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Investigating the Relationship Between Protestant Work Ethicand Confucian Dynamism: An Empirical Test in Mainland China
Suchuan Zhang • Weiqi Liu • Xiaolang Liu
Received: 10 January 2011 / Accepted: 28 July 2011 / Published online: 18 August 2011
� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract This study examined the relationship between
the Protestant Work Ethic (PWE) and Confucian Dynamism
in a sample of 1,757 respondents from several provinces in
mainland China. Mirels and Garrett’s (J Consult Clin Psy-
chol 36:40–44, 1971) PWE Scale and Robertson’s (Manag
Int Rev 40:253–268, 2000) Confucian Dynamism Scale were
used to measure the work ethics. The 16 items of the PWE
Scale and eight items of the Confucian Dynamism Scale
were initially subjected to a principal components analysis.
Factor analysis produced four factors of the PWE, which
were labeled as follows: hard work, internal motive, admi-
ration of work itself, and negative attitude to leisure; and
three factors of the Confucian Dynamism, which were
labeled: long-term orientation, short-term orientation, and
guanxi orientation. The results of a multiple regression
analysis indicated that all the dimensions of PWE were
positively related to Confucian Dynamism, but negatively to
guanxi orientation. The results also indicated that three PWE
dimensions (‘‘hard work,’’ ‘‘internal motive,’’ and ‘‘admi-
ration of work itself’’) were positively and significantly
related to long-term orientation, but two of them were related
negatively and significantly to the short-term orientation of
Confucian Dynamism. In addition, the results showed that
the dimension—admiration of work itself—of PWE was
significantly and negatively associated with the guanxi ori-
entation, but significantly and positively to the short-term
orientation.
Keywords Protestant Work Ethic � Confucian
Dynamism � Values � Chinese culture � Guanxi
Introduction
Weber (1958) studied the effects of the cultural values and
the rise of capitalism and argued that the so-called Protestant
Work Ethic (PWE) played an important role in the devel-
opment of capitalism in the West. He also contrasted the
western ‘‘Protestant Work Ethic’’ with the apparent absence
of rationality in Confucian values. More recently, a few
strong cases have been made in favor of the positive effects
of Confucian, such as hard work, diligence, frugality, and the
love of education (Redding 1990; Dana 1999; Lim and Lay
2003). Hofstede and Bond (1988), in their exploration of
cultural differences, also present an ‘‘Eastern’’ dimension,
which is called ‘‘Confucian Dynamism.’’ Actually, just as
the PWE has been considered as the main driving force
behind the economic successes of America and the countries
of Europe, Confucian Dynamism has also been found to be
strongly correlated with economic growth and the main
underlying reason for the economic successes of the five
Asian Dragons; namely China, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong,
and Singapore (Chinese Culture Connection 1987; Hofstede
1991; Lim and Lay 2003; Ralston et al. 1992; Holt 1997).
High endorsement values within PWE include industrious,
ambitious, hard working, intrinsically motivated, deferment
of immediate rewards, conservation of resources, the saving
of surplus wealth, and the avoidance of idleness and waste
in any form (Tang 1990; Ma 1986), and high scores in
S. Zhang (&) � X. Liu
School of Economic and Business, Shanxi University,
No. 92 Wucheng Road, Taiyuan 030006, China
e-mail: sue.zhsu555@gmail.com
X. Liu
e-mail: liuxiaolang0507@163.com
W. Liu
School of Management, Shanxi University, No. 92 Wucheng
Road, Taiyuan 030006, China
e-mail: liuwq@sxu.edu.cn
123
J Bus Ethics (2012) 106:243–252
DOI 10.1007/s10551-011-0993-8
Confucian Dynamism also emphasize the following values:
persistence, thrift, diligence, ordering relationships by sta-
tus, and having a sense of shame (Hofstede and Bond 1988;
Lim 2003). The two work ethics have both similarities and
differences.
Though both Confucian values and PWEs are different
values from different parts of the world, they have been
successfully adopted in the countries that follow them.
Therefore, both belief systems have attracted considerable
attention in social and occupational psychologies. While a
fairly extensive body of research has investigated PWE at the
individual level of analysis, Confucian Dynamism has been
studied primarily at the national and societal level (Chinese
Culture Connection 1987; Hofstede 1991, 1993, 1994;
Hofstede and Bond 1988; Ralston et al. 1992). Scant atten-
tion has been focused on Confucian Dynamism at the indi-
vidual level of analysis. Further, little study has been done to
investigate the relationship between PWE and Confucian
Dynamism. The purpose of this study was to present the
results from an exploratory test of the relationship between
two work ethics at the individual level of analysis.
