Microelectronics and IC Technology

8/21/2019 Microelectronics and IC Technology

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/microelectronics-and-ic-technology 1/268

Microelectronics And ICTechnology

March 21, 2015

Dave A. AnasPERCDC

Dave A. Anas

istory

History of EE: Transistor

Collector

Emitter

J. Bardeen,W. Brattain and W. Shockley, 1939-1947

MOSFET

History of EE: IntegrationJack S. Kilby (1958)Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

Transistor

Monolithic (one piece) circuits: built forma silicon substrate

Today’s Chips: Moore’s Law

Gordon Moore, 1965

Number of transistor per square inchdoubles

approximatelyevery18 months

Implications

Cost per device halves every 18 monthsMore transistors on the same area, more complexand powerful chips

Future chips are very hard to design!!!Fabrication cost is becoming prohibitive

Today’s Chips: An Example

300mm wafer, 90nmP4 2.4 Ghz, 1.5V, 131mm2

90nm transistor (Intel)

Hair size (1024px)

Signals: Analog vs. Digital

Analog: Analogous to some physical quantity

Digital: can be represented using a finite number of digits

Example of Analog Signal

Properties:Dynamic range: maxV – minV

Frequency: number of cycles in one second

V o l t

a g e ( µ V )

Time (s)

A (440Hz) piano key stroke

Analog Circuits

It is an electronic subsystem whichoperates entirely on analog signals

Amplifieri(t) o(t)

o(t) =K i(t)

Digital Circuits

It is an electronic subsystem whichoperates entirely on numbers (using, forinstance, binary representation)

1-bit Adder

a b sum carry

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 01 1 0 1

Encoding of Digital Signals

We use binary digits Two values: 0 ,1

Positional system

Encoded by two voltage levels +1.5 V → 1 ,0 V → 0

+1.5 V

+1.5 V0 V

5 → 101+1.5 V

threshold

noise margin

Why Digital?

Digital signals areeasy and cheap tostore

Digital signals areinsensible to noise

Boolean algebra can be used torepresent, manipulate, minimize logicfunctions

Digital signal processing is easier andrelatively less expensive than analogsignal processing

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/microelectronics-and-ic-technology 13/268Lect. 1 - 06/21/2004 Alessandro Pinto, EE40 Summer 2004 13

Digital Representation of Analog Signals

Problem: represent f(t) using a finitenumber of binary digits

Example: A key stroke using 6 bits

Only 64 possible values, hence not all values can be represented

Quantization error: due to finitenumber of digits

Time sampling: time is continuous but we want a finite sequence of numbers

Digital Representation of Analog Signals

f(t)Dynamic Range: [-30,30] VPrecision: 5 V

Sampling

0000000100100011010001010110011110001001101010111100

Quantization10110100010101100001001010011100010000110010

Result

Digital Representation of Logic Functions

Boolean Algebra: Variables can take values0 or 1 (true orfalse)

Operators on variables:

a AND b a·b

aOR b a+b

NOT b b

Any logic expression can be built usingthese basic logic functions

Example: exclusive OR

Full Adder Example

1-bit Adder

a b sum carry

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

TAKE NOTE!

-Analog signals are representation of physicalquantities

-Digital signals are less sensible to noise than

analog signals

-Digital signals can represent analog signals with arbitrary precision (at the expense of

digital circuit cost)

-Boolean algebra is a powerful mathematicaltool for manipulating digital circuits

Microelectronics And IC

TechnologyDave A. Anas

Co!!on A""lication

Cellular Technology

An important example of microelectronics.

Microelectronics exist in black boxes that process the

received and transmitted voice signals.

Frequency Upconversion

!oice is "upconverted# by multiplying t$o sinusoids.

%hen multiplying t$o sinusoids in time domain& their

spectra are convolved in frequency domain.

Transmitter

T$o frequencies are multiplied and radiated by an antenna

in 'a(.

A po$er amplifier is added in 'b( to boost the signal.

)eceiver

*igh frequency is translated to +C by multiplying by f C.

A lo$noise amplifier is needed for signal boosting $ithoutexcessive noise.

Microelectronics Technology

###$e!icond%ctor Processing&&&### $e!icond%ctorCharacteri'ation&&&

(hat is Microelectronics)

* Microelectronics is a s%+eld

o- electronics.* Microelectronics is the st%dyand !an%-act%re o- electronic

co!"onents hich are verys!all.

Real $!all Co!"onents

/ery Co!"le

Dierent A""roache

actors that Aect$e!icond%ctor a+rication

• Pro"er !aterial -or the "%r"ose

•3eo!etry

• Material groth and re!oval +y

the hel" o- lithogra"hy

$i!"le ea!"le 4ME$ET• Metal*$e!icond%ctor ield Eect

Transistor

CM$ Inverter

$ilicon Technology

• Process Involved – Crystal (substrate) growth

– Oxidation

– Difusion & implantation

– Material growth (metal evaporation,sputtering, vapor deposition, epitaxy)

– Lithography & ething

$%+strate or!ation

Dierent Methods o- $%+strateor!ation

– C!ohrals"i

• Ma#ority o$ the wa$ers – %loating !one (high purity)

• igh purity ' low oxygen & arbon impurity• More omplex wrt C!ohrals"i

– ridgman• *asy (melting & ooling)• Low +uality

– Drip melting, strain annealing and

others

C'ochrals6i groth

7Ingot8 9y C'ochrals6iMethod

C'ochrals6i 3roth

CARACTERI$TIC$

• Ty"ically %sed -or $ilicon +%t also %sed -or – ingle rystal semiondutors (i, -e, -a.s)

– Metals (/d, /t, .g, .u)

– alts et0

• Re:%ires seed crystal

• ast ;1*2 !!<!in=

PR9>EM$• ygen conta!ination -ro! cr%ci+le

• ?ni-or!ity o- aial resistivity is "oor

• $egregation "ro+le!s -or do"ants

$te"s Involved

Processes Involved

• C/D @ >PC/D ;che!ical va"or de"osition ;l!groth=

• Ther!ally gron oide ;idation=

• Photoresist ;>ithogra"hy etching=

!ermal Si"2 Pro#erties

!ermal Si"2 Pro#erties $cont.%

"&idation ec!ni'ues

• !ermal "&idation

• (a#id !ermal "&idation

Oxidation /roess

!ermal "&idation ec!ni'ues

• )et "&idation

Si $solid% * +20 Si"2 $solid% * 2+2

• r "&idation

Si $solid% * "2 $as% Si"2$solid%

once#tual Si "&idation Sstem

!ermal "&idation

• +eat is added to t!e o&idation tue durin t!e reaction..eteen o&idants and silicon

- 00-1,200° tem#erature rane- "&ide rot! rate increases as a result o !eat

• sed to ro o&ides eteen 60-10,0005

D 1 2h l

Dry vs 1et 2hermalOxidation

)et !ermal "&idation !aracteristics

• "&idant is ater a#or

• 7ast o&idation rate- "&ide rot! rate is 1000-12005 / !our

• Preerred o&idation #rocess or rot! o t!ic8 o&ides

r !ermal "&idation !aracteristics

• "&idant is dr o&en

• sed to ro o&ides less t!an 10005 t!ic8

• Slo #rocess- 140 - 2905 / !our

,assivation• P!sicall #rotects aers rom scratc!es and #article..contamination

• ra#s moile ions in o&ide laer

%untions o$ Oxide Layers (3)

Masking• urin iusion, :on :m#lantation, and Etc!in

%untion o$ Oxide Layers (4)

-nsulating Material• ;ate reion

- !in laer o o&ide- Allos an inductie c!are to #ass eteen ate

metal and silicon

+ielectric Material• :nsulatin material eteen metal laers

- 7ield "&ide

+ielectric Material• unnelin o&ide

- Allos electrons to #ass t!rou! o&ide it!outresistance

idation

Main advantages o- $i3e co!"ared to $i4

A. Mo+ility

9. Poer Cons%!"tion

;oygen !%st di%se thro%gh the oide to

react at the $i<$i2 inter-ace, so ratede"ends on the thic6ness o- the oide andred%ces as the oidation "rogresses.=

idation

• Ther!al idation is "er-or!ed in -%rnaces atte!"erat%res +eteen 899 and 3499:C

• Many a-ers on the +oat ;a :%art' rac6= at thesa!e ti!e

idation 4 dry vs. et

• Dry ;!olec%lar oygen= 4 +etter oide +%tslo ;gate oide=

• (et ;stea! @ ater va"or= 4 -ast +%t "oro%s;isolation=

idation

>ithogra"h Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er?sed -or "attern trans-er into !etals, oides andse!icond%ctors

2hin ;lm deposition and lithography ;incl%ding "hoto ande*+ea!, et etching and li-t*o= are the !ost-re:%ently %sed !ethod in la+s

2ypes o$ resists< – /ositive < /= pattern is same as mas" On exposure to

light, light degrades the polymers resulting in thephotoresist being more soluble in developers 2he /=an be removed in inexpensive solvents suh asaetone

– >egative < /= pattern is the inverse o$ the mas" On

exposure to light, light polymeri!es the rubbers in the?

