

Design

Spontaneous mental contrasting

Self-assessment

Assessment of the child

Children

Mothers

A major goal I have in my courses is to perform really well.

In school I am focused on demonstrating my intellectual ability.

Children

Mothers

A major goal my son/daughter has in his or her courses is to perform really well.

In school my son/daughter is focused on demonstrating his or her intellectual ability.

Grant & Dweck (2003).

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

School children‘s achievement goal orientation

Mental Contrasting

No Mental Contrasting

Mot

her

s‘ e

stim

atio

n o

f s

tud

ents

‘ ac

hie

vem

ent

goal

ori

enta

tion

1 72 3 4 5 6Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3).

School Children:

Socialization Influences: Match in Goal Orientation

1 2 3 4 5 6

2

3

4

1

6

5

Oettingen & Mayer (2007, Study 3).

Mot

her

s‘ e

stim

atio

n o

f s

tud

ents

‘ la

st y

ears

gra

des

School children‘s estimation of their ownlast year`s grades

Mental Contrasting

No Mental Contrasting

School children:

Socialization Influences: Match in Grades

Socialization and Mental Contrasting: Students

Responsive Parenting

Achievement (GPA)

Mental Contrasting

.45**

.39*

.35* .32*

* p < .05, ** p < .01 Grant, Oettingen, & Gollwitzer (2005, Study 3).

Socialization Influences of Mental Contrasting: Students

Mental States and Mental Contrasting: Alcohol

t (58) = 2.48, p < .05

Alcohol and Mental Contrasting

0

5

10

15

20

25

Tim

e (s

ec)

Sevincer & Oettingen (2005).

Alcohol

Placebo

Conclusion

Positive fantasies

Mental contrasting

Interventions

One needs serenity to accept the things one cannot change, courage

to change the things one can change, and wisdom to know the

difference.

Thank you to:

Christina BardongHeather BarryBabette BrinkmannAngela DuckworthHeidi GrantKatie GuttenbergMeike Hagenah Hanna JanetzkeAylin LenbetSolvig Lorenz

Annette LosertDoris MayerHyeon-ju PakKaroline SchnetterChristiane SchreiberTimur SevincerGertraud Stadler

The research was supported by:

Karl Heinz Ditze- Stiftung

Karl Heinz Ditze- Stiftung

From Fantasy to Action

Gabriele OettingenNew York University/University of

Hamburg