Literature and Hypotheses
Confucian Dynamism
After developing the four cultural dimensions of individual-
ism versus collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity,
and power distance, Hofstede and Bond (1988) identified a
fifth dimension: Confucian Dynamism. According to Hofst-
ede (1993), Confucian Dynamism deals with ‘‘time orienta-
tion’’ and consists of two contracting poles: ‘‘long-term
orientation’’ versus ‘‘short-term orientation.’’
Hofstede and Bond (1988) suggested that individuals
who are high in Confucian Dynamism are likely to be more
persistent, have a greater respect for status, place a higher
value on thrift, and have a greater sense of shame. In
addition, Lu et al. (1999) found individuals high in Con-
fucian Dynamism are also more likely to place greater
importance on other stakeholders than themselves. More-
over, Jaw et al. (2007) noted that respondents with high
Confucian Dynamism tend to emphasize self-enhancement,
contribution to society, stability and rewards, and openness
to change simultaneously. It was also found that such
individuals are more likely to confine themselves within
social norms (Lu et al. 1999; Ornatowski 1996).
Even though the aim of Hofstede’s research was to mea-
sure societal-level phenomena, some researchers have
developed instruments that measure an individual’s beliefs
about various cultural issues (Triandis et al. 1985; Vitell et al.
1993; Robertson 2000; Robertson and Hoffman 2000). In the
early studies, results showed that Confucian Dynamism was
consistent at the individual level of analysis with Hofstede
and Bond’s (1988) social level results (Robertson 2000;
Robertson and Hoffman 2000). Based on the thesis of Hof-
tstede and Bond, Robertson (2000) divided Confucian
Dynamism items into two dimensions, which are four posi-
tive or ‘‘future-oriented’’ items and four negative or ‘‘past/
present-oriented’’ items, and also found that the future-ori-
ented items are significantly correlated to individualism and
uncertainty avoidance, while the past-oriented items are
related to uncertainty avoidance and future-orientation.
PWE
PWE has been the most notable concept since Max Weber
first expounded the relationship between culture values and
economic development (Weber 1958).
Although Weber’s original thesis emphasized elements of
Protestantism, the concept of the PWE is now used without
religious connotations to describe people who place work at
or near the center of their lives (Furnham 1990c). PWE is a
multidimensional concept, and there is no clear agreement
among researchers on the actual dimensions of PWE. Furn-
ham (1990b) compared and contrasted seven measures of the
PWE and found five readily interpretable factors: respect for,
admiration of, and willingness to take part in hard work; a
disdain for leisure, religion, and morality; independence
from others; the asceticism, and the damage of having too
much time and money. Using PWE Scale developed by
Mirels and Garrett (1971) and a sample of students in Tai-
wan, Tang (1993) developed four factors: hard work, internal
motive, asceticism, and attitudes toward leisure. Also using
the same scale, McHoskey (1994) presented four factors:
success, asceticism, hard work, and anti-leisure. In addition,
Wentworth and Chell (1997) found five factors emerging,
such as person’s use of time, disdain for leisure, hard work,
rewards of work, and disdain for indolence. Jones (1997) also
explained the PWE by five dimensions which were hard
work, use of time, saving, innovation, and honesty. Arslan
(2001) found five factors: work as an end in itself, hard work
brings success, saving in money and time, internal locus of
control, and negative attitudes to leisure.
Among a number of scales to be constructed to measure
PWE, the Mirels and Garrett scale has been the most
widely used in research, especially in Factor Analysis
(Baguma and Furnham 1993; Furnham 1982, 1990a;
Furnham and Rose 1987; Kidron 1978; Tang 1993,
McHoskey 1994; Wentworth and Chell 1997; Arslan
2001). We also use this scale in present study.
Hypothesis
Though some rare study has made an a priori investigation
of the relationship between the PWE and Confucian
244 S. Zhang et al.
123
Dynamism at the individual level of analysis, Lim (2003)
did find that PWE and Confucian Dynamism are similar in
that both promote values such as thrift and industriousness.
In addition, comparing the findings of Furnham et al.