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er

• 9lac6 areas ;PR= are theo"enings a-ter develo"!ent o-PR

>ithogra"hy Pattern

Processes in doing>ithogra"hy4

– Dehydration ba"e or pre@ba"e

– .dhesion promoter (ie MD) – .pply resist ' spinner – o$t ba"e – AB@exposure with mas"

– /ost@ba"e – /ost proessing suh as development &

ething & li$t@of – Other proesses re+uired by spei; needs

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• 9a6ing

• $"inner

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• E"ose

• Develo"

>ith h P tt T -

>ithogra"hy Pattern Trans-er 4?ses o- lithogra"hy

tching ,rocesses/ open $indo$s in oxides for diffusion&

masks for ion implantation& etching& metal contact to the

semiconductor& or interconnect.

>ithogra"hy Pattern

• >i-t o Processes4 Metali'ation

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• Iss%es ith "hotolithogra"hy

– =esolution < $eature si!e (97 mironusually)

– horter wavelength better resolution – =egistration < alignment o$ diferentlayers on the same wa$er ( 3E5 o$ theresolution or 99F miron)

– 2hroughput < efetive ost and time – =esist thi"ness 3Espin speed

>ithogra"hy Pattern

• Photolithogra"hy syste!s

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"hy PatternTrans-er• Contact Resist is in contact ith the !as64 141

!agnication – Gnepensive, relatively high resolution ( 97 miron),

ontat with the mas" (srathes, partiles and dirt areimaged in the wa$er)

• Proi!ity Resist is al!ost +%t not in contact iththe !as64 141 !agnication – Gnexpensive, low resolution ( 3@4miron), difration

efets limit auray o$ pattern trans$er Lessrepeatable than ontat methods,

• ProBection Mas6 i!age is "roBected a distance-ro! the !as6 and de*!agnied to a s!aller i!age4

14 *1410!agnication – Can be very high resolution (99H um or slightly

better), >o mas" ontat results in almost no mas" wear(high prodution ompatible), mas" de$ets or partileson mas" are redued in si!e on the wa$er *xtremelyexpensive and ompliated e+uipment, Difration

efets limit auray o$ pattern trans$er

>ithogra"hy Pattern

>ithogra"h Pattern Trans-er

>ithogra"hy Pattern Trans-er 4>ight so%rces

• Ty"ically merury (g)@ Ienon (Ie)vapor bulbs are %sed as a lightso%rce in visi+le ;#20 n!= and%ltraviolet ;#250*00 n! and&20 n!= lithogra"hy e:%i"!ent

• Lasers are %sed to increaseresol%tion, and decrease the

o"tical co!"leity -or dee"%ltraviolet ;D?/= lithogra"hysyste!s.

• *xited dimer ;Eci!er or Ei"le=

"%lsed lasers are ty"ically %sed.

Di%sion I!"lantation

• Do"ants -or F and PF regions ;i!"lantation di%sion=

• 1hat is difusionJ – Difusion is the spontaneous net movement o$

partiles $rom an area o$ high onentration toan area o$ low onentration (partilepenetration $rom sur$ae into the wa$er)

• Commonly used $or – ipolar tehnology (base, emitters) – %*2 (soure, drain)

• Ased when – Gon implantation damage is not aeptable – Deep #untions are needed – Cheap & easy solutions are see"ed

Di%sion I!"lantation 4

Di%sion I!"lantation 4Ty"es o- di%sion

• Instertital

• /acancy

• Interstitialcy• Gic6*o%t

• Dissociative

Di i I l t ti

• Di%sionde"ends on4

–Difusion time –Difusion

onstant

(difusivity) –Material density

– 2emperature

• Ion i!"lantation 4 – Gons (harged atoms or moleules) are reated

via an enormous eletri ;eld stripping awayan eletron

– 2hese ions are ;ltered and aelerated towarda target wa$er, where they are buried in thewa$er

– 2he depth o$ the implantation depends on the

aeleration energy (voltage) – 2he dose is very are$ully ontrolled by

integrating the measured ion urrent

• Advantages – Bery preise ontrol o$ the dose and position – Gndependent ontrol o$ impurity depth and dose – Bery $ast (#ust $ew seonds) – Complex pro;les an be ahieved by multiple &

se+uential implantations

• Disadvantages – Bery deep and very shallow pro;les are diKult – >ot all the damage an be orreted by annealing – 2ypially has higher impurity ontent than difusion – O$ten uses extremely toxi gas soures suh as arsine

(.s5), and phosphine (/5) – expensive

a+rication o- a CM$

a+rication o- a CM$Inverter

a+rication o- a CM$

• Poly*$i de"osition ;>PC/D=

il d i i h

il! de"osition groth

• Physical de"osition – 2hermal evaporation – *@beam evaporation – puttering

• Che!ical va"or de"osition – CBD – L/CBD – /*CBD

• E"itaial groth

– M* – MOCBD – C*

Ther!al E*+ea!

Ther!al E +ea!Eva"oration• The so%rce !aterial is eva"orated in a vac%%!.

The va"ors other than the so%rce !aterial areal!ost entirely re!oved +e-ore the "rocess+egins.

• The vac%%! allos va"or "articles to travel

directly to the target o+Bect ;s%+strate=, herethey condense +ac6 to a solid state.

• .dvantages – igh purity (good $or hott"y ontats), simple, easy &

heap, $ast, low vauum (39@6)

• Disadvantages – /oor alloy $ormation, step overage problems, low throughput

(low vauum), relatively non@uni$orm deposition, non@smoothsur$aes, short mean $ree path (F9m), high temperatures

Ther!al E*+ea!

Ther!al E +ea!Eva"oration

2hermal

*@beam

$ tt i

$"%ttering

• A HtargetH !ade o- the !aterial to +e de"osited is

+o!+arded +y energetic ions hich ill dislodgeato!es o- the target, i.e., Hsputter the! oH.

• The dislodged ato!s ill have s%+stantial 6ineticenergies, and so!e ill Jy to the s%+strate to +ecoated and stic6 there.

$ tt i

$"%ttering

.dvantages – The target ato!s hit the s%+strate ith

an energy large eno%gh so they Hgetstuck H, +%t not so large as to li+erates%+strate ato!s. $"%ttered layersthere-ore %s%ally stic6 ell to thes%+strate ;in contrast to othertechni:%es, !ost nota+ly eva"oration

– All ato!s o- the target ill +eco!ede"osited, in "retty !%ch the sa!e

co!"osition as in the target. It is th%s"ossi+le, e.g., to de"osit a silicide slightlyo the stoichio!etric co!"osition

– The target ato!s hit the s%+strateco!ing -ro! all directions.

– o!ogeneo%s coverage o- the s%+strate*

$ tt i

$"%ttering

Disadvantages – $"%ttered layers %s%ally have a very +ad

crystallinity * very s!all grains -%ll o- de-ects oreven a!or"ho%s layers res%lt. ?s%ally so!e 6indo- annealing o- the layers is necessary to restoreacce"ta+le crystal :%ality.

– $"%ttering or6s ell -or !etals or otherso!ehat cond%cting !aterials. It is not easy orsi!"ly i!"ossi+le -or ins%lators. $"%ttering $i2layers, e.g., has +een tried o-ten, +%t never!ade it to "rod%ction ;Kn*oide, tin*oide etc.are easily achieved hoever=

Che!ical /a"or

Che!ical /a"orDe"osition

• the s%+strate is"laced inside areactor to hich an%!+er o- gasesare s%""lied.

• a che!icalreaction ta6es"lace +eteen theso%rce gases.

• The "rod%ct o-

that reaction is asolid !aterial ithcondenses on alls%r-aces inside thereactor.

