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Modern Japan and Natsume Sōseki
Modernity, Buddhism and Literature
Modernity, Buddhism and Literature
What constitutes “modernity” and “Modern Japan”? How are we to define “modernity”?
Adoption of modern political and economic systems: capitalism, democracy
Rationalization (“Disenchantment of the world” Weber), Secularism, Individualism
A “modern” attitude: “radicalized consciousness which frees itself from all specific historical ties” (Habermas) “abstract temporality of qualitative newness” (Koselleck)
Buddhism and Modern Japan:
What role did Buddhism play in the rise of Modern Japan?
What role did Buddhism play in secularism? Lafleur: Buddhist critique of symbols
Modernity and Buddhism in the Literary arts of Japan: How did Literature both express and become the means to effect these
changes? What role does Buddhism play “in” modern literature?
The Coming of the West
Meiji 明治 : The Age of Enlightened
Rule Sonnō jōi “Revere the Emperor,
Expel the Barbarians” ( 尊皇攘夷 )
Meiji Restoration of 1868: restoration of the Imperial power, Emperor Meiji (r. 1868-1912) All domains under Imperial
control, modern nation-state
Abolish class system, samurai
Promulgation of the Meiji Constitution in 1889: constitutional monarchy, parliament
Cultural Struggles during Meiji
1868-mid 1880’s Imitating the West Missions to the West: Iwakura Mission in 1871-3
Bunmei kaika “Civilization and Enlightenment” 文明開化 Introduction of Western technology, politics and
economics
Introduction of Western customs: dress, meat-eating
1880’s Reaffirming and Redefining Japan Leadership concerned over liberalism, individualism
Conflict between public good and strong self-interests
Imperial Rescript of Education in 1890
Invention of Japan and “Japaneseness”
From Heretics to Martyrs Critiques of Buddhism during the Tokugawa period
Nativist scholars criticized Buddhism as a “foreign religion”
Separation of Buddhism and Shinto in 1868: both redefined by their seperation
Persecution of Buddhism: Haibutsu kishaku “Abolish Buddhism, Destroy Sakyamuni” 廃仏毀釈
Disestablishment of Buddhism in 1871-2
Refiguring of the Buddhist tradition: A tool to resist Western hegemony, Christianity; essence of pan-Asian spirituality
Translation and Transformation
Translating the West: Early translations of Political treatises
Samuel Smiles Self-help 1871; John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty 1872
Translations and Adaptations of Western Literature
Edward Bulwer-Lytton Ennest Maltravers 1878
New Words and Disciplines: Neologisms: kojin “individual” 個人 ; shakai “society” 社会 ;
kenri “human rights” 権利 ; jiyū “freedom” 自由 ; kokumin “nation” 国民
New disciplines: bungaku “literature” 文学 ; kagaku “science” 科学 ; tetsugaku “philosophy” 哲学
New usages: shūkyō “religion” 宗教 ; shōsetsu “novel” 小説
Transformations: Language and Literature
Tsubouchi Shōyō’s Shōsetsu Shinzui (“The Essence of the Novel” 1885): praises the “novel” 小説 as a literary form Criticizes didacticism, weak characterization and loosely constructed plots
Advocates analyses of personality, realistic portrayal of society
Praised Japan’s tradition of the novel: Tale of Genji, Saikaku
Genbun itchi 言文一致 movement: unification of the written and spoken word, use of colloquial language Japan’s 1st modern novel: Futabatei Shimei Ukigumo “Floating Clouds”
1887
Characteristics the Japanese novel: Plot: Loose, episodic—serialization in literary journals
Characterization: Less defined characters—obscure outlining of the “self”
Narrative perspective: predominance of the speaker’s point of view
The rise “I-novel” 私小説 shishōsetsu as a dominant form writing/reading
Natsume Sōseki (1867-1916)
Born in 1867, large family, failed adoption
Entered Tokyo Imperial University in 1884: studies architecture, shifts to English literature
Met Masaoka Shiki in 1887, tutored in Haiku
Entered graduate school: English Literature Department in 1890
Became an English teacher in the provinces: Matsuyama, Kumamoto
Sent to England to study English literature in 1901-03
Sōseki: Literary Career
Early publications of haiku in the literary journal Hototogisu
“I am a Cat” Wagahai wa Neko de aru (1905) Satirical account of Meiji society
from the perspective of a Cat
Kushami Sensei: individualism
“Little Master” Botchan 1906 Comedic first person account of a
young teacher in a provincial high school
Botchan: optimism, innocence
“Grass Pillow” Kusamakura 1906 A plotless, eventless haiku
shōsetsu
Later Novels Abandons his University post in 1907 for a position at Asahi Shinbun,
becomes professional writer
Trilogy: Sanshiro (1908), And Then (Sore kara, 1909), The Gate (Mon, 1910). Relation and conflict between Western and Japanese culture
Characters caught in between tradition and modernity
The Gate: Sōsuke visits Zen monastery: gate is closed, fails to solve koan
Until the Equinox (1912), The Wanderer (1913), Kokoro (1914) More experimental: alternating narrative perspective, lack of narrative
omniscience
Central themes: modern man’s isolation and alienation, egoism
The Wanderer: Keine Brucke fuhrt von Mensch zu Mensch” (There is no bridge leading from one man to another”)
Grass on the Wayside (Michikusa, 1915): I-novel
Light and Darkness (Meian, 1916): alternating narrative voices
Sōseki and Individualism
Watakushi no Kojinshugi “My Individualism” 1914 Part One: describes his discovery in England:
“my only hope for salvation lay in fashioning for myself a conception of what literature is, working from the ground up and relying on nothing but my own efforts.”
Critical of imitation, authority of the West
Part Two: Ethical Individualism
Critical of “unrestrained self-assertion” and “cliquism”
Development of individuality entails respect of the individuality of others—liberty/duty
Loneliness of individualism: misses the comfort of allies
“We who are born into this age of freedom and independence and the self must undergo loneliness. It’s the price we have to pay for these times of ours.” (30)
Questions for Kokoro What do make of the title Kokoro?
“heart/mind” こころ “ heart of things” 心
What do you make of the relationships of the novel? Relationships: I-Sensei, Sensei-K, father-I, Sensei-Shizu
What makes Kokoro a “Japanese” novel? A “modern” novel? Do you find any parallels with earlier literature?
What do you make of the suicides of the novel? General Nogi, K, Sensei
What role does Buddhism play “in” the Novel? Ideas of karma, rebirth, attachment, non-self
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