(1993) and Hofstede (1994), it was found that, with eco-
nomic growth being much higher for the East Asian
countries than for the Western countries over past two
decades (Hofstede 1994), countries displaying low PWE
scores such as Germany, the United States, Britain, Aus-
tralia, and New Zealand are also the same countries dis-
playing low scores in Confucian Dynamism, and countries
with higher PWE such as India and Hong Kong are the
same countries with high scores in Confucian Dynamism.
Given the above associations between the PWE and
Confucian Dynamism, the following hypothesis was
proposed:
H1 The PWE would be positively related to Confucian
Dynamism.
Confucian Dynamism includes the values relating both
to the positive and the negative sides. Hofstede (1991)
identified this culture dimension as long-term versus short-
term orientations. According to Hofstede (1991), long-term
orientation refers to a positive, dynamic, and future-ori-
ented culture linked with four ‘‘positive’’ Confucian values,
whereas short-term orientation, represents a negative, sta-
tic, and traditional and past-oriented culture associated
with four ‘‘negative’’ Confucian values. Table 1, which is
in line with Confucian Dynamism analyzed by Hofstede
and Band (1988), is presented.
PWE adherents clearly regard hard work, thrift, and
perseverance as meaningful, worthwhile, and rewarding in
and of itself. Hence, the following hypothesis was proposed:
H2a The PWE would be positively related to long-term
orientation of Confucian Dynamism.
Also according to Hofstede and Bond (1988), the traits
of short-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism are
opposite to the PWE values. For example, ‘‘protecting
one’s face,’’ if widely shared as a concern, would detract
from getting on with the business, and the ‘‘reciprocation of
greetings, favors, and gifts’’ is a social activity more con-
cerned with good manners than with performance. More-
over, too much ‘‘respect’’ for tradition impedes innovation.
With such kinds of work values, people spend much time
and energy to maintain relationship rather than work for
itself. These traits of Confucian Dynamism are naturally
contrary to the spirit of PWE. Hence, the following
hypothesis was proposed:
H2b The PWE would be negatively related to short-term
orientation of Confucian Dynamism.
Methods
Sample and Procedures
Data were collected via questionnaire surveys. 1,757
respondents comprised university students, teachers, busi-
nessmen, ganbu (administrators in government organiza-
tions), managers, workers, clerks, etc. They came from
more than 15 provinces in mainland China, such as Beijing,
Shanghai, Liaoning, Shanxi, etc.
The participants included 946 men and 802 women.
Nine participants did not indicate gender. 587 participants
identified themselves as less than 25 years of age, 397 were
25–34 years of age, 407 were 35–44, and the remaining
359 were C45 years old. Seven participants failed to
indicate their age. 304 participants indentified themselves
as having no work experience, 345 having worked for less
than 5 years, 243 for 5–9 years, 170 for 10–14 years, 167
for 15–19 years, 303 for 20–29 years, and the remainder
159 for C30 years. 66 people failed to indicate their work
experience. 738 participants indentified themselves as
junior college education or less, 877 undergraduates, and
141 graduates. One person failed to indicate his/her edu-
cation status.
Instrumentation
Confucian Work Dynamism
We measured this variable with scales adapted from Rob-
ertson and Hoffman (2000). The scale included eight items
and was originally developed by a group of the Chinese
researchers named The Chinese Culture Connection
(1987). The first four items relate to Hofstede’s long-term
orientation of Confucian Dynamism, while the remaining
four items are the basis for short-term orientation scores.
The scale was translated into the Chinese and back trans-
lated independently for accuracy of measurement.
Table 1 Long-term versus short-term orientation of Confucian
Dynamism
Long-term orientation Short-term orientation
1. Persistence (perseverance) 1. Personal steadiness and
stability
2. Ordering relationships by status
and observing this order
2. Protecting your face
3. Thrift 3. Respect for tradition
4. Having a sense of shame 4. Reciprocation of greetings,
favors, and gifts
Source: Based on Hofstede and Bond (1988, p. 16)
Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 245
123
In our study, participants responded using a five-point
Likert-scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 5 (agree
strongly). Responses for the eight items were summed to
produce a total Confucian Dynamism. Then, four items in
short-term orientation were reversed in scoring because
greater agreement corresponded with greater short-term
orientation.
PWE
In our study, the Mirels and Garrett (1971) PWE’s Scale
was used to measure the PWE. The scale was translated
into the Chinese and back translated independently for
accuracy of measurement.