C t i - C/D

Categories o- C/D

1. At!os"heric Press%re ;APC/D=• .dvantages< igh deposition rates, simple,

high throughput• Disadvantages< /oor uni$ormity, purity is

less than L/CBD

• 2hi" oxides

2. >o Press%re ;>PC/D, 0.2 @ 20 Torr=• /oly@silion deposition, dieletri layer and

doped dieletri deposition• .dvantages< *xellent uni$ormity, purity• Disadvantages< Lower (but reasonable)

deposition rates than ./CBD

C t i - C/D

Categories o- C/D

5 Metal rganic ;MC/D= alternative $orM*

• .dvantages< ighly exible(semiondutors, metals, dieletris)

•Disadvantages< ighly toxi, very expensivesoure material, environmental disposalosts are high

6 Plas!a Enhanced (/*CBD)

• dieletri oating suh as silion nitride• .dvantages< Ases low temperatures

neessary $or rear end proessing• Disadvantages< /lasma damage typially

results

E"itay

• (e can gro crystalline se!icond%ctors+y raising the te!"erat%re to allo!ore s%r-ace !igration and +y %sing acrystalline s%+strate

grothL de"osition• The lattice constant o- the e"itaiallygron layer needs to +e close to thelattice constant o- the s%+strate a-er.therise the +onds can not stretch -areno%gh and dislocations ill res%lt.

• Advantages 4 /ery high :%ality,etre!ely clean sa!"les,crystallinity,very long !ean -ree "ath ;-e h%ndred

!eters=, "recise ato!ic layer de"osition

E"itay

/ac%%!

• A vac%%! is a vol%!e o- s"ace that isessentially e!"ty o- !atter s%ch that itsgaseo%s "ress%re is !%ch less than standardat!os"heric "ress%re.

• A "er-ect vac%%! ith a gaseo%s "ress%re o-a+sol%te 'ero is a "hiloso"hical conce"t that isnever o+served in "ractice

• :%ant%! theory "redicts that no vol%!e o-s"ace can +e "er-ectly e!"ty in this ay.

• The :%ality o- a vac%%! is !eas%red in relationto ho closely it a""roaches a "er-ect vac%%!.

The resid%al gas "ress%re is the "ri!aryindicator o- :%ality, and is !ost co!!only!eas%red in %nits called torr

• The average distance +eteen collisions ;!ean-ree "ath=

/ac%%!

• /ac%%! :%ality is s%+divided into ranges accordingto the technology re:%ired to achieve it or !eas%reit. These ranges do not have %niversally agreeddenitions ;hence the ga"s +elo=, +%t a ty"icaldistri+%tion is as -ollos4

At!os"heric NO0 Torr>o vac%%! NO0 to 25 TorrMedi%! vac%%! 25 to 110* Torrigh vac%%! 110* to 110*Q

Torr?ltra high vac%%! 110*Q to 110*12

TorrEtre!ely high vac%%! &110*12 Torr%ter $"ace 110*O to &10*1N TorrPer-ect vac%%! 0 Torr

/ac%%! "%!"s

• Ro%gh !edi%! vac%%! – /iston pumps (partile problems) – =otary vane pumps (heap)

– Dry pumps• igh vac%%! ?/

– Difusion (oil ontamination) – 2urbo

– Cryo – Gon (low pumping speed & apaity)

Trans-er "%!"s

• Rotary "%!" ;!echanical=

/ac%%! "%!"s

• T%r+o!olec%lar "%!"s

a+rication o- a CM$

inverter

a+rication o- a CM$

inverter

a+rication o- a CM$

inverter

Inverter @ A-ter -e

Dave A. Anas

Microelectronics Design

2he tart o$ the Modern *letronis

Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at

Bell Labs - Brattain and Bardeen

invented the bipolar transistor in 1947.

The first germanium bipolar

transistor. Roughly 50 years later,

electronics account for 10% (4 trillion

dollars) of the world GDP.

*letronis Milestones

38H6 raun invents the solid@statereti;er

39F De%orest invents triodevauum tube

39H@34H

%irst radio iruits developed$rom diodes and triodes

347 Lilien$eld ;eld@efet deviepatent ;led

36H ardeen and rattain at ellLaboratories invent bipolartransistors

374 Commerial bipolar transistorprodution at 2exasGnstruments

37F ardeen, rattain, andho"ley reeive >obel pri!e

378 Gntegrated iruits developed

by Nilby and >oye3F3 %irst ommerial GC $rom

%airhild emiondutor

3F5 G*** $ormed $rom merger o$ G=*and .G**

3F8 %irst ommerial GC opamp

3H9 One transistor D=.M ellinvented by Dennard at GM

3H3 6996 Gntel miroproessorintrodued

3H8 %irst ommerial 3@"ilobitmemory

3H6 8989 miroproessor

introdued386 Megabit memory hipintrodued

4999 .l$erov, Nilby, and Nromershare >obel pri!e

Dave A. Anas

The o+el Pri'e in Physics 2000

as aarded "for basic work oninformation and communicationtechnology" ith one hal- Bointly

to Khores I. Al-erov and er+ertGroe!er "for developingsemiconductor heterostructures

used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" and the other hal- to ac6 $. Gil+y "for his part in theinvention of the integrated

“Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*

M-raw@ill Chap 1 - 101

*volution o$ *letroni

Devies

Vacuum

Discrete

Transistors

SSI and MSI

IntegratedCircuits

Surface-MountCircuits

Microelectronics

Dave A. Anas

Microelectronic Circuit Design, 4E

McGraw-Hill

Proli-eration• The integrated circ%it as invented in 1Q5S.• (orld transistor "rod%ction has !ore than

do%+led every year -or the "ast tentyyears.

• Every year, !ore transistors are "rod%cedthan in all "revio%s years co!+ined.

• A""roi!ately 101S transistors ere"rod%ced in a recent year.

• Ro%ghly 50 transistors -or every ant in theorld.

$o%rce4 3ordon MooreUs Plenary address at the 200International $olid $tate Circ%its Con-erence.

Devie %eature i!e

• %eature si!eredutions enabled

by proessinnovations

• maller $eatures leadto more transistors

per unit area andthere$ore higherdensity

=apid Gnrease in Density o$

Miroeletronis

Memory chip density

versus time.

Microprocessor complexity

versus time.

ignal 2ypes

• .nalog signals ta"eon ontinuous values@ typially urrent orvoltage

• Digital signals

appear at disretelevels Asually weuse binary signalswhih utili!e onlytwo levels

• One level is re$erredto as logial 3 andlogial 9 is assignedto the other level

.nalog and Digital ignals

• .nalog signals areontinuous in time

and voltage orurrent (Charge analso be used as asignal onveyor)

• .$ter digiti!ation, theontinuous analogsignal beomes a set

o$ disrete values,typially separatedby ;xed timeintervals

Digital@to@.nalog (DE.)

Conversion

• %or an n@bit DE. onverter, the output voltageis expressed as<

• 2he smallest possible voltage hange is "nownas the least signi;ant bit or L

= 2−nV

V O= (b12

−1+b22

−2+ ...+bn 2

−n)V FS

V FS = Full -Scale Voltage

.nalog@to@Digital (.ED)

Conversion

• .nalog input voltage vx is onverted to the nearest n@bitnumber

• %or a $our bit onverter, 9 vx input yields a 9999 3333 digital output

• Output is approximation o$ input due to the limited

resolution o$ the n@bit output *rror is expressed as<

V ε = v x − (b12−1 +b2 2

−2 + ...+bn 2−n

.ED Converter 2rans$er

McGraw-Hill Chap 1 - 110

Charateristi

V ε = v x − (b12−1 + b2 2−2 + ...+ bn 2−n )V FS

Eercises

Dave A. Anas

Eercises

A 10*+it D<A converter has VFS

5.12 /. (hat is the o%t"%t voltage-or a +inary in"%t code o-;1100010001=) (hat is V >$9)

(hat is the si'e o- the M$9)

Eercises

Dave A. Anas

Eercises

A 10*+it D<A converter has VFS 5.12 /. (hat is the o%t"%t voltage-or a +inary in"%t code o-

;1100010001=) (hat is V >$9)(hat is the si'e o- the M$9)

.Q25 /V 5 !/V 2.5O /

Eercises

Dave A. Anas

Eercises

An S*+it A<D converter has VFS

5 /. (hat is the digital o%t"%tcode ord -or an in"%t o- 1.2 /)(hat is the voltage range

corres"onding to 1 >$9 o- theconverter)

Eercises

Dave A. Anas

Eercises

An S*+it A<D converter has VFS 5 /. (hat is the digital o%t"%tcode ord -or an in"%t o- 1.2 /)

(hat is the voltage rangecorres"onding to 1 >$9 o- theconverter)

00111101V 1Q.5 !/

otational Conventions

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

otational Conventions

• Total signal DC +ias F ti!e varyingsignal

• Resistance and cond%ctance * R and 3ith sa!e s%+scri"ts ill denotereci"rocal :%antities. Mostconvenient -or! ill +e %sed ithine"ressions.

sig DC T

G x =1

and gπ =1

(hat are Reasona+le+

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

%!+ers)•

I- the "oer s%""ly is W 10 /, a calc%lated DC+ias val%e o- 15 / ;not ithin the range o- the"oer s%""ly voltages= is %nreasona+le.

