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Introduction to Theories of Public Policy
Decision Making Activities
Outline
The Policy Process Model Six Decision Making Models Decision Making in the Real World
The Policy Process
Process Activity Participants
Problem Identification
Activity Publicizing societal problems Expressing demands for government action
Participants Mass media Interest groups Citizen initiatives Public Opinion
Agenda Setting
Activity Deciding what issues will be decided Deciding what problems will be addressed by
government
Participants Mass media Elites Parties Candidates for elective office
Policy Formulation
Activity Developing policy proposals to resolve issues
and ameliorate problems Participants
White House staff Congressional committees Interest groups Think tanks
Policy Legitimation
Activity Selecting a proposal Developing political support for it Enacting it into law Deciding on its constitutionality
Participants President Congress Courts
Policy Implementation
Activity Organizing departments and agencies Providing payments or services Levying taxes
Participants President and White House staff Executive departments and agencies
Policy Evaluation
Activity Reporting outputs of government programs Evaluating impacts of policies on target and nontarget
groups Proposing changes and reforms
Participants Executive departments and agencies Congressional oversight committees Mass media Think tanks
Decision Making Models
Cost-Benefit Analysis Multiobjectives Models Decision Analysis Systems Analysis Operations Research Nominal Group Techniques
Cost Benefit Analysis
In an era of scarcity, interest in weighing cost against benefits rises Measurement of costs and benefits The distributional impacts The discount factor, and The decision rules
Multiobjectives Models
Recognition that there are multiple objectives in the policy and administrative processes Need to calculate the relative importance or
weight of various objectives
Decision Analysis
Recognition that a decision is not viewed as isolated because today’s decision depends on the ones we shall make tomorrow
Systems Analysis
This approach forces us to look at problems as systems; assemblies of interdependent components; 4 basic steps: Problem formulation Modeling Analysis and optimization Implementation
Operations Research
Here the scope of decision making is narrower: Concerned with problems that can be
represented by mathematical models to be optimized
Concerned with relatively small problems
Nominal Group Techniques
Advantages— bring together broader perspectives for defining
the problem, more knowledge and information, easier to implement (buy-in)
Disadvantages— time consuming, expensive, lead to
compromise solutions or reduction of valuable dissenting opinions (groupthink), no clear focus for responsibility if things go wrong
Nominal Group Techniques
When to use a group— problem is uncertain, complex, or has the potential
for conflict; requires interagency or intergroup cooperation; problem and its solution have important personal
and organizational consequences; significant, but not immediate deadline pressures,
widespread acceptance and commitment are critical to successful implementation
Decision Making in the Real World Decision Making in Times of Crisis Biases in Decision Making
Decision Making in Times of Crisis Demonstrated that decision making is a very
human affair involving far more than objective analysis
Important decisions often made by groups, not individuals
Not an entirely rational process Some participants more rational than others Real limitations to applying a rigorous approach to
every facet of a problem
Biases in Decision Making
Bounded rationality—people have limits or boundaries on how rational they can be
Satisficing—decision makers choose the first solution alternative that satisfies minimal decision criteria
Biases in Decision Making
Seeing only one dimension of uncertainty, Giving too much weight to readily available
or recent information Being overconfident Ignoring the laws of randomness Being reluctant to audit and improve
decision making
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