The PWE Scale consisted of 19 items, with higher
scores reflecting strong adherence to the PWE and lower
scores little adherence to the PWE. Participants responded
using a five-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 (disagree
strongly) to 5 (agree strongly). Item 9 (‘‘People should
have more leisure time to spend in relaxation.’’), Item 13
(‘‘Hard work offers little guarantee of success.’’), and Item
15 (‘‘Life would be more meaningful if we had more lei-
sure time.’’) were reverse-scored.
In this study, 19 items of PWE Scale originally yielded a
Cronbach’s alpha of only 0.64 (mean = 60.37, SD =
7.15). Then, we used the Item—Total Statistics—to test for
which items ‘‘Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted’’ was more
than 0.64 (Xue 2010). According to this method, the
‘‘Cronbach’s Alpha if Item Deleted’’ scores for items 9, 13,
and 15 were 0.66, 0.65, and 0.67, respectively. Reliability
estimates for the PWE improved from 0.64 to 0.71
(mean = 52.57, SD = 7.19) after deleting the items 9, 13,
and 15. These three items in original PWE Scale were all
reverse-scored. It was an unexpected result. We hope to
explore this matter further in a future study.
Results
Factor Analysis of PWE Items
Factor analysis was employed to reveal the underlying
dimensions of the PWE. We selected items with factor
loadings of 0.50 or greater with a criterion of an eigenvalue
greater than one. Varimax rotation was utilized to identify
four factors. Before rotation, these factors accounted for
41.54% of the total variance among the 16 PWE items.
Mchoskey (1994), Tang (1993), and Mudrack (1997)
accounted for similar amount (39, 45.5 and 42.5%, respec-
tively) of variances among 19 PWE items with four factors.
Five items were omitted because of low factor loadings. The
factors loadings for this analysis, along with each item’s
respective communality, are presented in Table 2.
Four items 6, 8, 11, and 5 loaded on the first factor,
which accounted for 19.18% of the variance and labeled
‘‘hard work’’ (eigenvalue = 3.07). Three of the four items
were the same to those loadings on the first factor in Tang’s
study. For Factor two, which was labeled ‘‘Internal
motive’’ (eigenvalue = 1.33), 8.30% of the variance can be
explained by items 14, 18, and 19. Two of the three were
the same as those in Tang’s study. In this factor, item 14
was not included in Tang’s study. For Factor 3, items 3 and
Table 2 Factor analytic results
for the PWE Scale
N = 1,757. Item numbers were
taken from Mirels and Garrett’s
(1971)a Denotes highest factor
loading
Item H Factor loadings
Hard
work
Internal
motive
Admiration
of work itself
Negative attitude
to leisure
1 0.55 0.12 0.30 0.67a
2 0.53 0.18 0.12 0.69a
3 0.50 0.64a 0.27
4 0.46 0.18 0.14 0.64a
5 0.34 0.54a 0.17 0.14
6 0.54 0.70a 0.18 -0.12
7 0.26 0.47 0.14 0.12
8 0.43 0.58a 0.20 0.23
10 0.40 0.32 0.24 0.44 -0.21
11 0.45 0.52a 0.39 -0.15
12 0.27 0.25 0.32 0.31
14 0.51 0.51a -0.15 0.48
16 0.25 0.16 0.45 0.14
17 0.29 0.23 0.40 0.11
18 0.52 -0.12 0.62a 0.30 -0.16
19 0.38 0.14 0.59a
246 S. Zhang et al.
123
4 accounted for 7.43% of the variance. It was labeled
‘‘admiration of work itself’’ (eigenvalue = 1.19). Finally,
item 1 and 2 loaded on the Factor 4, which accounted for
6.62% of the variance and labeled ‘‘Negative attitude
toward leisure’’ (eigenvalue = 1.06).
Factor Analysis of Confucian Dynamism Items
In order to test the dimensions of Confucian Dynamism,
the Factor analysis also was conducted among eight items.
We selected items with factor loadings of 0.50 or greater
with a criterion of an eigenvalue greater than one. Varimax
rotation was employed to identify three factors. Before
rotation, these factors accounted for 51.95% of the total
variance among the eight items. This result was very clo-
sely related to the thesis of the Hofstede (1991).