• 3enerally, o%r +ias c%rrent levels ill +e+eteen 1 X A and a -e h%ndred !illia!"s.

• A calc%lated +ias c%rrent o- .2 a!"s is "ro+a+ly%nreasona+le and sho%ld +e reea!ined.

• Pea6*to*"ea6 ac voltages sho%ld +e ithin the"oer s%""ly voltage range.

• A calc%lated co!"onent val%e that is %nrealistic sho%ld +e rechec6ed. or ea!"le, a resistancee:%al to 0.01 oh!s.

• 3iven the inherent variations in !ost electronic

co!"onents, three signicant digits are

Ciruit 2heory< Boltage Division

Applying KVL (Kirchhoff’s voltage

law) to the loop,

Combining these yields the basic voltage division formula:

andv1 = ii R1

v2 = ii R2

ii = v i

R1 + R2

v1 = v i R1

R1 + R2

v2 = v i R2

R1 + R2

Ciruit 2heory< Boltage Division( t )

Using the derived equations

with the indicated values,

V _____ k 2k 8

k 8V10

=Ω+Ω

V ____ k 2k 8

k 2V102 =

Ω+ΩΩ

GirchhoYs voltage la;G/>=

Dave A. Anas

• The "rinci"le o- conservation o-energy i!"lies that – 2he direted sum o$ the eletrial

potential diferenes (voltage) aroundany losed iruit is !ero

Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*

M-raw@ill Chap 1 - 119

Ciruit 2heory< CurrentDi i i

Division

Combining and solving for vs,

Combining these yields the basic current division formula:

where andii = i1 + i2

i1 = ii R2

R1 + R2

i2 = v i

i1 = vi

v i = ii 11

= ii R1 R2

R1 + R2= ii R1 || R2

i2 = ii R1

R1 + R2

Ciruit 2heory< Current Division

Using the derived equations

with the indicated values,

mA ____ k 3k 2

k 3ma5

=Ω+Ω

mA _____ k 3k 2

k 2ma52 =

Ω+ΩΩ

GirchhoYs c%rrent la;GC>=

Dave A. Anas

• The "rinci"le o- conservation o-electric charge i!"lies that4 – .t any node (#untion) in an eletrial

iruit, the sum o$ urrents owing intothat node is e+ual to the sum o$ urrentsowing out o$ that node

Ciruit 2heory< 2hPvenin and >orton*+uivalent Ciruits

*+uivalent Ciruits

Thévenin

Norton

ThZvenin E:%ivalent Circ%its

Dave A. Anas

• The ThZvenin*e:%ivalent voltageis the voltage at the o%t"%tter!inals o- the original circ%it.

Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*

M-raw@ill

ThZvenin E:%ivalentCi it

Dave A. Anas

Circ%its• The ThZvenin*e:%ivalent resistance is the

resistance !eas%red across "oints A and 9Hloo6ing +ac6H into the circ%it.

• It is i!"ortant to rst re"lace all voltage* and

c%rrent*so%rces ith their internalresistances.

• or an ideal voltage so%rce, this !eansre"lace the voltage so%rce ith a short circ%it.

• or an ideal c%rrent so%rce, this !eansre"lace the c%rrent so%rce ith an o"encirc%it.

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent Boltage

*+uivalent Boltage

Pro+le!4 %ind the 2hPvenine+uivalent voltage at theoutput

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent Boltage

*+uivalent Boltage

v th = 0.718v i

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the 2hPvenin*+uivalent =esistane

*+uivalent =esistane

Pro+le!4 %ind the 2hPvenine+uivalent resistane atthe output

Test voltage vx has been added to the

previous circuit. Applying vx and solvingfor ix allows us to find the Thévenin

resistance as vx /ix.

Ω= 282th R

orton E:%ivalentCirc%its

Dave A. Anas

Circ%its

• Calc%late the o%t"%t c%rrent, A9,ith a short circ%it as the load.

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent =esistane

Pro+le!4 %ind the >ortone+uivalent urrentsoureat the output

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent Ciruit

*+uivalent Ciruit

A short circuit has been applied

across the output. The Norton

current is the current flowingthrough the short circuit at the

output.

Ciruit 2heory< %ind the >orton*+uivalent Ciruit (ont )

*+uivalent Ciruit (ont)

in =50 +1

20 k Ω v i = v i

392 Ω = (2.55 mS)v i

%inal 2hPvenin and >ortonCiruits

Ciruits

Check of Results:

Note that vth = in Rth and this can be used to check the calculations:

in Rth=(2.55 mS)vi(282 Ω) = 0.719vi, accurate within round-off error.

While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at

the output terminals, there is one difference between the two

circuits.

re:%ency $"ectr%! o-Electronic $ignals

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

Electronic $ignals

• on re"etitive signals have contin%o%ss"ectra o-ten occ%"ying a +road range o--re:%encies

• o%rier theory tells %s that re"etitive

signals are co!"osed o- a set o-sin%soidal signals ith distinct a!"lit%de,-re:%ency, and "hase.

• The set o- sin%soidal signals is 6non as ao%rier series.

• The -re:%ency s"ectr%! o- a signal is thea!"lit%de and "hase co!"onents o- thesignal vers%s -re:%ency.

re:%encies o- $o!e Co!!on$ignals

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

$ignals

• A%di+le so%nds 20 ' * 20 G'• 9ase+and T/ 0 * .5 M'

• M Radio SS * 10S M'

• Television ;Channels 2*O= 5 * SS M'

• Television ;Channels N*1= 1N * 21O M'• Mariti!e and 3ovt. Co!!. 21O * 50 M'

• Cell "hones and other ireless1N10 * 2OQ0M'

• $atellite T/ .N * .2 3'• (ireless Devices 5.0 * 5.5 3'

%ourier eries

• .ny periodi signal ontains spetral omponents only atdisrete $re+uenies related to the period o$ the original signal

• . s+uare wave is represented by the $ollowing %ourier series<

ω0=2π /T (rad/s) is the fundamental radian frequency

f 0=1/T (Hz) is the fundamental frequency of the signal.

2f 0, 3f

0, and 4f

0 are called the second, third, and fourth harmonic frequencies

v(t ) = V DC +2V O

π sinω 0t +

3sin3ω 0t +

5sin5ω 0t + ...

A!"lier 9asics

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

• Analog signals are ty"ically !ani"%latedith linear a!"liers.

• Altho%gh signals !ay +e co!"rised o-several dierent co!"onents, linearity

"er!its %s to %se the s%"er"osition"rinci"le.

• $%"er"osition allos %s to calc%late theeect o- each o- the dierent co!"onents

o- a signal individ%ally and then add theindivid%al contri+%tions to the o%t"%t.

.mpli;er Linearity

Given an input sinusoid:

For a linear amplifier, the output is at

the same frequency, but different

amplitude and phase.

In phasor notation:

Amplifier gain is:

v i =V i sin(ω it +φ )

vo =V o sin(ω it + φ +θ )

vi =V i∠φ

o∠(φ +θ )

= V o∠(φ +θ )

V i∠φ = V o

V i∠θ

.mpli;er GnputEOutput=esponse

=esponse

vi = sin2000πt V

Av = -5

Note: negative

gain is equivalent

to 180 degrees of

phase shift.

Gdeal Operational .mpli;er (Op.mp)

Ideal op amps are assumed to have

infinite voltage gain, and

infinite input resistance.

These conditions lead to two assumptions useful in analyzing

ideal op-amp circuits: (VGP)

1. The voltage difference across the input terminals is zero.

2. The input currents are zero.

Gdeal Op .mp *xample

Writing a loop equation:

From assumption 2, we know that i- = 0.

Assumption 1 requires v- = v+ = 0.

Combining these equations yields:

v i − ii R1 − i2 R2 − vo = 0

ii= i2 =

vi− v

ii = v i

Av = vo

= − R2

Gdeal Op .mp *xample(.lternative .pproah)

(.lternative .pproah)

From Assumption 2, i2 = ii:

Yielding:

ii = v i

R1= i2 = v− − vo

R2= −vo

Av = v

v i= −

=−vo

.mpli;er %re+ueny=esponse

=esponse

Low Pass High Pass Band Pass Band Reject All Pass

Amplifiers can be designed to selectively amplify specific

ranges of frequencies. Such an amplifier is known as a filter.

Several filter types are shown below:

Circ%it Ele!ent/ariations

Dave A. Anas

/ariations

• All electronic co!"onents have!an%-act%ring tolerances. – =esistors an be purhased with ± 39Q, ± 7Q,

± 3Q tolerane (GC resistors are o$ten

± 39Q)

– Capaitors an have asymmetrial toleranessuh as R49QE@79Q

– /ower supply voltages typially vary $rom 3Qto 39Q

• Device "ara!eters ill also vary ithte!"erat%re and age.

• Circ%its !%st +e designed toacco!!odate these variations.

Tolerance Modeling

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

• or sy!!etrical "ara!etervariations

Pno!;1 * ε= ≤ P ≤ Pno!;1 F ε=

• or ea!"le, a 10G resistor ith±5[ "ercent tolerance co%ld ta6eon the -olloing range o- val%es4

106;1 * 0.05= ≤ R ≤ 106;1 F0.05=

Q,500 ≤ R ≤ 10,500

1orst Case .nalysis*xample

*xamplePro+le!4 %ind the nominaland worst@ase values $or

output voltage and soureurrent

$ol%tion4• Gnon In-or!ation and

3iven Data< Ciruittopology and values in;gure

• ?n6nons< BOnom, BO

min ,BO

max, GGnom, GG

min, GGmax

• A""roach< %ind nominal

values and then selet =3,=4, and BG values togenerate extreme aseso$ the un"nowns

• Ass%!"tions< >one• Analysis< >ext slides0

Nominal voltage solution:

V Onom =V I

nom R1

=15V 18k Ω

18k Ω+ 36k Ω= 5V

1orst@Case .nalysis*xample

*xampleNominal Source current:

Rewrite VO to help us determine how to find the worst-case values.

VO is maximized for max VI, R1 and min R2.

VO is minimized for min VI, R1, and max R2.

I I nom =

V I nom

nom + R2

18k Ω+ 36k Ω= 278 µ A

V O =V I R1

R1 + R2

V Omax =15V (1.1)

1+36K (0.95)

18K (1.05)

= 5.87V V Omin

=15V (0.95)

1+ 36K (1.05)

18K (0.95)

= 4.20V

1orst@Case .nalysis*xample

*xampleWorst-case source currents:

I I max =

V I max

min + R2

15V (1.1)

18k Ω(0.95) + 36k Ω(0.95)= 322 µ A

I I min = V I

max + R2

max= 15V (0.9)

18k Ω(1.05)+ 36k Ω(1.05)= 238 µ A

Te!"erat%re Coe\cients

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

Most circ%it "ara!eters arete!"erat%re sensitive.

P Pno!;1Fα1]TF α2]T2=

here ]T T*Tno!

Pno! is dened at Tno!

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

T he in"%t and o%t"%t voltages o- ana!"lier are e"ressed as vi 0.001sin;2000^t= / and vo _5 cos;2000^t

F 25`= / in hich vi and vo ares"ecied in volts hen t is seconds.(hat are /i, /, and the voltage gaino- the a!"lier)

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

T he in"%t and o%t"%t voltages o- ana!"lier are e"ressed as vi 0.001sin;2000^t= / and vo _5 cos;2000^t

F 25`= / in hich vi and vo ares"ecied in volts hen t is seconds.(hat are /i, /, and the voltage gaino- the a!"lier)

0.001& 0`V 5& _O5`V 5000&_O5`

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

The a!"lier has a gain o- _5 ithR1 10 6oh!s. (hat is the val%eo- R2)

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

The a!"lier has a gain o- _5 ithR1 10 6oh!s. (hat is the val%eo- R2)

Anser4 50 Gilo oh!s

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

;a=The +and*"ass a!"lier in has f! 1.56', f 2.5 6', and A 10. I- the in"%tvoltage is given +y vs 0.5 sin;2000#t =R sin;000#t = R 1.5 sin;O000#t =b /. (hat

is the a!"lit%de o- theo%t"%t voltage o-the a!"lier)

;+=$%""ose the sa!e in"%t signal is a""liedto the lo*"ass a!"lier hich has A O

and f 1.5 6'. (hat is the a!"lit%deo- the o%t"%t voltage)

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

;a=The +and*"ass a!"lier in has f! 1.5 6',f 2.5 6', and A 10. I- the in"%t voltageis given +y vs 0.5 sin;2000#t = Rsin;000#t = R 1.5 sin;O000#t =b /. (hat is the

a!"lit%de o- theo%t"%t voltage o- thea!"lier)

;+=$%""ose the sa!e in"%t signal is a""lied tothe lo*"ass a!"lier hich has A O and f 1.5 6'. (hat is the a!"lit%de o- the

o%t"%t voltage)Ansers4 10.0V .00 /

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

A Q*6 resistor has a 10 "ercenttolerance. (hat is the range o-resistor val%es corres"onding to

this resistor) Re"eat -or a .O*6 resistor ith a 1 "ercent tolerance.

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

A Q*6 resistor has a 10 "ercenttolerance. (hat is the range o-resistor val%es corres"onding to

this resistor) Re"eat -or a .O*6 resistor ith a 1 "ercent tolerance.

.nswers< 5.1 S $ S 2.Q 6V .5O S $S .O 6.

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

. difused resistor has a nominalvalue o$ 39 " at a temperature o$ 47TCand has a 2C= o$ R3999 ppmETC %ind

its resistane at 69 and H7TC %or % U55TC and % RS5TC)

Eercise

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

. difused resistor has a nominal value o$ 39" at a temperature o$ 47TC and has a 2C= o$R3999 ppmETC %ind its resistane at 69 andH7TC %or % U55TC and % RS5TC)

39.37 "

39.7 "

Q.20 6 10.O 6

Dave A. Anas

$olid $tate Electronics

2he Gnventors o$ the GntegratedCiruit

Jack KilbyAndy Grove, Robert Noyce, and

Gordon Moore with Intel 8080 layout.

2he Nilby Gntegrated Ciruit

Semiconductor dieActive device

Electrical contacts

$olid*$tate ElectronicMaterials

Dave A. Anas

McGraw-Hill

• Electronic !aterials -all into threecategories4 – Gnsulators =esistivity (ρ) V 397 Ω@m – emiondutors 39@5 W ρ W 397 Ω@m – Condutors ρ W 39@5 Ω@m

• Ele!ental se!icond%ctors are -or!ed -ro!a single ty"e o- ato!, ty"ically $ilicon.

• Co!"o%nd se!icond%ctors are -or!ed -ro!co!+inations o- col%!n III and / ele!entsor col%!ns II and /I.

• 3er!ani%! as %sed in !any earlydevices.

• $ilicon :%ic6ly re"laced 3er!ani%! d%e toits higher +andga" energy, loer cost, and

is easily oidi'ed to -or! silicon dioide

emiondutor Materials

Semiconductor BandgapEnergy EG (eV)

Carbon (diamond) 5.47

Silicon 1.12

Germanium 0.66

Tin 0.082

Gallium arsenide 1.42

Gallium nitride 3.49

Indium phosphide 1.35

Boron nitride 7.50

Silicon carbide 3.26

Cadmium selenide 1.70

Covalent ond Model

Silicon crystal

lattice unit cell.

Corner of diamond

lattice showing

four nearest

neighbor bonding.

View of crystal

lattice along acrystallographic axis.

ilion Covalent ond Model

Near absolute zero, all bonds are complete.

Each Si atom contributes one electron to

each of the four bond pairs.

Increasing temperature adds energy to the

system and breaks bonds in the lattice,

generating electron-hole pairs.

Intrinsic CarrierConcentration

Dave A Anas

•The density o- carriers in a se!icond%ctor as a-%nction o- te!"erat%re and !aterial "ro"erties is4

• E3

se!icond%ctor +andga" energy in e/ ;electron

volts=

• 6 9olt'!annUs constant, S.O2 10*5 e/<G

• T a+sol%te ter!"erat%re, G

• 9 !aterial*de"endent "ara!eter, 1.0S 101 G *

-or $i• 9andga" energy is the !ini!%! energy needed to

-ree an electron +y +rea6ing a covalent +ond in these!icond%ctor crystal.

ni2 = BT 3 exp −

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

Dave A Anas

McGraw-Hill

• Electrondensity is n ;electrons<c!=and ni -orintrinsic

!aterial n ni .

• Intrinsic re-ersto "ro"erties

o- "%re!aterials.

• ni 1010 c!* -or $i

I n t r i n s i c c a r r i e r d e n s i t y ( c m - 3 )

Electron*holeconcentrations

Dave A Anas

• A vacancy is le-t hen a covalent +ond is+ro6en.

• The vacancy is called a hole.

• A hole !oves hen the vacancy is lled +y

an electron -ro! a near+y +ro6en +ond;hole c%rrent=.

• ole density is re"resented +y p.

• or intrinsic silicon, n ni p.

• The "rod%ct o- electron and holeconcentrations is pn ni

• The pn "rod%ct a+ove holds hen ase!icond%ctor is in ther!al e:%ili+ri%!

Dri-t C%rrent

Dave A Anas

McGraw-Hill

•Electrical resistivity ρ and its reci"rocal, conductivity σ, characteri'e c%rrent Jo in a !aterial hen anelectric eld is a""lied.