Items 1 (‘‘Managers must be persistent to accomplish
objectives.’’), 2 (‘‘There is a hierarchy to on-the-job rela-
tionships and it should be observed.’’), 3 (‘‘A good man-
ager knows how to economize.’’), and 4(‘‘It is important to
have a conscience in business.’’) were loaded on the Factor
1, which accounted for 22.05% of the variance (eigen-
value = 1.76) and were labeled long-term orientation.
These items are line with those on the left-select Confucian
values in Hofstede and Bond (1988), whereas items 5
(‘‘Personal stability is not critical to success in business.’’),
6 (‘‘Respect for tradition hampers performance.’’), 8
(‘‘Upholding one’s personal image makes little difference
in goal achievement.’’) were loaded on the Factor 2, which
accounted for 17.04% of the variance (eigenvalue = 1.36)
and were labeled short-term orientation. These items were
consistent with those on the right-select Confucian values
in Hofstede and Bond (1988) except the item 7 (‘‘The
exchange of favors and gifts is not necessary to excel.’’).
Item 7 was loaded on Factor 3, which accounted for
12.86% of the variance and was labeled ‘‘guanxi (special
relationship) orientation’’ (eigenvalue = 1.03). Guanxi is
one aspect of traditional Chinese culture. Contemporary
Chinese still deeply endorse the attitudes toward the very
traditional practice of guanxi, a network arrangement of
personal connections, involving reciprocal obligations to
exchange favors (Farh et al. 1998). The factors loadings for
this analysis, along with each item’s respective commu-
nality, are presented in Table 3.
Hypotheses Testing
We used multiple regression analyses to test the postulated
hypotheses in our study. A series of multiple regression
analyses were computed to examine the significance of the
various variables (age, gender, work experience, and edu-
cation) and four dimensions of the PWE as predictors of
Confucian Dynamism, long-term orientation, short-term
orientation, and guanxi orientation. Table 4 shows the
results of the regression analysis.
Our Hypothesis 1 that the PWE would be positively
related to Confucian Dynamism was supported. The
omnibus F-test was statistically significant (F = 28.16;
p \ 0.001). The dimensions of the PWE such as ‘‘hard
work,’’ ‘‘internal motivation,’’ and ‘‘admiration of work
itself’’ were all positively and significantly related to the
Confucian Dynamism. The ‘‘Negative attitude toward lei-
sure’’ dimension of the PWE was also positively but not
significantly related to the Confucian Dynamism.
Our Hypothesis 2a, that the PWE would be positively
related to long-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism,
was partly supported. The omnibus F-test was statistically
significant (F = 25.27; p \ 0.001). Except ‘‘negative atti-
tude toward leisure’’ dimension of the PWE, three
dimensions of PWE were all positively and significantly
correlated with long-term orientation of Confucian Dyna-
mism. One of the interesting results was that ‘‘negative
attitude toward leisure’’ was negatively, though not sig-
nificantly, related to long-term orientation dimension.
Our Hypothesis H2b, the PWE would be negatively
related to short-term orientation of Confucian Dynamism,
was also partly supported. The omnibus F-test was statis-
tically significant (F = 13.78; p \ 0.001). Two dimensions
of ‘‘hard work’’ and ‘‘internal motive’’ were all negatively
and most significantly related to short-term orientation
(p \ 0.001). The ‘‘negative attitude toward leisure’’ was
found to be also negatively but not significantly related to
short-term orientation. Contrary to Hypothesis 2b, an
unexpected result showed that ‘‘admiration of work itself’’
dimension was significantly and positively related to short-
term orientation (p \ 0.05).
We did not postulate the relationship between PWE and
guanxi orientation. This dimension was produced unex-
pectedly through Factor analysis. The omnibus F-test was
Table 3 Factor analytic results for the Confucian Dynamism Scale
Item H Factor loadings
Long-term
orientation
Short-term
orientation
Guanxiorientation
1 0.44 0.65a 0.09 -0.04
2 0.40 0.54a 0.23 -0.23
3 0.52 0.72a -0.06 0.15
4 0.51 0.71a -0.13 0.08
5 0.43 0.02 0.63a 0.18
6 0.61 0.13 0.74a -0.25
7 0.79 0.10 0.09 0.88a
8 0.46 -0.15 0.54a 0.39
N = 1,757. Item numbers were taken from Robertson and Hoffman’s
(2000)a Denotes the highest factor loading
Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 247
123
statistically significant (F = 3.15; p \ 0.01). There was a
negative and significant correlation between the ‘‘admira-
tion of work itself’’ dimension and guanxi orientation
(p \ 0.01). Guanxi orientation was negatively related to all
the dimensions of the PWE. Given that guanxi orientation
is one trait of short-term orientation (Hofstede and Bond
1988), it was reasonable to say that these results supported
Hypothesis 2b also.