• Charged "articles !ove or drift %nder the inJ%enceo- the a""lied eld.

• The res%lting c%rrent is called drift current .

• Dri-t c%rrent density is

' (v ;C<c!=;c!<s= A<c!2

' c%rrent density, ;Co%lo!+ charge !ovingthro%gh a %nit area=

( charge density, ;Charge in a %nit vol%!e=

v velocity o- charge in an electric eld.

Mo+ility

Dave A Anas

•At lo elds, carrier dri-t velocity v ;c!<s= is"ro"ortional to electric eld E ;/<c!=. Theconstant o- "ro"ortionality is the !o+ility, 4

v n * nE and v p pE,here

v n and v p electron and hole velocity ;c!<s=,

n and p electron and hole !o+ility ;c!2</⋅s=

ole !o+ility is less than electron since hole

c%rrent is the res%lt o- !%lti"le covalent +onddisr%"tions, hile electrons can !ove -reely a+o%tthe crystal.U

/elocity $at%ration

Dave A Anas

At high elds,carrier velocitysat%rates and"laces %""er

li!its on thes"eed o- solid*state devices.

Intrinsic $iliconResistivity

Dave A Anas

• 3iven dri-t c%rrent and !o+ility, e cancalc%late resistivity4

' ndrift (nv n ;*)n=;* n*= )n n* A<c!2

' pdrift ( pv p ;)p=; p*= )p p* A<c!2

' % drift ' n + ' p );n n F p p=* σ *

This denes electrical cond%ctivity4

σ );n n F p p= ; ⋅

Resistivityρ

is the reci"rocal o- cond%ctivity4

1<σ ;

c!= ρ = E

jT drift

= V / cm

A / cm2= Ω ⋅ cm

*xample< Calulate the resistivity o$intrinsi silion

Pro+le!4 %ind the resistivity o$intrinsi silion at roomtemperature and lassi$y it asan insulator, semiondutor, orondutor

*xample< Calulate the resistivity o$intrinsi silion

σ (3F9 x 39@3)X(3939)(3579) R (3939)(799)Y (C)(m5)(m4EB⋅s)

4F x 39@F (Ω⋅m)@3

ρ 3Eσ 558 x 397 Ω⋅m

$e!icond%ctor Do"ing

Dave A Anas

• Do"ing is the "rocess o- addingvery s!all ell controlleda!o%nts o- i!"%rities into a

se!icond%ctor.• Do"ing ena+les the control o-the resistivity and other"ro"erties over a ide range o-val%es.

• or silicon, i!"%rities are -ro!col%!ns III and / o- the "eriodic

Donor Gmpurities in ilion

• /hosphorous (or otherolumn B element) atomreplaes silion atom inrystal lattie

• ine phosphorous has

;ve outer shell eletrons,there is now an Zextra?eletron in the struture

• Material is still hargeneutral, but very little

energy is re+uired to $reethe eletron $orondution sine it is notpartiipating in a bond

.eptor Gmpurities inilion

ilion• oron (olumn GGG

element) has been addedto silion

• 2here is now aninomplete bond pair,reating a vaany $or aneletron

• Little energy is re+uiredto move a nearbyeletron into the

vaany• .s the Zhole? propagates,

harge is moved arossthe silion

.eptor Gmpurities in ilion

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Do"ed $ilicon CarrierConcentrations

Dave A Anas

•I- n # ", the !aterial is n*ty"e.I- " # n, the !aterial is "*ty"e.

• The carrier ith the largest concentration is the!aBority carrier, the s!aller is the !inoritycarrier.

• D donor i!"%rity concentration ato!s<c!

A acce"tor i!"%rity concentration ato!s<c!

• Charge ne%trality re:%ires :;D F " * A * n= 0

• It can also +e shon that pn ni2, even -or do"ed

se!icond%ctors in ther!al e:%ili+ri%!.

n*ty"e Material

Dave A Anas

• $%+stit%ting p ni 2<n into :;D F p * A * n= 0 yields n2 * ;D *

A=n * ni 2 0.

• $olving -or n

• or ;D * A= ## 2ni , n ;D * A= .

n =( N D − N A ) ± ( N D − N A )2 + 4ni

2 and p =

"*ty"e Material

Dave A Anas

McGraw-Hill

• $i!ilar to the a""roach %sed ith n*ty"e!aterial e nd the -olloing e:%ations4

• (e nd the !aBority carrier concentration-ro! charge ne%trality and nd the !inoritycarrier conc. -ro! the ther!al e:%ili+ri%!

relationshi".• or ;A * D= ## 2ni , p ;A * D= .

p =( N A − N D ) ± ( N A − N D )2 + 4ni

2 and n =

Practical Do"ing >evels

Dave A Anas

• MaBority carrier concentrations areesta+lished at !an%-act%ring ti!e and areinde"endent o- te!"erat%re ;over "racticalte!". ranges=.

• oever, !inority carrier concentrationsare "ro"ortional to ni

2, a highlyte!"erat%re de"endent ter!.

• or "ractical do"ing levels, n ;D * A= -orn*ty"e and p ;A * D= -or "*ty"e !aterial.

• Ty"ical do"ing ranges are 101<c! to1021<c!.

Mobility and =esistivity inDoped emiondutors

Di%sion C%rrent

Dave A Anas

• In "ractical se!icond%ctors, it is :%ite%se-%l to create carrier concentrationgradients +y varying the do"antconcentration and<or the do"ant ty"e acrossa region o- se!icond%ctor.

• This gives rise to a di%sion c%rrentres%lting -ro! the nat%ral tendency o-carriers to !ove -ro! high concentrationregions to lo concentration regions.

• Di%sion c%rrent is analogo%s to a gas!oving across a roo! to evenly distri+%teitsel- across the vol%!e.

Di%sion C%rrent

Dave A Anas

• Carriers !ove toardregions o- loerconcentration, sodi%sion c%rrent

densities are"ro"ortional to thenegative o- the carriergradient.

Diffusion currents in thepresence of a concentration

gradient.Diffusion current density equations

A/cm )(

n Dq j

p Dq j

−−=

Di%sion C%rrent

Dave A Anas

• The "ro"ortionality constants D" and Dn are the hole and electron di%sivities ith %nits c!2<s. Di%sivity and !o+ilityare related +y EinsteinsUs relationshi"4

• The ther!al voltage, V % , k%), is

a""roi!ately 25 !/ at roo!te!"erat%re.

µ n= kT

q= D p

µ p= V T = Thermal voltage

Dn = µ nV T , D p = µ pV T

3a%ssYs la

Dave A Anas

• In "hysics, 3a%ssYs la, also6non as 3a%ssYs J% theore!,is a la relating the distri+%tion

o- electric charge to theres%lting electric eld.

• %he electric u/ through anyclosed surface is proportional tothe enclosed electric charge.

Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*M-raw@ill

Chap 2 - 192

MaellYs e:%ations

Dave A Anas

• 3a%ssYs la• 3a%ssYs la -or !agnetis!

• aradayYs la o- ind%ction

• A!"reYs la ith MaellYs correction

Miroeletroni Ciruit Design, 6*M-raw@ill

Chap 2 - 193

3a%ssYs la -or!agnetis!

Dave A Anas

• It states that the !agnetic eld 9 has divergence e:%al to 'ero,in other ords, that it is a

solenoidal vector eld.• It is e:%ivalent to the state!entthat !agnetic !ono"oles do noteist.

• Rather than H!agnetic chargesH,the +asic entity -or !agnetis! isthe !agnetic di"ole. Chap 2 - 194

emiondutor *nergy andModel

Semiconductor energy

band model. EC and EV are energy levels at the

edge of the conduction

and valence bands.

Electron participating in

a covalent bond is in alower energy state in the

valence band. This

diagram represents 0 K.

Thermal energy breaks

covalent bonds and

moves the electrons up

into the conduction

*nergy and Model $or a Dopedemiondutor

Semiconductor with donor or n-type

dopants. The donor atoms have free

electrons with energy ED. Since ED is

close to EC, (about 0.045 eV for

phosphorous), it is easy for electronsin an n-type material to move up into

the conduction band.

Semiconductor with acceptor or p-

type dopants. The donor atoms have

unfilled covalent bonds with energy

state EA. Since EA is close to EV,

(about 0.044 eV for boron), it is easyfor electrons in the valence band to

move up into the acceptor sites and

complete covalent bond pairs.

*nergy and Model $orCompensated emiondutor

A compensated semiconductor has both n-type

and p-type dopants. If ND > NA, there are more

ND donor levels. The donor electrons fill the

acceptor sites. The remaining ND-NA electrons

are available for promotion to the conduction

Gntegrated Ciruit %abriationOverview

Top view of an integrated pn diode.