Discussion
Our purpose in conducting this study was to better under-
stand the relationship between PWE and Confucian
Dynamism in the Chinese setting. This objective was
accomplished using a more heterogeneous sample than has
been used in previous experiments. A significant interac-
tion effect was found between PWE and Confucian
Dynamism in this present study. The findings appeared to
support the notion that these two work ethics are not cul-
turally specific (Hofstede and Bond 1988; Robertson 2000;
Robertson and Hoffman 2000; Furnham et al. 1993; Lim
and Lay 2003; Williams and Sandler 1995).
In our findings, the hard work dimension and internal
motive of PWE was positively and significantly correlated
with long-term orientation while negatively and signifi-
cantly associated with short-term orientation. This result
indicates that individuals, who have a strong commitment
to working hard and internal motive, place more impor-
tance on the values associated with Confucian teachings
that are future oriented (persistence, status-ordered rela-
tionships, thrift, and a sense of shame) (Hofstede and Bond
1988). This finding is consistent with some extant studies
which suggest that Confucian ethics advocate the virtue of
hard work and respect for educational achievements (e.g.,
Wong and Wong 1989). These individuals would (a) save
enough money as availability of capital from reinvestment
and obvious asset to economic growth (Hofstede and Bond
1988; Fang 2003; Lim 2003; Tang 1992, 1993), (b) meet
person’s commitment to doing their duty in society because
the shared value of ‘‘ordering relationship by status and
observing this order’’ lies at their heart (Hofstede and Bond
1988; Fang 2003), (c) adhere to pursuit of whatever goals
they select for themselves, including economic goals, and
(d) accumulate wealth, prestige, status, power, and so on, to
gain respect from others. On the other hand, those scoring
lower on the work-hard dimension and internal-motive
dimension place more importance on values associated
with Confucian teachings that are past and present oriented
(steadiness and stability, protection of face, and respect for
tradition) (Hofstede and Bond 1988). For example, these
individuals could likely detract their attention from getting
on with the business and enhancing their work performance
because they widely concern their faces. Furthermore, they
would be likely to respect traditional Chinese etiquette and
custom widely and overstress personal steadiness and sta-
bility leading to discourage their initiative, risk seeking,
and changeability required of entrepreneurs trying to
exploit the opportunity to develop their business and career
(Hofstede and Bond 1988). Lu et al. (1999) noted that such
Table 4 Results of multiple regression analysis
Variables Dependent variables
Confucian
Dynamism
Long-term
orientation
Short-term
orientation
Guanxiorientation
Hard work 0.13** 0.11*** -0.09*** -0.01
Internal motive 0.20*** 0.17*** -0.13*** -0.02
Admiration of work itself 0.13*** 0.19*** 0.05* -0.07**
Negative attitude to leisure 0.02 -0.02 -0.05 -0.03
Age 0.13* 0.11* -0.07 -0.03
Gender 0.01 0.01 -0.04 0.05
Work experience -0.02 -0.10 -0.07 -0.04
Education -0.02 0.01 0.04 0.04
R2 0.12 0.11 0.06 0.02
Adjusted R2 0.11 0.10 0.06 0.01
F 28.16*** 25.27*** 13.78*** 3.15**
N = 1757. Betas are standardized regression coefficients and represent the coefficients when all the variables are entered simultaneously.
Gender: female = 0, male = 1; age: 17–24 = 1, 25–34 = 2, 35–44 = 3, C45 = 4; work experience: no work experience = 0,
0 \ 5 years = 1, 5–9 years = 2, 10–14 years = 3, 15–19 years = 4, 20–30 years = 5, C30 years = 6; education: diploma and lower = 1,
undergraduate = 2, graduate = 3
* p \ 0.05; ** p \ 0.01; *** p \ 0.001
248 S. Zhang et al.
123
individuals are more likely to confine themselves within
social norms, and also to avoid feelings of guilt which may
arise from nonconformity to local teachings, customs, and
traditions.