Gntegrated Ciruit%abriation

(a) First mask exposure, (b) post-exposure and development of photoresist, (c)

after SiO2 etch, and (d) after implantation/diffusion of acceptor dopant.

Gntegrated Ciruit%abriation

(e) Exposure of contact opening mask, (f) after resist development and etching of contact

openings, (g) exposure of metal mask, and (h) After etching of aluminum and resist removal.

Da e A Anas

Digital and >ogic Circ%its

2he >umber ystem

Number System Radix or Base

Decimal 10Binary 2

Octal 8

Hexadecimal 16

Deimal >umber ystem

The Deci!al %!+er

Dave A. Anas496

$yste!s

• ?nit

• %!+er• 9ase;Radi=

sitional >otation

Dave A. Anas497

Positional otation

• Positional notation

– is a system where the value o$ anumber is de;ned not only by thesy!+ol +%t +y the sy!+olUs"osition

sitional >otation

Positional otation

Dave A. Anas49F

Positional otation

• Positional notation

A9CDE.vy'

sd lsd

;M$D and

Dave A. Anas49H

>$D=• M$D – 2he MD in a number is the digit that

has the greatest efet on that number

•>$D – 2he LD in a number is the digit that has

the least efet on that number

onversion

%!+er $yste!

Dave A. Anas498

Conversion• 9ase 10 to 9ase

• 9ase to 9ase 10

• 9ase to 9ase M

• $"ecial Conversion ;9inary,

eadeci!al, ctal=

se 39@base n

9ase 10 to 9ase

Dave A. Anas49

9ase 10 to 9ase • (hole Part4 DI/IDE +y radiLL

• ractional Part4 M?>TIP>f +yradiLL

se n ' base 39

Dave A. Anas439

9ase to 9ase 10• Place /al%eL

se n@base m

9ase to 9ase

Dave A. Anas433

9ase 10

9ase M

inary@otal

Dave A. Anas434

9inary to ctal• 3ro%" +y +itsL

tal@binary

Dave A. Anas435

ctal to 9inary• Re"resent each octal digit into +itsL

inary @ hex

9inary to

Dave A. Anas436

eadeci!al• 3ro%" +y +itsL

ex@binary

eadeci!al to

Dave A. Anas437

9inary• Re"resent each octal digit into +itsL

t@hex & hex@ot

Dave A. Anas43F

ct to e e to ct

9inary 9inary

thematial opr

Mathe!atical

Dave A. Anas43H

"erations• Addition

– Convert to deimal, .DD, onvert ba"to its number system

• $%+traction – Ase omplements

mplements

Co!"le!en

Dave A. Anas438

ts• ?sed to in s%+traction and also in

re"resenting negative n%!+ers.

1. Radi*!in%s*ne Co!"le!ent

2. Tr%e Co!"le!ent

Radi*Min%s*ne

Dave A. Anas43

Co!"le!ent• Di!inished Radi Co!"le!ent

• ;9ase*1= * co!"le!ent

Dave A. Anas449

Co!"le!ent• ADD 1 to the Radi*!in%s*one

co!"le!ent.

Dave A. Anas443

s• (eighted Code

– 1eight is assigned to eah bit

representing a number – *xample< CD, 8@6@4@3 ode

• ?neighted Code – 1eight is not assigned to eah bit

– *xample< *xess@5, i+uinary

olean algebra

9oolean

Dave A. Anas444

Alge+ra• 9y 3eorge 9oole ;1S5=

• An alge+raic str%ct%re in hich varia+les

can only have to "ossi+le val%es4 1 or0

• "erators4 Co!"le!ent, R and AD

• ?sed "ri!arily +y Design Engineers.

heorems

Theore!s o- 9oolean

Dave A. Anas445

Alge+ra• AFAA• AFA1

• AF0A• AF11• 0F00• 0F11

• 1F01• 1F11

AA=A AA=0

A0=0 A1=A 00=0

01=0 10=0 11=1

A=A 0=1 1=0

Dave A. Anas446

ruth table

Dave A. Anas447

Tr%th Ta+le• $hos all the "ossi+le in"%t

co!+inations and itscorres"onding o%t"%t.

• The n%!+er o- in"%tco!+ination sho%ld +e 2+. – 1here b is the number o$ inputs

ampleER@logi

2ruth 2able

x y z F

0 0 0 Output

0 0 1 Output0 1 0 Output

0 1 1 Output

1 0 0 Output1 0 1 Output

1 1 0 OutputdutEsum term

Dave A. Anas44H

Garna%gh Ma" ;G*Ma"=• 3ra"hical*Ta+%lar !ethod o-si!"li-ying logical e"ressions.

0 1 3 2

4 5 7 6

12 13 15 148 11 10

!r"up#$ %"&er "' t&" (ymmetrical )ar*e a# p"##i+le ,e& a# p"##i+le

ondiitions

Fx y z

Dave A. Anas448

11 1 101 1 0

11 0 1

11 0 000 1 1

00 1 0

00 0 1

00 0 0

y'Fy'Fy'

ogi gates

Dave A. Anas44

3ates• $!allest +%ilding +loc6 o-

digital circ%itry.

• A circ%it that -ollos 9oolean>ogic.

ate sample

Positive and egative

Dave A. Anas459

ate sample

Dave A. Anas453

>ogic 3ates• Inverter ;T=

• AD• R

• AD

iversal gates

?niversal 3ates

Dave A. Anas454

gi "tExnor x or

>ogic Circ%its

Dave A. Anas455

• Co!+inational >ogic – Output is dependent on "resent in"%t

– as logic gates only

• $e:%ential >ogic – Output is dependent on "resent in"%t and

"resent o%t"%t – as logic gates and !e!ory ele!ents

mbinational

Co!+inational >ogic Circ%its

Dave A. Anas456

• Adder

–[uarter –al$

–%ull

e+uential

Co!+inational >ogic Circ%its

Dave A. Anas457

e+uential

$e:%ential >ogic Circ%its

Dave A. Anas45F

• $ynchrono%s se:%ential circ%it – Clo"@ontrolled

• Asynchrono%s se:%ential circ%it – >on@lo"ed

lip@ops

li"*lo"s

Dave A. Anas45H

• %sed to store data te!"orarily• to !%lti"ly or divide• to co%nt o"erations

• to receive and trans-erin-or!ation.• $!allest !e!ory ele!ent.• Co!!on ty"es4

– 2 – D – \N

egisters

Registers

Dave A. Anas458

• A register is a te!"orary storagedevice.

• They are %sed to store data, !e!ory

addresses, and o"eration codes.• Registers are nor!ally re-erred to +y

the n%!+er o- stages they contain or+y the n%!+er o- +its they ill store.

• ?sed in the trans-er o- data to and-ro! in"%t and o%t"%t devices.

rallel =egister

$hi-t Register

Dave A. Anas45

• A register in hich the contents!ay +e shi-ted one or !ore"laces to the le-t or right.

• %sed -or serial*to*"arallelconversion and -or scaling

+inary n%!+ers

emories

Dave A. Anas

>3IC AMI>IE$

>ogic a!ily Denition

• A circ%it cong%ration or a""roach

Dave A. Anas

%sed to "rod%ce a ty"e o- digitalintegrated circ%it.

• Conse:%ence4 dierent logic-%nctions, hen -a+ricated in the -or!

o- an IC ith the sa!e a""roach, or inother ords +elonging to the sa!elogic -a!ily, ill have identicalelectrical characteristics.

• the set o- digital ICs +elonging to thesa!e logic -a!ily are electricallyco!"ati+le ith each other

Co!!on Characteristicso- the $a!e >ogic a!ily

• $%""ly voltage range, s"eed o-

Dave A. Anas

res"onse, "oer dissi"ation, in"%tand o%t"%t logic levels, c%rrentso%rcing and sin6ing ca"a+ility,

-an*o%t, noise !argin, etc.• Conse:%ence4 choosing digital ICs-ro! the sa!e logic -a!ilyg%arantees that these ICs are

co!"ati+le ith res"ect to eachother and that the syste! as ahole "er-or!s the intended logic-%nction. 464

Ty"es o- >ogic a!ily 1

• The entire range o- digital ICs is-a+ricated %sing either +i"olar

Dave A. Anas

devices or M$ devices or aco!+ination o- the to.