Similar to the hard-work and internal-motive dimen-
sions, admiration of work itself dimension was positively
and significantly correlated with long-term orientation of
Confucian Dynamism. The one puzzling result obtained
related to the ‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension. This
dimension was also positively and significantly with short-
term orientation of Confucian Dynamism. That is, indi-
viduals who strongly support the views, such as ‘‘there are
few satisfactions equal to the realization that one has done
his or her best at a job’’ and ‘‘money acquired easily (such
as through gambling or speculation) is usually spent
unwisely,’’ are high endorsements with short-term orien-
tation. At face value, this result seems counter-intuitive and
seemingly inconsistent with the various other logical
associations achieved both on individual level (Robertson
2000) and on national and societal level (Hofstede and
Bond 1988). This result appeared inscrutable. Some pos-
sible explanations will be given as follows:. First, as one of
‘‘short-term’’ values (Hofstede and Bond 1988), ‘‘Personal
steadiness and stability’’ in the Chinese culture context
means ‘‘prudence’’ and implies the need for good planning
(Fang 2003). Therefore, people with such characteristic
possibly endorse the statement: ‘‘money acquired easily
(e.g., through gambling or speculation) is usually spent
unwisely’’ (Mirels and Garrett 1971), which item of PWE
loaded on ‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension. Second,
‘‘Protecting your face’’ is another trait in short-term ori-
entation (Hofstede and Bond 1988). Face concerns have
received some research attention to date (Lim 2003; Tim-
ing-Toomey and Kurogi 1998; Tata 2000; Hwang 1987; Hu
1944; Redding and Ng 1982). Face shows respect for one’s
social status and reputation in society (Wang et al. 2005).
Face can be acquired or lost. Therefore, individuals with
high endorsement to the value of ‘‘Protecting your face’’
would work hard and even glorify from work itself to
acquire their face.
The negative attitude to leisure dimension of PWE was
negatively but not significantly associated with three
dimensions of Confucian Dynamism. This result indicates
that the individuals who have a strong commitment to view
leisure time with suspicion and mistrust don not accord
with the values of not only short-term orientation and gu-
anxi orientation but also long-term orientation. Given the
assertion by Wang et al. (2005) that Confucian culture
tends to view time as a process of eternity—what really
matters for many Chinese is how life can be made natural
and enjoyable each day—this result appears logical. Fan
(1995) also reported that the highest reward in life for the
Chinese is the spiritual enrichment and serenity derived
from the moderation of one’s living environment. Time is
therefore valuable when it is used for achieving this ulti-
mate human reward, while time is also flexible and
renewable regardless of how much present-day business
presses against it. Furthermore, this finding indicates that
the individuals who firmly recognize the dangers associ-
ated with too much idle time are seen as out of step with
the Confucian world. The Chinese prefer the philosophical
principle of zhongyong or being ‘‘in the middle’’—of
maintaining a balanced and integrated life (Fang 2003).
Therefore, if one is always pressed by time, where is the
quality of life? Moreover, ‘‘Leisure’’ has far-reaching
implications for the Chinese people rather than negative
thing. Confucian values also suggest that human beings
should crave harmony between work and leisure for their
sheer existence and healthy development. The Chinese
people take leisure and amusement—even unprofitable
amusements—as a good chance for their relaxation.
Therefore, even individuals who espouse a high endorse-
ment of long-term orientation may adhere to a positive
attitude to leisure.
Finally, the last unexpected result was about guanxi
orientation of Confucian Dynamism. All the four dimen-
sions of PWE were negatively associated with guanxi. That
is, individuals who endorse the values of PWE view guanxi
with negative attitude. Further, in our findings, the
‘‘admiration of work itself’’ dimension correlated espe-
cially negatively and significantly with guanxi orientation.
This result suggests that individuals who hold the value of
work in high esteem will avow a low endorsement toward
guanxi orientation. Most studies have investigated the
effect of guanxi at all the three levels—the societal, orga-
nizational, and individual levels (Fan 2002; Tsang 1998;
Dunfee and Warren 2001; Warren et al. 2004; Zhang and
Zhang 2006). Our findings about guanxi are inconsistent
with some extant studies. For example, Zhang and Zhang
(2006) concluded that guanxi can influence a firm’s per-
formance indirectly as a special asset owned by an indi-
vidual and when it acts as an ‘‘organizational asset.’’
Guanxi can also bring strategic implications to the firm,
including facilitating strategic implementation, providing
the means to limit transaction costs, and serving as com-
pensation for the lack of a formal institutional framework,
and as a means to access to scarce resources. In addition,
Leung and Wong (2001) proposed that the modern version
of guanxi is not identical to the traditional Confucian form
and should be seen best as a strategic tool to achieve
business goals. Similarly, Luo (1997) suggested that guanxi
constitutes the most effective and efficient marketing tool.
Although in previous empirical studies, a considerable
number of respondents agreed that guanxi is very important
in work and life, they expressed their distaste toward it
(Anderson and Lee 2008). Therefore, it is logical for the
Relationship Between PWE and Confucian Dynamism 249
123
individuals who have a strong regard and reverence for the
value of work to have a less positive attitude toward gu-
anxi. According to the views of Hofstede and Bond (1988),
guanxi, if widely shared as a concern, would detract from
getting on with the work. Also, guanxi is social activity
more concerned with good manners than with performance
(Hofstede and Bond 1988). In addition, excessive guanxi
vulgarizes one’s social networks and can lead to corruption
(Fang 2003). High endorsement to guanxi orientation dis-
tracts one’s attention from work itself. Hence, it is plau-
sible that individuals who score high on guanxi orientation
are more likely to demonstrate low adherence to PWE
values.
Overall, these results suggest that individuals who
strongly support either the values of PWE or the long-term
orientation of Confucian Dynamism, while those weakly
endorsing short-term and guanxi orientations would likely
to get ahead in life and achieve success in the Chinese
settings. The results of this study have some important
managerial implications. An obvious implication is for
employee selection, with the results showing that selecting
employees who strongly support the values of PWE or
Confucian Dynamism is likely to enhance the performance
of individuals, groups, and even organizations. In addition,
this study draws managers’ attention to the significance of
fostering their employees’ work ethics according to the
values of PWE or Confucian Dynamism in developing
training programs and establishing their organizational
culture. Further, human resource managers may be inter-
ested in allocating their personnel according to their PWE
or Confucian Dynamism scores. For example, a person
whose scores are higher in PWE or the long-term orien-
tation of Confucian Dynamism may be well suited for a
position that deals with the technology, budgeting,
accounting, and managing. On the other hand, a person
whose scores are higher in guanxi orientation may be well
suited to be a liaison, disturbance handler, negotiator, or
spokesperson. Finally, our findings have implications for
multicultural business organizations in China. Inasmuch as
national cultural differences predict the success or failure
of multinational business, it would seem that the more we
know about cultural difference in employees’ work ethics,
the better we shall be able to answer ‘‘which individuals are
likely to work well together, and which are likely to be
good at what tasks?’’
In order to understand the relationship between PWE or
Confucian Dynamism and the levels of economic success
of individuals in China and elsewhere, our future research
would measure differences in commitment to PWE or
Confucian Dynamism between managers against different
work performance in China and elsewhere. A manager’s
work ethic plays a crucial role not only in his or her work
performance but also in the economic prosperity of his or
her organization. Therefore, it is important to understand
the attitudes toward PWE or Confucian Dynamism, which
managers hold. Furthermore, researchers should investigate
how PWE or Confucian Dynamism holds up at the indi-
vidual level in four Mini Dragons (Japan, Taiwan, Hong
Kong, and Singapore) where dominant Confucian values
are considered the main driving forces behind their eco-
nomic successes. This is the logical extension of the
present research project. Also, it would be interesting for
future research to explore if variation in commitment to
PWE or Confucian Dynamism for individuals is moderated
by demographic variables, such as gender, age, work
experience, position, income, and so on. Finally,
researchers may choose to replicate this study in a different
cultural environment such as Western countries or to per-
form a similar study to explore the relationship between
Confucian Dynamism and other organizational constructs.
The results of this study strongly supported the notion
that Confucian values are correlated to values of PWE
(Lim and Lay 2003; Lim 2003). Nevertheless, an inherent
limitation involved with this present study, was that the
Confucian Dynamism measure used in this study might not
be completely valid. Although other researchers have also
used this scale, its reliabilities have not been reported
(Ralston et al. 1992; Robertson and Hoffman 2000; Rob-
ertson 2000; Jaw et al. 2007). In this study, the reliabilities
(Cronbach’s alpha) were not especially high. It should be
noted, however, that while low reliability increases the
probability of making a Type II error, a low alpha only
becomes problematic if findings are non-significant (Cook
and Campbell 1979; Williams and Sandler 1995).
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