• 9i"olar -a!ilies4

– Diode logi (DL) (obsolete) – =esistor transistor logi (=2L) (obsolete)

– Diode transistor logi (D2L) (obsolete)

– 2ransistor 2ransistor logi (22L)

– *mitter Coupled Logi (*CL), also "nownas Current Mode Logi(CML)

– Gntegrated Gn#etion logi (G4L) (obsolete)465

Ty"es o- >ogic a!ily 2

• M$ -a!ilies4

Dave A. Anas

–/MO $amily (using /@hannelMO%*2s)

– 2he >MO $amily (using >@hannel MO%*2s)

– 2he CMO $amily (using both >@and /@hannel devies)

– 2he i@MO logi $amily uses bothbipolar and MO devies

D> Ea!"le

Dave A. Anas467

RT> Ea!"le

Dave A. Anas46F

DT> Ea!"le

Dave A. Anas46H

TT> $%+-a!ilies

Dave A. Anas468

CM$ $%+ -a!ilies

Dave A. Anas

• 000A• 0009, 000?9,

• 5<NC, 5<NC, 5<NCT,

5<NAC and 5<NACT;TT> "inco!"ati+le=

CharacteristicPara!eters 1

• I3*level in"%t c%rrent, ;c%rrent Joing

i t ;t 6 iti = t - ;t 6

Dave A. Anas

into ;ta6en as "ositive= or o%t o- ;ta6en asnegative= an in"%t hen a I3*level in"%tvoltage e:%al to the !ini!%! I3*level o%t"%tvoltage s"ecied -or the -a!ily is a""lied.

• >(*level in"%t c%rrent, !. is the !ai!%!

c%rrent Joing into ;ta6en as "ositive= or o%t o-;ta6en as negative= the in"%t o- a logic -%nctionhen the voltage a""lied at the in"%t e:%als the!ai!%! >(*level o%t"%t voltage s"ecied -orthe -a!ily.

• unit load ;?>= I3*level and >(*level in"%tc%rrent or loading ty"ically -o%nd in data sheets;or devices o- the TT> -a!ily, 1 ?> ;I3=0 Aand 1 ?> ;>(=1.O !A.

• I3*level o%t"%t c%rrent, 0. This is the

i t J i t -

Dave A. Anas

!ai!%! c%rrent Joing o%t o- ano%t"%t hen the in"%t conditions ares%ch that the o%t"%t is in the logicI3 state. Ty"ically negative

n%!+er.• >(*level o%t"%t c%rrent, 0!. This is the

!ai!%! c%rrent Joing into theo%t"%t "in o- a logic -%nction hen

the in"%t conditions are s%ch thatthe o%t"%t is in the logic >( state.

CharacteristicPara!eters

• I3*level o*state ;high*i!"edance state=

t t t 01 Thi i th t

Dave A. Anas

o%t"%t c%rrent, 01. This is the c%rrentJoing into an o%t"%t o- a tristatelogic -%nction ith the EA9>Ein"%t chosen so as to esta+lish a

high*i!"edance state and a logicI3 voltage level a""lied at theo%t"%t. The in"%t conditions are

chosen so as to "rod%ce logic >(i- the device is ena+led.

In"%t and o%t"%t c%rrents"ecications

Dave A. Anas475

CharacteristicPara!eters

• >(*level in"%t voltage, V!. This is the

i lt l l li d

Dave A. Anas

!ai!%! voltage level a""liedat the in"%t that is recogni'edas a legal >( level -or the

s"ecied -a!ily.• I3*level o%t"%t voltage, V0. This is

the !ini!%! voltage on the

o%t"%t "in o- a logic -%nction hen the in"%t conditionsesta+lish logic I3 at the

• I3*level o%t"%t voltage, V0. Thisis the !ini!%! voltage onth t t i - l i

Dave A. Anas

the o%t"%t "in o- a logic-%nction hen the in"%tconditions esta+lish logic

I3 at the o%t"%t -or thes"ecied -a!ily.

CharacteristicPara!eters O

• $%""ly c%rrent, 22. The s%""ly c%rrent

hen the o%t"%t is I3 >( and in

Dave A. Anas

hen the o%t"%t is I3, >( and inthe high*i!"edance state isres"ectively designated as ICC, ICC>and ICCK.

• Rise ti!e, tr. This is the ti!e that ela"ses+eteen 10 and Q0 [ o- the nal signallevel hen the signal is !a6ing atransition -ro! logic >( to logic I3.

• all ti!e, tf. This is the ti!e that ela"ses+eteen Q0 and 10 [ o- the signal level

hen it is !a6ing I3 to >(transition.

CharacteristicPara!eters N

• Pro"agation delay tp. is the ti!e delay

+eteen the occ%rrence o- change in the

Dave A. Anas

+eteen the occ%rrence o- change in thelogical level at the in"%t and +e-ore it isreJected at the o%t"%t. It is the ti!e delay+eteen the s"ecied voltage "oints onthe in"%t and o%t"%t ave-or!s.

• Pro"agation delays are se"arately dened-or >(*to*I3 and I3*to*>(transitions at the o%t"%t. In addition, ealso dene ena+le and disa+le ti!e delays

that occ%r d%ring transition +eteen thehigh*i!"edance state and dened logic>( or I3 states.

CharacteristicPara!eters S

• Mai!%! cloc6 -re:%ency, fma/. This is the

!ai!%! -re:%ency at hich the cloc6

Dave A. Anas

!ai!%! -re:%ency at hich the cloc6in"%t o- a Ji"*Jo" can +e driven thro%ghits re:%ired se:%ence hile !aintainingsta+le transitions o- logic level at the

o%t"%t in accordance ith the in"%tconditions and the "rod%ct s"ecication.

• Poer dissi"ation. The "oer dissi"ation"ara!eter -or a logic -a!ily is s"ecied

in ter!s o- "oer cons%!"tion "er gateand is the "rod%ct o- s%""ly voltage /CCand s%""ly c%rrent ICC.

CharacteristicPara!eters Q

• $"eed@"oer "rod%ct. The s"eed o- a logic circ%it can+e increased, that is, the "ro"agation delay can +ered%ced at the e"ense o- "oer dissi"ation

Dave A. Anas

red%ced, at the e"ense o- "oer dissi"ation.• an*o%t. is the n%!+er o- in"%ts o- a logic -%nction

that can +e driven -ro! a single o%t"%t itho%tca%sing any -alse o%t"%t.

•oise !argin. This is a :%antitative !eas%re o- noisei!!%nity oered +y the logic -a!ily. (hen theo%t"%t o- a logic device -eeds the in"%t o- anotherdevice o- the sa!e -a!ily, a legal I3 logic stateat the o%t"%t o- the -eeding device sho%ld +e

treated as a legal I3 logic state +y the in"%t o-the device +eing -ed. $i!ilarly, a legal >( logicstate o- the -eeding device sho%ld +e treated as alegal >( logic state +y the device +eing -ed.

oise MAR3I

Dave A. Anas4F9

Dave A. Anas4F3

Dave A. Anas4F4

Eercise

A certain TT> gate has the- ll i l - it l i

Dave A. Anas

A certain TT> gate has the-olloing val%es -or its logiclevels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are

the noise !argins -or this TT>gate)

Eercise

A certain TT> gate has the- ll i l - it l i

Dave A. Anas

A certain TT> gate has the-olloing val%es -or its logiclevels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are

the noise !argins -or this TT>gate)

• .nswers< M 1.O /V M> 0./

Eercise

A certain TT> gate has the -olloing val%es -or its

logic levels4 V0 O / V0! 0 / V 2 0 / V !

Dave A. Anas

logic levels4 V0 .O /, V0! 0. /, V 2.0 /, V ! 0.S /. (hat are the noise !argins -or this TT> gate)

• >ML 2he noise margin assoiated with a low input level isde;ned by

>ML VI L U VOL

• >M 2he noise margin assoiated with a high input level isde;ned by

>M VOH U VI H

.nswers< M 1.O /V M> 0. /

Eercise

$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig.O 5 th - EC> t ith

Dave A. Anas

O.5 are those o- an EC> gate ithV! U2.O / and V U0.O /, andt 1 100 ns, t 2 105 ns, t 150

ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are theval%es o- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr ,and tf )

Eercise

$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig. O.5 arethose o- an EC> gate ith V! 2 O / and V

Dave A. Anas

those o- an EC> gate ith V! U2.O / and V U0.O /, and t 1 100 ns, t 2 105 ns, t 150 ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are the val%eso- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr , and tf )

• .nswers< U2. /V U0.S /V U1.O /V nsV 5 ns

Eercise

$%""ose the ave-or!s in ig. O.5 are those o- an EC>

gate ith V! U2.O / and V U0.O /, and t1 100 ns,

gate ith V! 2.O / and V 0.O /, and t 1 100 ns,t 2 105 ns, t 150 ns, and t 15 ns. (hat are theval%es o- V 10[, V Q0[, V 50[, tr , and tf )

V 39Q VL R 9.3V

V 9Q VL R 9.V VH U 9.3V V VH U VL

V79Q VH R VL

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